Chapter 10

10/16/2022
Chapter Ten
Understanding Populations
and Sampling
For use with Business Research Methods

by Quinlan, Babin, Carr, Griffin & Zikmund
9781473760356 © 2019 Cengage Learning
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Define a research population;
• Select a sample from a population;
• Describe the process of identifying a target

population and selecting a sampling frame.
• Identify the types of probability and

non-probability sampling and
summarise their advantages and
disadvantages.

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RESEARCH SKILLS
• Explain how to chose an appropriate sample
design;
• Outline an appropriate population for a given

research project and select a sample from that
population using an appropriate sampling
method;
• List and detail the challenges

for internet sampling.

Introduction
• This chapter explores the ways by which data can be gathered for a
research project, and the chapter deals with research populations
and sampling methods.
• The methodological framework of the research project is comprised

of an account of all of the ways and means by which the research
was actually carried out.
• The population used in the research, the sample selected from that
population, and the means used to gather data for the research
project are all fundamental aspects of this framework.
• The model of the research process, (outlined in Chapter One),

shows that, at this stage in the research process we have
decided on the research methodology to be used in
the research project, and we have now come to the
stage of defining the population of the research,
deciding whether to work with the entire population or
with a sample of that population.

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The Population of the Study

• The population of a study is all of the individuals, items
or units relevant to the study.
• The population can be comprised of individuals, groups,

organisations, documents, campaigns, incidents, and so
on.
• The population of the research is also called the

universe.
• As the term ‘the universe’ implies, the

population of a study is comprised of all of
the units or individual belonging to that
population.

Examples of research populations

The researcher might decide to compare levels of disposable income among:
• EU and non-EU undergraduate students at the University of Liverpool;
• or among undergraduate students at university in Liverpool;
• or among undergraduate students at university in England;
• or among undergraduate students at university in the UK.
• The researcher may decide to focus on the population of undergraduates in

UK universities, or the population of undergraduates in the University of
Westminster, or in the University of Edinburgh, or in Cardiff University.
• The researcher may decide to focus on the population of

undergraduates in all three universities.
• All of these populations are valid. The population of the

study is every person relevant to the population of the study,
as the population of the study is defined by the researcher.
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Questions of Scope
• The researcher defines the population of the study precisely, in
order to ensure that the research project is do-able, in order to
ensure that it is researchable.
• The researcher can only do what it is possible to do, and so the

researcher limits the scope of the research.
• The resources necessary in order to ensure that the research

project is researchable include the amount of time available for the
research, the amount of money required to conduct the research,
and the level of access to the necessary data available to the
researcher.
• These are questions of scope, questions of how big
the study or the research project is to be.

Populations and Samples

• Figure 10.4 (see the following slide) illustrates
the population, the sample and the unit the
individual or the case.
• As can be seen from the figure, the population

is all of the units in the figure.
• The sample is a small sub-set of the

population.
• The population is made up all many
individual units, cases or individuals.
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The Issue of Representation

• When using a sample of a population in a research project, the
researcher must clearly describe the sample.
• Then s/he must explain why that sample was selected and clearly
describe the sampling method, the means by which that sample was
selected.
• In describing the sampling method, the researcher aims to establish

how representative the sample is of the research population.
• The key issue in sampling is this notion of representation.
• The concept of representation relates to the degree to

which a sample drawn from a population can be said
to be representative of the population.

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Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
• Another issue to be addressed is that of the inclusion and exclusion

criteria.
• The inclusion criteria are the criteria potential participants must meet
in order to be included in the study.
• Exclusion criteria are the criteria on which participants will be

excluded from participation in the study.
• Outlining clear inclusion and exclusion

criteria is a good way of achieving clarity in terms of
what potential participants would be serve the
research.

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Probability Sampling
• Using probability sampling, the sample selected from the population
is claimed by the researcher to be representative of the population.
• It is of fundamental importance that the sample selected be

representative of the population of the study.
• The researcher using a probability sampling technique wants to

claim that the findings of research conducted with the sample are
generalisable to the entire population of the study.
• Probability sampling is based on the theories of mathematics of

probability.
• Probability sampling techniques include simple

random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic
sampling and cluster sampling.
• If used properly, probability sampling techniques yield
precise results while working with samples a fraction
the size of the original populations of research.
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The Sampling Frame

• The basic rule of probability sampling holds that each member of the
population has an equal probability of being selected for inclusion in the
sample.
• As this is the case, the researcher, in order to engage in probability

sampling, must have a complete list (or map, or chart), of every member of
the population.
• The sample is drawn from this list.
• This list is known as a sampling frame. A sampling frame is a list of element

from which a sample may be drawn, also called working population.
• A sampling frame is a list or a map or a chart in which

every member of the population of the study is
represented.
• Each member or item in the sample is randomly
selected from the population for inclusion in the study,
using the sampling frame.

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Random sampling and non sampling errors
• Random sampling error is the difference between the

sample result and the result of a census conducted
using identical procedures. Random sampling error
occurs because of chance variation in the scientific
selection of sampling units.
• Random sampling error is a function of sample size.

As sample size increases, random sampling error
decreases.
• Systematic (non-sampling) errors result from

non-sampling factors, primarily the nature of a
study’s design and the correctness of
execution.
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Simple Random Sampling

• Simple random sampling involves selecting a sample at random from a
sampling frame.
• Let us say that you want to study the population of your class, and there
are thirty students in your class.
• As it is a simple thing to get a complete list of the names of the students

in your class (a sampling frame), it is possible to engage in simple
random sampling with this population.
• The first thing to do is to make a list on a sheet of paper of all of the

names of the people in your class.
• Then tear off each name one by one, and place each of them into a hat or
a box.
• Then select one name at a time.
• You are now engaging in simple random sampling.

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Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling involves selecting items at systematic or
regular intervals from the sampling frame.
• For example you might be working in a housing estate trying to

establish which brand of washing powder is used in each house.
• Your sampling frame is made up of all of the houses in the

housing estate.
• Suppose there are 500 houses in the estate and you begin at a
random starting point and then sample every third house, or every
fifth house, or whatever interval of house you decide on, until you
complete your sample.
• You are engaging in systematic sampling.

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Stratified Sampling
• A Stratified Sample is a sample selected based on some known
characteristic of the population, a characteristic which will have an
impact on the research.
• Using stratified sampling the researcher divides, or stratifies, the

sample selected for use in the research using the characteristic
which s/he knows will have an impact on the research.
• See the example ‘A study of religious practice among your

classmates’ for a simple and good explanation of these sampling
methods. In the example, the
researcher uses first a simple random
sampling technique, then a systematic
sampling technique, before finally deciding that a
stratified sampling technique in really required for this
particular study with this particular population.

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Non-probability sampling
• In non-probability sampling, the sample is selected to represent the population, but
it cannot be said to be representative of the population, in any statistical sense.
• The emphasis in non-probability sampling is on the capacity of a relatively small

number of cases to clearly and comprehensively illustrate the phenomenon under
investigation.
• It often happens with social science research projects that it is not possible to
produce a complete list of the population; when this is the case, it is not possible to
develop a sampling frame.
• For example, a researcher might be asked to examine brand loyalty among

consumers of Cosmopolitan magazine. It wouldn't be possible to compile a
complete list of consumers of Cosmopolitan magazine.
• Without a complete sampling frame, it is not possible to engage in probability

sampling, as without a sampling frame it is not possible to guarantee that every
member of the population has an equally likely chance of being included in the
study.
• The sampling approach used in such circumstances is non-

probability sampling. Non-probability sampling techniques include
judgmental sampling, quota sampling, snowball sampling and
convenience sampling.

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Judgemental or Purposive Sampling

• Using a judgmental or purposive sampling technique
the researcher decides, or makes a judgement, about
who to include in the research.
• The criterion for inclusion in the research is the

capacity of the participant to inform the research.
• Each person, or unit, chosen to be included must have

a contribution to make to the research.
• People chosen to be included in such a

sample would be key informants on the topic
under investigation.

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Two different non-probability sampling

techniques
Quota Sampling: Using a quota sampling technique the
researcher develops a sample of participants for the
research using different quota criteria.
Convenience Sampling: Using a convenience sampling

technique the researcher engages those participants in
the research it is easiest to include, for example people
in the newsagents, people in the supermarket and so on.
The researcher knows how many people to
include in the sample, then s/he continues to
engage people in the research until the
sample has been filled.

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Snowball Sampling
• Using a snowball sampling technique the researcher finds one

participant in the research, s/he conducts the research with that
participant, and then s/he asks that participant to recommend the next
participant.
• Participants must fit the inclusion criteria for the research project.
• The researcher goes through the procedure with the second

participant and when finished, asks that participant to recommend
another participant to be included in the research.
• The researcher continues in this manner,

conducting the research with participants and
then asking each participant to recommend
the next participant, until the sample is
complete.

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Saturation Point
• In some qualitative research projects the research is allowed to unfold, and

so the population or the samples used are sometimes not defined from the
outset.
• A frequently asked question in such circumstances is, when does the

researcher stop engaging participants in the research?
• The answer is when the researcher reaches saturation point.
• Saturation point is reached when the researcher, though continuing to

explore the phenomenon with participants in the research, no longer hears
any new thoughts, feelings, attitudes, emotions, intentions, etc.
• This is saturation point, the researcher is ‘saturated’ with

knowledge on the topic and continuing to engage
participants would not be useful, necessary, or ethically
sound, as engaging further participants in the research will
not add in any way to the knowledge generated.

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Internet sampling
• Internet surveys allow researchers to reach a large sample rapidly—
both an advantage and a disadvantage.
• Sample size requirements can be met overnight or in some cases

almost instantaneously.
• There are now so many Internet surveys, frequent Internet users

may be more selective about which surveys they bother answering.
• Another disadvantage of Internet surveys is the lack of computer

ownership and Internet access among certain segments of the
population.
• A sample of Internet users is representative only of

Internet users, who tend to be younger, better
educated, and more affluent than the general population.

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10/16/2022

For use with Business Research Methods

• Select a sample from a population;

• Describe the process of identifying a target

• Identify the types of probability and

For use with Business Research Methods

• Outline an appropriate population for a given

• List and detail the challenges

For use with Business Research Methods

• The methodological framework of the research project is comprised

• The model of the research process, (outlined in Chapter One),

For use with Business Research Methods

The Population of the Study

• The population can be comprised of individuals, groups,

• The population of the research is also called the

• As the term ‘the universe’ implies, the

For use with Business Research Methods

Examples of research populations

• EU and non-EU undergraduate students at the University of Liverpool;

• or among undergraduate students at university in Liverpool;

• or among undergraduate students at university in England;

• or among undergraduate students at university in the UK.

• The researcher may decide to focus on the population of undergraduates in

• The researcher may decide to focus on the population of

• All of these populations are valid. The population of the

• The researcher can only do what it is possible to do, and so the

• The resources necessary in order to ensure that the research

For use with Business Research Methods

Populations and Samples

• As can be seen from the figure, the population

• The sample is a small sub-set of the

For use with Business Research Methods

The Issue of Representation

• In describing the sampling method, the researcher aims to establish

• The key issue in sampling is this notion of representation.

• The concept of representation relates to the degree to

For use with Business Research Methods

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

• Another issue to be addressed is that of the inclusion and exclusion

• Exclusion criteria are the criteria on which participants will be

• Outlining clear inclusion and exclusion

For use with Business Research Methods

• It is of fundamental importance that the sample selected be

• The researcher using a probability sampling technique wants to

• Probability sampling is based on the theories of mathematics of

• Probability sampling techniques include simple

The Sampling Frame

• As this is the case, the researcher, in order to engage in probability

• The sample is drawn from this list.

• This list is known as a sampling frame. A sampling frame is a list of element

• A sampling frame is a list or a map or a chart in which

For use with Business Research Methods

Random sampling and non sampling errors

• Random sampling error is the difference between the

• Random sampling error is a function of sample size.

• Systematic (non-sampling) errors result from

Simple Random Sampling

• As it is a simple thing to get a complete list of the names of the students

• The first thing to do is to make a list on a sheet of paper of all of the

• Then select one name at a time.

• You are now engaging in simple random sampling.

For use with Business Research Methods

• For example you might be working in a housing estate trying to

• Your sampling frame is made up of all of the houses in the