Nasusuri ang Kahalagahan ng
Pag-aaral ng
Kontemporaryong (kontemporaneong)
Isyu
KONTEMPORANEO
Tumutukoy sa mga pangyayari,
pagkakataon, usapin, paksan tatalakayin at
mga kondisyong nagaganap sa
kasalukuyang panahon -Kendal (2013)
(eksperto sa usaping panlipunan)
KATEGORYA NG
KONTEMPORANEONG ISYU
KONSTRUKTIBO
- Nagbibigay ng kaayusan, pag-unlad at
pagbabago sa lipunan ng tao.
NAKASASAMA
- Tumutukoy sa mga pangyayaring
hindi nakabubuti sa pamumuhay ng
mga tao sa komunidad.
- may kinalaman sa hindi sapat o
maayos na tugon sa suliranin
kinakaharap ng pamayanan
- Kawalan ng maayos na
pampublikong transportasyon
- Kawalan ng wastong pamamahala
sa basura
- Kawalan ng produktibong gawain
tulad ng negosyo, trabaho
Piling Isyu na Humahamon sa Tao sa
Kaniyang Kapaligiran sa Kasalukuyang
Panahon
KONTEMPORANEONG ISYU:
ISANG PAGKILALA
KONEMPORANEONG ISYU
- Hindi madaling makilala
- Madalas nagsisismula sa pananaw
lamang tao batay sa sariling
karanasan.
- Hindi laamnag nakabatay sa
nakikita o iniisip ng mga tao,
kailangan ito ay napatunayan ng
mga karanasan ng ibang tao sa
ginagalawan niyang lipunan
- Dapat matukoy sa obhetibong
pamamaraan
KONEMPORANEONG ISYU
(Joel Charon at Lee Garth)
“Sa pagtukoy ng kontemporaneong isyu
kailangan ito ay may sinusunod na gabay
na katanungan.”
1. Paano natutukoy kung ang isang
usapin ay isyung kontemporaneo?
(Kailangan ang tao ay mapagmatyag sa
kanyang komunidad, dito niya
masisisyasat ang ugnayan ng tao sa isyu,
inaalam niya ang pansariling interes sa
naturang isyu at natutukoy niya ang mga
hakbang upang tumugon sa nasabing isyu
at sa akibat nitong suliranin.
2. Paano nagiging kontemporaneo ang
isang isyung panlipunan?
a. Ang isang isyu ay naayon sa kondisyon
ng isang komunidad at mga karanasan ng
mamamayan, at angkop sa isang lipunan.)
Teorya ng structural functionalism
- Ang function ng isang mamamayan
sa lipunan ay nakasalalay sa
oportunidad batay sa ibat-ibang
mekanismo at estruktura ng
kaniyang komunidad.
b. Teorya ng Social Conflict
- Ang ugnayan ng tao sa kapwa ay
nagdudulot ng kooperasyon o kaya
ay hidwaan dahil sa pagkakaiba ng
interes at hangarin.
c. Maaaring manaig ang kooperasyon o
kaya naman ay hidwaan ng mga
mamamayan na bumubuo sa isang lipunan,
mangyayari ito kung ang ang tao ay
sumusunod o sumasalungat sa panuntunan
ng estado
3. Ano- ano ang dahilan at epekto ng
kontemporaneong isyu sa lipunan?
- Ang dahilan ng isang isyu ay
tumutukoy sa mga rason ng pag
usbong at pagpapanatili ng
suliraning panlipunan
- Nag epekto ay tumutukoy sa
naging bunga ng isang suliranin sa
lipunan
Saan nga ba nakasalalay ang dahilan at
epekto ng isyung panlipunan?
a. Ang tao ay may kinalaman sa pag-iral,
at pananatili ng isang isyu at lipunan. Ang
ginagawa ng tao ay maaaring humantong
sa isang suliranin o isyung
pampamayanan.
b. Ang tao ay may likas na
kabaitan(natural goodness) – Jean Jacques
Rousseau
c. Ang kilos at gawain ng tao ang
nagbibigay ng kahulugan sa mga epekto
ng mga suliranin o isyung kinakaharap ng
ating
Lipunan.
ARNOLD TOYNBEE (Historyador)
“Ayon sa kanya ang tao ay kumikilos
upang tugunan ang mga pagsubok na
kanyang kinakaharap sa kanyang
pamumuhay. (hal: bagyo) “
KONTEMPORANEONG ISYU:
ISANG PAGPAPAHALAGA SA TAO
TAO
- Sentro ng bawat isyu at usaping
panlipunan.
- May mahalagang tungkulin sa
pamayanan at sa kabuuuan ng
lipunan .
- Ang bawat indibidwal ay
nagtataglay ng pag -uugali ,
kaisipan , karakter at pananaw na
naisasalin sa pagkilos
KILOS
- Kilos ng tao ang siyang tumutukoy
sa kaugalian , nararamdaman at
nakikita nito
- Ang isyu ay nagiging mahalaga
kung ito ay tutugma sa pag -iisip at
pag - uugali ng tao sa pamayanan .
- Ang ugnayan ng tao at mga
kontemporaneong isyu ay
mahalagang usapin dahil
kinakailangan ng pagkatugma ng
kagustuhan ng isang tao upang
mabigyan ng pansin ang isang
suliranin.
PAMAYANAN
- Tinatawag ding komunidad
- Tumutukoy sa isang lugar na
kinabibilangan ng mga tao kung
saan naroon ang kaalamang
makibagay sa iisang tradisyon at
pagkilala at pagsasabuhay sa
nakaugaliang kultura.
- May mahalagang tungkulin sa
buhay ng mga tao sapagkat dito
nagsisimula ang kanilang
pagkamulat sa ibat ibang isyu sa
kapaligiran at ang pangangailangan
ng pagtugon
KONTEMPORANEONG ISYU:
UGNAYAN NG TAO AT PAMAYANAN
PAGKAMAMAMAYAN
(Citizenship)
- Ang pagkamamamayan ay hindi
lamang tumutukoy sa
kinabibilangan lahi o pagiging
kasapi ng isang bansa. Ang
pagiging mamamayan ay tumutkoy
sa responsibilidad ng isang
mamamayan sa kanyang lipunan.
Ito ay responsibilidad ng gumawa
ng mga kilos na naaayon sa
ikauunlad ng kanyang bayan.
TAO
- Mahalagang bahagi ng lipunan
Ang isang lipunan ay tumutukoy sa
mga taong may ugnayan sa bawat
isa at nabibilang sa isang
komunidad na nabubuklod ng isang
kultura at kaugalian . Ang
pagkamulat sa ibat ibang isyu sa
komunidad ay mahalaga upang
maunawaan ng tao ang kanyang
responsibilidad na tumulong upang
matugunan ang mga ito
PAGIGING MULAT SA MGA
KONTEMPORANEONG ISYU
Ang pagiging mulat sa kontemporaneong
isyu ay maaaring makahimok sa
pagpapatibay ng pagiging isang
mamamayan at sa pag-ambag sa lipunang
kinabibilangan. Isang mahalagang
tungkulin ng isang mamamayan ang
unawain at makialam sa pagharap sa mga
isyung nakaaapkto sa lipunan at sa
pamayanan.
KONTEMPORANEONG ISYU
- Nakikita
- Nararanasan
- Hinaharap ng tao sa kanyang
lipunan
- Nakakaapekto sa pamumuhay ng
tao.
- Naiimpluwensiyahan ang ugnayan
sa mundo
WEEK 2
PAGKILALA at PAGTUGON sa
HAMON ng KALAMIDAD
Malubhang Sakuna (Disaster)
Isang biglaan o hindi inaasahang
kalamidad na may malubhang epekto sa
norma na punsiyon o gawainsa
komunidad, at nagdudulotng pagkawalang
buhay o pagkasirang ekonoiya o kalikasan.
MALUBHANG SAKUNA (DISASTER)
- Isang biglaan o hindi inaasahang
kalamidadna may malubhang
epekto sa normal na punsiyon o
Gawain sa komunidad.
- Nagdudulot ng pagkawala ng
buhay at pagkasira ng ekonomiya
at kalikasan nang higit sa
kakakayanan ng tao na
makaagapay at tumugon sa
pagbabago International Federation
of Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies (IFRC)
KALAMIDAD
Anumang kapahamakang dulot ng bagyo,
lindol, pagsabog ng bulkan at maging
sunog
Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management
Sa pananaw ng United Nations Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction and DRRM ay
tumutukoy sa kung anong dapat gawin ng
isang tao sa pagharap

URI NG KALAMIDAD
1. Natural Hazards
Natural na kalamidad
2. Man-made Hazards
Dulot ng kilos at gawain ng tao
MGA NATURAL NA KALAMIDAD
1. LINDOL
-Sakunang bunga ng biglaang paggalaw ng
lupa na nagdudulot ng pinsala sa mga
gusali, tulay at bahay at mga estruktura
- Maaaring magdulot ng kamatayan dahil
sa mga bagay na maaring bumagsak sa tao
dulot ng lindol
2. BAGYO
- Isang napakalaking sistema ng
kaulapanat malakas na hangin na
kumikilos nang paikot na madalas
may kasamang malakas na hangin
at matagal na pag-ulan.
- Maaaring magdulot ng matinding
pagbaha.
3. DALUYONG (STROM SURGE)
- Ito di normal at biglaang pagtaas
ng lebel ng tubig sa dalampasigan
dahil sa paggalaw ng anyong
–tubig dulot ng bagyo.
4. PAGSABOG NGA BULKAN
- Natural na aktibidad ng
bulkan
- Nagbubuga ng lava dahil sa
malakas na presyur dulot ng
matinding pagkulo ng
magma sa ilalim nito
5. PAGLAGANAP NG SAKIT O
EPIDEMYA
- Tumutukoy sa paglaganp
ng sakit sa komunidad.
- Ang pandemya ay maaaring
magdulot ng kamatayan ng
tao.
KALAMIDAD na DULOT ng KILOS at
GAWAIN ng TAO
1. Kaguluhan Sa Komunidad Gaya
Ng Krimen At Terorismo
- Pangyayaring may kinalaman sa
ugnayang panato at at kalimitan ay
dulot ng pagkakaiba ng interes at
kagustuhan.
- Ang isang gawaing illegal o taliwas
sa ipinatutupad ay tinatawag na
krimen
2. Pagsabog Dulot ng Sandatang
Nukleyar
- Panganib na may kakayahang
magdulot ng malawakang pinsala o
kamatayan. Dahil sa lawaj ng
pinsalang kayang idulot ng
paggamit ng sandatang nukleyar ito
ay kilala rin bilang weapons of
mass destruction
3. Paggamit ng Nakalalasong Kemikal
- Ang paggamit ng kemikal bilang
sandata ay isang mapaminsalang
kalamidad na likha ng tao.
- Kapag ito ay ginagamit upang
makipagdigma sa ibang bansa,
malaking pinsala ang maidudulot
nito sa buhay ng tao at kapaligiran
4. Pagtagas ng Langis (Oil Spill) Isang
kalamidad na nangyayari kapag tumagas o
natapon ang langis o petrolyo sa karagatan.
5. Cyber Attack
- Sakuna na inagamitan ng
teknolohiya upang makapinsala sa
ibat-ibang gawain ng tao.
- Ang cyber attack ay tumutukoy sa
pagkasira, pagnanakaw, pagpapalit
o paggamit ng impomasyon ng
isang indibidwal o grupo gamit ang
internet
PAGTUGON ng TAO
● Tungkulin ng bawat mamamayan
na makipagtulungan sa pamahalaan
sa pagtugon sa mga kalamidad.
● Ang mga tao ay marapat na
gumawa ng pagkilos sa bawat
aspekto ng kalamidad tulad ng
paghahanda (mitigation),
pagpapababa (reduction) at
pamamahala ng gobyerno
(management)
PAGTUGON sa NATURAL na
KALAMIDAD
BAGO ANG KALAMIDAD
● Maghanda ng mga pangunahing
pangangailangan gaya ng pagkain, tubig,
gamot at damit. Ilagay ang mga ito sa
isang bag o anumang sisidlan upang
madaling mabitbit kung kailangang
lumikas.
● Subaybayan ang mga ulat mula sa mga
ahensiya ng pamahalaan gaya ng
PAGASA ukol sa lagay ng panahon at
PHIVOLCS para sa anumang banta ng
lindol at pagsabog ng bulkan
● Bigyang pansin ang mga alagang hayop
at siguraduhing sila ay nasa ligtas na lugar.
● Pinapayuhan ang mga magsasaka na
anihin ang kanilang pananim at mga
mangingisda na umiwas pumalaot kung
may kalamidad.
● Maghanda ng mga gamit
pangemergency tulad ng maliit na radio,
flashlight , kumot, kandila, posporo, pito at
mga kagamitan para sa paunang lunas.
● Mainam na itabi ang mahahalagang
gamit at dokumento sa bag.
HABANG NAGYAYARI ANG
KALAMIDAD
● Manatili sa loob ng tahanan habang
nararanasan ang kalmidad. Lumisan kung
kinakailangan batay sa abiso ng mga
awtoridad.
● Ipagpaliban muna ang pagbiyahe ●
Manatiling nakasubaybay sa sabisa ng mga
ahesiya ng pamahalaan
● Manatiling kalmado at alerto sa lahat ng
pagkakataon. PAGKATAPOS NG
KALAMIDAD ● Kung lumikas ay
hintayin ang abiso kung maaari ng
bumalik sa tahanan.
● Siguraduhing ligtas at matibay pa rin
ang estruktura ng bahay bago bumalik
● Linising maigi ang buong bahay lalo na
kung ito ay binaha
● Payuhan ang mga kasapi ng pamilya ng
ibayong pag-iingat sa mga buhay na
kawad ng kuryente (live wire), bitak sa
pader at mapanganib na maaaring
nakapasok sa loob ng bahay
PAGTUGON sa SAKUNA naDULOT
ng KILOS at GAWAIN ng TAO
BAGO ANG SAKUNA
● Maghanda ng mga kagamitang pansagip
ng tao
● Patuloy na pagtibayin ang kakayanan ng
mga taong reresponde sa oras ng sakuna
● Pag-aralan ang ibatibang aspekto ng
pamayanan na maaaring pagmulan ng
sakuna
● Palaganapin ang wastong kaalaman at
angkop na pagkilos ng mga mamamayan
sakaling magkaroon ng sakuna
● Mag -impok ng pagkain at
mahahalagang kagamitan
● Maghanda ng plano kung paano
magtutulungan ang ibat -ibang sector ng
lipunan sakaling may sakuna .
HABANG NANGYAYARI ANG
SAKUNA
● Mangalap ng impormasyon ukol sa
sakuna (kailan at saan ito magaganap)
gamit ang TV, radio
● Mangalap ng impormasyon kung anong
tulong o aksiyon ang agad na kailangang
gawin
● Tumawag sa sanagy ng pamahalaan
upang ipagbigay alam ang sakuna sa
inyong lugar
● Tukuyin ang lugar na apektado ng
sakuna at iwasan ang mga ito hanggat
maari
● Alamin ang mga posibleng epekto sa
kalusugan ng tao ng nagaganap na sakuna
● Tukuyin ang mga posibleng epekto ng
sakuna sa komunikasyon ● Tukuyin kung
ano ang maaaring maitulong pagkatapos
ng sakuna gaya ng paglilinis
● Siguraduhin na ligtas ang paligid bago
lumabas ng bahay PAGKATAPOS NG
SAKUNA

UNIT 1 EARTH SCIENCE
PLATE TECTONICS
- Plate tectonics is a scientific
theory that explains how major
landforms are created as a result of
Earth’s subterranean movements.
- The theory, which solidified in the
1960s, transformed the earth
sciences by explaining many
phenomena, including mountain
building events, volcanoes, and
earthquakes.
- In plate tectonics, Earth’s
outermost layer, or
lithosphere—made up of the crust
and upper mantle—is broken into
large rocky plates. These plates lie
on top of a partially molten layer of
rock called the asthenosphere.
- Due to the convection of the
asthenosphere and lithosphere, the
plates move relative to each other
at different rates, from two to 15
centimeters (one to six inches) per
year. This interaction of tectonic
plates is responsible for many
different geological formations.
EARTHQUAKE DISTTRIBUTION
- It shows the distribution of
earthquakes around the world.
Majority of these earthquake
centers areas are located along
plate margins. -
- It can be due to collisions, rifting,
or slipping between or among the
plates.
- Earthquakes release different types
of seismic waves: primary and
secondary waves travel within the
interior of earth, and are
responsible for the detection on the
epicenter of an earthquake.
P- WAVE(PRIMARY WAVE)
➢ P waves, or Primary waves, are the
first waves to arrive at a
seismograph. P waves are the
fastest seismic waves and can
move through solid, liquid, or gas.
➢ They leave behind a trail of
compressions and rarefactions on
the medium they move through. P
waves are also called pressure
waves for this reason. Certain
animals, such as dogs, can feel the
P waves much before an
earthquake hits the crust (surface
waves arrive).
➢ Humans can only feel the
ramifications it has on the crust.
S-WAVES(SECONDARY WAVES)
● S waves, or secondary waves, are
the second waves to arrive during
an earthquake. They are much
slower than P waves and can travel
only through solids.
● It is after studying the trajectory of
S waves through the layers of
earth, scientists were able to
conclude that the earth’s outer core
is liquid.
VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION
❖ The distribution of volcanoes is
mostly found along plate margins,
which can be in an either
destructive or constructive
boundary.
❖ They are found in areas were there
is subduction of plates.
❖ Theses volcanoes can be active,
dormant, or extinct.
PRINCIPLES OF PLATE
TECTONICS
Alfred Wegener
● proposed the continental drift
theory. He is known as the father of
the plate tectonics theory, which is
the modern version of the
continental drift theory.
Earth’s Tectonic Plates
Oceanic Crust
❖ The oceanic crust is that part of the
Earth’s crust that covers the ocean
basins. It consists of darkcolored
rocks made up of basalt.
❖ The density of the oceanic crust is
about 3.0 g/cm3.
❖ It undergoes a peculiar
phenomenon, due to this process
there is an absence of aged oceanic
crust.
❖ The thickness of OC is around 3 to
6 miles which is about 5 to 10 km.
The oceanic crust is thinner than
the continental crust.
Continental Crust
❖ The continental crust accounts for
40% of the surface of the Earth. It
is made up of granite rock which is
light in color.
❖ The density of the continental crust
is about 2.6 g/cm3. • The
continental crust floats much more
freely on the magma.
❖ It has a thickness ranging from 20
mi., which is about 35 km., on the
plains, to as much as 40 mi., which
is about 70 km., on the highest
mountains.
Summary
1.The oceanic crust is made up of
basalt(silicon, oxygen, magnesium) while
the continental crust is made up of
granite.(silicon, oxygen, aluminum)
2.The oceanic crust is thinner while the
continental crust is much thicker.
3.The oceanic crust is denser than the
continental crust.
4.The continental crust has greater
buoyancy than the oceanic crust.
5.Recycling is present in the oceanic crust
while this procedure is absent in the
continental crust.
6.The oceanic crust is much younger
geologically than the continental crust.
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANISM
● An earthquake is the sudden
release of strain energy in the
Earth’s crust, resulting in waves
of shaking that radiate outwards
from the earthquake source.
When stresses in the crust
exceed the strength of the rock,
it breaks along lines of
weakness, either a pre-existing
or new fault plane.
● The point where an earthquake
starts is termed the focus or
hypocentre and may be many
kilometres deep within the earth.
The point at the surface directly
above the focus is called the
earthquake epicentre.
BODY WAVES
P-WAVES
➢ Location – It travel through the
interior of Earth and through
solid and fluid materials.
➢ Velocity – It depends on the
location and the material in
which they move.
➢ Motion – Longitudinal
It is the first wave arrive, and so
to be the first detected in the
earthquake.
S - WAVES
❖ Location – It travel through
solid materials only within the
interior of Earth. It occurs on the
surface of the lithosphere
❖ Velocity – It is typically less
than that of P – waves, and their
vibrations are perpendicular to
the direction of the motion of
the waves.
❖ Motion – side – to – side or up
and down.
SURFACE WAVES
L-WAVES(LOVE WAVES)
● It sweep the surface in a
side-to-side movement, similar
to how a snakes moves on the
ground.
● Motion - Transverse
R-WAVES(RAYLEIGH WAVES)
● Shake the ground in an up and
down movement
MAGNITUDE
- The magnitude of earthquake is
a number, which is a measure of
energy released in earthquake
INTENSITY
- The intensity of earthquake at a
place is a measure of the
strength of shaking during
earthquake
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Ground Shaking & Structural
Failure
➢ The primary earthquake hazard
is surface rupture. It can be
caused by vertical or horizontal
movement on either side of a
ruptured fault. Ground
displacement, which can affect
large land areas, can produce
severe damage to structures,
roads, railways and pipelines.
Landslides
➢ Earthquakes can trigger
landslides and mudslides,
especially in areas with
water-soaked soils. Landslides
may result in falling rocks and
debris that collide with people,
trees, animals, buildings and
vehicles. They also can block
roads and disrupt utility lines.
Liquefaction
➢ The shaking from an earthquake
can turn loose soil into a liquid
during an earthquake.
➢ Liquefaction can undermine the
foundations and supports of
buildings, bridges, pipelines,
and roads, causing them to sink
 into the ground, collapse or
dissolve
Tsunamis
➢ An earthquake generated within
the Pacific Ocean floor will
generate a tsunami, which is
actually a series of very long
waves. Large tsunamis which
travel to the ocean floor to the
surface are dangerous to human
health, property, and
infrastructure. Long lasting
effects of tsunami destruction
can be felt beyond the coastline.
Fires
➢ Earthquake damage facts show
fires caused by earthquakes are
the second most common
hazard. Earthquake fires start
when electrical and gas lines are
dislodged due to the earth’s
shaking. Gas is set free as gas
lines are broken and a spark will
start a firestorm.
SAFETY MEASURES
Before an Earthquake -
- Make sure you have a fire
extinguisher, first aid kit, a
battery-powered radio, a
flashlight, and extra batteries at
home.
- Learn first aid.
- Learn how to turn off the gas,
water, and electricity.
- Make up a plan of where to meet
your family after an earthquake.
- Don't leave heavy objects on
shelves (they'll fall during a
quake).
- Anchor heavy furniture,
cupboards, and appliances to the
walls or floor.
- Learn the earthquake plan at
your school or workplace.
During an Earthquake
- Stay calm! If you're indoors,
stay inside. If you're outside,
stay outside.
- If you're indoors, stand against a
wall near the center of the
building, stand in a doorway, or
crawl under heavy furniture (a
desk or table). Stay away from
windows and outside doors.
- If you're outdoors, stay in the
open away from power lines or
anything that might fall. Stay
away from buildings (stuff
might fall off the building or the
building could fall on you).
- Don't use matches, candles, or
any flame. Broken gas lines and
fire don't mix.
- If you're in a car, stop the car
and stay inside the car until the
earthquake stops.
- Don't use elevators (they may
shut down)
After an Earthquake
- Check yourself and others for
injuries. Provide first aid for
anyone who needs it.
- Check water, gas, and electric
lines for damage.
- Turn on the radio. Don't use the
phone unless it's an emergency.
- Stay out of damaged buildings.
- Be careful around broken glass
and debris. Wear boots or sturdy
shoes to keep from cutting your
feet.
- Be careful of chimneys (they
may fall on you).
- Stay away from beaches.
 - Stay away from damaged areas.
- If you're at school or work,
follow the emergency plan or
the instructions of the person in
charge.
- Expect aftershocks.
Volcanism
Volcanism is the eruption of molten
rock (magma) onto the surface of a
planet. A volcano is the vent through
which magma and gases are
discharged. Magma that reaches the
surface is called “lava.” Volcano are
named for Vulcan — the Roman god of
fire.
➢ In a volcanic eruption, the flow
of magma or lava is affected by
temperature and composition.
➢ The amount of dissolved gases
also affects its flow rate at the
least. The magma’s ability to
flow is called viscosity.
Volcanic hazard
● A volcanic hazard refers to any
potentially dangerous volcanic
process that puts human lives,
livelihoods or infrastructure at
risk of harm. Several hazards
may affect the area around the
volcano, such as lava flows,
pyroclastic flows, lahars, and
landslides.
1. AA LAVA = SOLID
2. PAHOEHOE LAVA = LIQUID
HOW TO PREPARE FOR A
VOLCANIC ERUPTION?
Before Volcanic Eruption
- Review your family
preparedness plan.
Assemble a disaster supply kit.
- Have a family evacuation plan
in place.
During Volcanic Eruption
- Listen to a Phivocs, weather
radio or TV for updated
information.
- Be prepared to evacuate, and do
so immediately if necessary
Avoid areas downwind and river
valleys downstream from the
volcano.
- Close all windows and doors,
and bring any pets or livestock
into closed shelters.
- If you are outdoors:
-Seek shelter indoors
immediately.
-Avoid low-lying areas and
streams.
-If caught in a rock fall, roll into
a ball to protect your head.
- Wear long-sleeved shirts and pants
and if necessary, along with goggles
and a mask.
After Volcanic Eruption
- Continue listening to a Phivocs,
weather radio or TV for the
latest information.
- Remain inside your home until
officials declare it is safe to
leave.
- inspect your home:
- Check for damage to walls, the
roof, the foundation, the
electrical system and water
lines.
- Notify your insurance company
if your home is damaged.
- When outside, avoid volcanic
ash fall. Cover your skin, nose,
eyes and mouth.
 - Avoid making phone calls
except in serious emergencies.
Orogeny
Orogeny derives from the Greek oros,
which means mountain, and genesis,
which means origin or mode of
formation.
➢ The term mountain building
implies that the rate of surface
uplift is greater than the rate of
erosion such that, over time, a
lowland area evolves into a
mountain system. Orogeny
refers specifically to
deformation imposed during
mountain building.
➢ Orogeny, or mountain building,
is the result of collision between
two landmasses. This may occur
via collision of continental crust
or when oceanic and continental
crust collide.
TYPES OF FAULTS
A NORMAL FAULTS
It is characterized by the movement of
the hanging wall. It moves either up or
down from the fault, parallel to the dip
direction.
A REVERSE FAULT
➢ It occurs due to the tensional
force being applied on either
sides of the fault. The movement
of the hanging wall is upward,
which results from the
compressional force applied on
the fault.
A STRIKE- SLIP FAULT
❖ It occurs with a little or no
vertical movement . A
right-lateral or left-lateral is
used to classify is used to
classify any strike-slip fault.
A OBLIQUE FAULT
➢ It is a fault that shows the
characteristics of both dip-slip
and strike-slip motion and forms
when hanging wall slides over
the footwall due to
compressional forces bringing
the sides together.
CHAPTER 2
EARTH’S INTERNAL
PROCESSES AND CRUSTAL
DEFORMATION
 LOOKING THROUGH EARTH
INSIDE
Earth’s Interior
❖ Earth is made up of several
layers. Layers based on
chemical composition are the
core, mantle and crust.
❖ According to mechanical
properties, Earth's layers are the
lithosphere, asthenosphere,
lower mantle (also known as
mesospheric mantle), outer core
and inner core.
Earth’s Interior Crust
COMPOSITIONAL LAYERS
Crust
The outermost solid layer of a rocky
planet or natural satellite. Chemically
distinct from the underlying mantle.
Mantle
A layer of the Earth (or any planet large
enough to support internal
stratification) between the crust and the
outer core. It is chemically distinct
from the crust and the outer core. The
mantle is not liquid. It is, however,
ductile, or plastic, which means that on
very long time scales and under
pressure it can flow. The mantle is
mainly composed of aluminium and
silicates.
Core
The innermost layers of the Earth. The
Earth has an outer core (liquid) and
an inner core (solid). They are not
chemically distinct from each other, but
they are chemically distinct from the
mantle. The core is mainly composed
of nickel and iron
MECHANICAL LAYERS
Lithosphere
- The outermost and most rigid
mechanical layer of the Earth.
- The lithosphere includes the
crust and the top of the mantle.
- The average thickness is ~70km,
but ranges widely:
- It can be very thin, only a few
km thick under oceanic crust or
mid-ocean ridges, or very thick,
150+ km under continental
crust, particularly mountain
belts.
Asthenosphere
- The asthenosphere is underneath
the lithosphere. It is about
100km thick, and is a region of
the mantle that flows relatively
easily. Reminder: it is not liquid.
Earth’s Interior
Mesosphere
- The mesosphere is beneath the
asthenosphere. It encompasses
the lower mantle, where material
still flows but at a much slower
rate than the asthenosphere.
Core
- It is the innermost geologic layer
of planet Earth. Both the inner
and outer cores are composed
primarily of iron and nickel.
- The main difference is that the
outer core is a liquid and the
inner core is a solid.
Boundaries/Seismic Discontinuities
-As the waves pass through the
different layers, they are reflected,
refracted, or even produce new wave
phases that result from different
seismic velocities. A surface at which
velocities of seismic waves change
abruptly. A boundary between seismic
layers of the earth.
Boundaries/Seismic Discontinuities
- Seismic discontinuity have
given the scientists the idea that
there exists a boundarywithin
the differentlayers of Earth.
1. Mohorovicic discontinuity - it
can be found in the boundary
between the mantle and crust.
2. Gutenberg discontinuity - it can
be found in the boundary
between the mantle and core.
3. Lehmann discontinuity - it can
be found in the boundary
between the inner core and outer
core.
Boundaries/Seismic Discontinuities
1. Mohorovicic discontinuity.
- It was named after the Croatian
seismologist Andrija
Mohorovicic. He realized that
the velocity of a seismic wave is
related to the density ofthe
material that it is moving
through.
- Mohorovicic determined that the
basaltic oceanic crust and the
granitic continental crust are
underlain by a material which
has a density similar to an
olivine-rich rock such as
peridotite.
2. Gutenburg discontinuity
- In the year of 1912 Weichert
Gutenberg was discovered this
discontinuity.
- In this zone the velocity of
seismic waves changes
suddenly. The velocity of P
wave decreases and S wave
completely disappear at this
depth.
- It is a narrow, uneven zone and
contains undulations. This
undulation is affected by the
heat driven convection activity
within the overlying mantle.
3. Lehmann discontinuity
- The Lehmann discontinuity is an
abrupt increase of P-wave and
S-wave velocities.It is
discovered by seismologist Inge
Lehmann.
- It appears beneath continents,
but not usually beneath oceans,
and does not readily appear in
globally averaged studies.
Several explanations have been
proposed:
- a lower limit to the pliable
asthenosphere, a phase
transition, and most plausibly,
depth variation in the shearwave
anisotropy.
CHAPTER II - LESSON 2

LOOKING AT THE PIECES

Evidence of Plate Movement

There is variety of evidence that
supports the claims that plate tectonics
accounts for:
(1) the distribution of fossils on
different continents,
(2) the occurrence of earthquakes, and
Measuring the Plate Movement
(3) continental and ocean floor features
➢ Scientists have estimated that
including mountains, volcanoes, faults,
the plates move by radiometric
and trenches
dating samples from the ocean.
➢ The rate of movement is
1. The continents fit together
between 0. 60cm to 10cm per
almost like puzzle pieces
year.
forming Pangaea (one
➢ The oldest seafloor has been
super-continent).
radiometrically dated to only
2. Fossils on different continents
about 200 million years whereas
are similar to fossils on
continental rocks have been
continents that were once
dated to four billion years, and
connected. When the continents
the earth is thought to be about
split, different life forms
4.6 billion years old.
developed.
3. Most continental and oceanic
Methods in Measuring Plate
floor features are the result of
Movement
geological activity and
1. Geodetic Method – it observes
earthquakes along plate
the Earth surface and its
boundaries.
changes, sea level, gravity field
4. Most distributions of rocks
and the height by sensors on or
within Earth's crust, including
near to the Earth surface
minerals, fossil fuels, and energy
resources, are a direct result of
➢ Global Positioning System
the history of plate motions and
(GPS) – it uses a network of
collisions.
satellites to map outthe
surfaceof Earth.
Seafloor Spreading
➢ Very Long Baseline
It is a geologic process in which
Interferometry (VLBI) – it uses
tectonic plates—large slabs of Earth's
a large radio telescopes. The
lithosphere— split apart from each
signals recorded in this process
other.
are uses to analyze the relative
motion of the plate.
1. Geologic Method – it observes the
transfroms faults along ridges,
paleomagnetism, and seismic activity
to trace back the movement of the
plates from the past.
✓ Paleogmagnetic Method
- it is based on Earth’s magnetic
field provided by rock samples,
as iron-rich lava containing
magnetitewhen
cooledandsolidifiedin the crust.
✓ Geometric Method
- it is based on the fracture that
extends from a transform
faultnear the mid-ocean ridges.
✓ Seismic Method
- it is considered a less accurate
means of measuring plate
movement.
- It uses the mechanisms of
earthquakes to distinguish the
orientation of faults and is used
for measuring plate movements
Impressionism

- Impressionism in music was a

movement among various
composers in Western classical
music (mainly during the late
- 19th and early 20th centuries)
whose music focuses on mood
and atmosphere, "conveying the
moods and emotions aroused by
the subject rather than a detailed 2. Use of complex chords, such as
tone‐picture" the 9th chord
- You are familiar with triad- three
Impressionism does not express musical notes played simultaneously
ideas through clear melodic and with a distance of thirds between
rhythmic lines. Rather, it make use of them. With the triad as basis,
timbre, texture, harmony, and rhythm, another two notes are added,
which the listener interprets. creating a 9th chord

Impressionism in music is
characterized by the following:
1. Use of Whole-tone, modal, and
exotic scales
2. Use of complex chords Use of
ambiguous chord progressions
3. Use of unusual forms and
irregulations phrases
4. Use of instruments/ orchestral
3. Use of ambiguous chord
timre, wheather in slo
progressions
instruments, voice, or orchestral
- You have learned abut the
music, to create a color to
standard "tonic-subdominant
express meaning.
dominant tonic"
- Impressionism music does not
1. Use of Whole-tone, modal, and
follow this norm anymore and
exotic scales 1
creates a freer progression
Whole tone scale
- is based on purely whole tone
scale
Modal scales
- are diatonic scales with a set of
musical characters
Exotic scales
- refer to any that is beyond the
Western scale classification
 4. Use of unusual forms and
irregulations phrases
- Impressionism music may not
have the standard forms f the
classical and Romantic periods.
The form of music is not bound
by strict rules
5. Use of instruments/ orchestral
timbre, whether in solo
instruments, voice, or orchestral
music, to create a color to
express meaning.
- The use of instrumental,
orchestral timbre, and texture is
highly important in
impressionist music, as these
elements create the "atmospheric
effect" that one notices upon
hearing.
- This effect gives impressionist
music its identity, among others.
Expressionism
➢ Started in early 1900s in
Germany
➢ Expressionistic music there is
virtually no distinction made
between melody and
counterpoint
➢ texture moves freely between
simple melodic line and
complex contrapuntal textures.
➢ Its typical trait is to present the
world solely from a subjective
perspective, distorting it
radically for emotional effect in
order to evoke moods or ideas.
➢ Expressionist artists sought to
express meaning or emotional
experience rather than physical
reality.
LESSON 3
ELECTRONIC MUSIC
- The ability of electronic
machines such as synthesizers,
amplifiers, tape recorders, and
loudspeakers to produce
different sounds was
popularized by 20th century
notable composers.
MUSIQUE CONCRETE
- is a music that uses the tape
recorder. Any sound that the
composer will hear in his
surroundings will be recorded.
These sounds are arranged by
the composer in different ways,
like playing the tape recorder in
its fastest mode or reverse.
- the composer can experiment
with different sounds that cannot
be produced by regular musical
instruments such as the piano or
the violin.
EDGARD VARÈSE
- He was born on December 22,
1883, Edgard) Varèse was
considered an "innovative
Frenchborn composer." He
pioneered and created new
sounds that bordered between
music and noise and spent his
life and career mostly in the
United States.
HIS MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS Art Style
ARE CHARACTERIZED BY: - Abstract Expressionism
➢ emphasis on timbre - Kinetic Art
➢ emphasis on rhythm - Op Art
➢ "organized sound" certain - Performance Art
timbres and rhythms can be - Art Feminist
grouped together in order to - Art Minimalism
capture a whole new definition - Video Art
of sound - Graffiti Art
- Body Art
KARLHEINZ STOCKHAUSEN - Digital Art

- Karlheinz Stockhausen is a Medium

central figure in the realm of - substance that is being
electronic music. manipulated
- It has led him to dream of Technique
concert halls in which the sound - describe the skillful
attacks the listener from every manipulation of the medium
direction. Stockhausen's works
total around 31 TECHNIQUES
- ABRASION
CHANCE MUSIC - ACTION PAINTING
- Chance music, also known as - AIRBRUSHING
Aleatoric music, refers to a style - ANTIQUING
in which the piece always - AQUARELLE
sounds differently at every - ASSEMBLAGE
performance because of the - AUTOMATISM
random techniques of - COLLAGE
production, including the use of - DECALCOMANIA
ring modulators or natural - DRIP PAINTING
elements that become a part of - DECOUPAGE ART
the music. - MONTAGE
- Most of the sounds emanating - TRAPUNTO
from the surroundings, both - DIGITAL APPLICATION
natural and manmade, such as
honking cars, rustling leaves, PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF
blowing wind, dripping water, or ARTS
a ringing phone.