PAD390 - Topic 1,2, 3 & 4 (New Syllabus)

INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT
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TITLE
INTRODUCTION TO
DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Overview
Introduction to Development
Development concepts –
Definitions, objectives, and
indicators (qualitative and
quantitative) of development.
Development perspective –
Conservative, Liberalism,
Radical and Islamic
perspective of development.
Theories of development –
Ideal-Type Construct, Social-
Psychological and Diffusion
theory of development.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Identify the development concepts (definition, objectives and

indicators of development).
2. Differentiate the perspectives of western and Islam
development.
3. Explain briefly theories of development.
Development Concepts
Development means approach to change the entire social system so that it is consistent with
the fundamental needs of the individuals and the various groups within the society. It must
provide to society the opportunities to change the inconvenient condition to a better one.
1.1.1 Definitions
Normally indicated in two process, which are ‘change’, and ‘progress’ (Rozalli Hashim,
2005). Normally, the indication of development is to become a better condition and improved
standard of living. The first indication is ‘change’ which give a meaning of becoming different
from the present situation, usually to a better one. It is also known as transformation towards
a better and enhanced condition of life, for example the administration reform made by Tun
Abdul Razak in 1970’s as he had identified seven deadly sins in Public Administration. He
reformed the public administration because he wanted the public servant to work as a group
in order to achieve the development goals.
Then the other indication of development is ‘progress’ which refers to growth, advancement,
improvement and expansion of the present condition in order to improve the standard of
living and quality of life, for instance, the transportation facilities by constructing the roads
and highways; clinics and hospitals; water supply, electricity, technical assistance and other
infrastructure facilities. This is due to facilitate the movement of people and goods from one
place to another that would increase their value added, either in knowledge or expertise for
the people and also price for the goods. Meanwhile, facilities and supply assistance on
enhance further the quality of life of the society, whether in urban or rural areas.
Subsequently it will enhance welfare of the people.
Development therefore, is one of the defining elements of the contemporary era. Progress is
how we define ourselves and how we measure others. Uniquely, development combines
advances in administration, economics, politics, science, and technology in an attempt to
create a better world. This section will introduce learners to the historical evolution of
development theory and contemporary development trends. While development has
occurred throughout history, it did not become an academic discipline until de-colonization
exposed the problems facing newly independent countries after World War II.
Since development is relatively not a new field, many of its ideas and terms are from other
disciplines in anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology. As the name
implies, economic development theories focus on economic variables. In contrast, societal
development theories focus on cultural and other societal features. Significantly, there are
very different views of development within these broad areas. As a result, each theory
advocates different developmental strategies (Todaro, 1999).
1.1.2 Development objectives
For many industrialized nations, poverty, child mortality, poor maternal health, and rampant
disease are typically issues of the past. Science, medicine, research and technology have
allowed many countries to eradicate numerous serious issues that plague third world nations
and developing countries. Though many people believe the human plight has improved, the
sad reality is millions of people around the globe live in such absolute misery that when
everyday people faced with the statistics, they are completely shocked and dismayed.
In September 2000, building upon a decade of major United Nations conferences and
summits, world leaders came together at the United Nations Headquarters in New York to
adopt the United Nations Millennium Declaration.
The Declaration committed nations to a new global partnership to reduce extreme poverty,
and set out a series of eight time-bound targets - with a deadline of 2015 - that is known as
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
The final MDG Report found that the 15-year effort has produced the most successful anti-
poverty movement in history:
 Since 1990, the number of people living in extreme poverty has declined by more
than half.
 The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by
almost half.
 The primary school enrolment rate in the developing regions has reached 91
percent, and many more girls are now in school compared to 15 years ago.
 Remarkable gains in the fight against HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis.
 The under-five mortality rate has declined by more than half, and maternal
mortality is down 45 percent worldwide.
 The target of halving the proportion of people who lack access to an improved
source of water.
The concerted efforts of national governments, the international community, civil society and
the private sector have helped expand hope and opportunity for people around the world.
That vision, was eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), has remained the
overarching development framework for the world for the past 15 years. As we have reached
the end of the MDG period, the world community has reason to celebrate. Thanks to
concerted global, regional, national and local efforts, the MDGs have saved the lives of
millions and improved conditions for many more.
Unprecedented efforts have resulted in profound achievements:
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Extreme poverty has declined significantly over the last two decades. In 1990, nearly half of
the population in the developing world lived on less than $1.25 a day; that proportion
dropped to 14 per cent in 2015.
Globally, the number of people living in extreme poverty has declined by more than half,
falling from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015. Most progress has occurred since 2000.
The number of people in the working middle class—living on more than $4 a day—has
almost tripled between 1991 and 2015. This group now makes up half the workforce in the
developing regions, up from just 18 per cent in 1991. The proportion of undernourished
people in the developing regions has fallen by almost half since 1990, from 23.3 per cent in
1990–1992, to 12.9 per cent in 2014–2016.
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
The primary school net enrolment rate in the developing regions has reached 91 per cent in
2015, up from 83 per cent in 2000. The number of out-of-school children of primary school
age worldwide has fallen by almost half, to an estimated 57 million in 2015, down from 100
million in 2000. Sub-Saharan Africa has had the best record of improvement in primary
education of any region since the MDGs were established. The region achieved a 20-
percentage point increase in the net enrolment rate from 2000 to 2015, compared to a gain
of 8 percentage points between 1990 and 2000. The literacy rate among youth aged 15 to
24 has increased globally from 83 per cent to 91 per cent between 1990 and 2015. The gap
between women and men has narrowed.
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
Many more girls are now in school compared to 15 years ago. The developing regions as
a whole have achieved the target to eliminate gender disparity in primary, secondary and
tertiary education. In Southern Asia, only 74 girls enrolled in primary school for every 100
boys in 1990. Today, 103 girls enrolled for every 100 boys. Women now make up 41 per
cent of paid workers outside the agricultural sector, an increase from 35 per cent in 1990.
Between 1991 and 2015, the proportion of women in vulnerable employment as a share of
total female employment has declined 13 percentage points. In contrast, vulnerable
employment among men fell by 9 percentage points. Women have gained ground in
parliamentary representation in nearly 90 per cent of the 174 countries with data over the
past 20 years. The average proportion of women in parliament has nearly doubled during
the same period. Yet still only one in five members are women.
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
The global under-five mortality rate has declined by more than half, dropping from 90 to 43
deaths per 1,000 live births between 1990 and 2015. Despite population growth in the
developing regions, the number of deaths of children under five has declined from 12.7
million in 1990 to almost 6 million in 2015 globally. Since the early 1990s, the rate of
reduction of under-five mortality has more than tripled globally. In sub-Saharan Africa, the
annual rate of reduction of under-five mortality was over five times faster during 2005–2013
than it was during 1990–1995. Measles vaccination helped prevent nearly 15.6 million
deaths between 2000 and 2013. The number of globally reported measles cases declined by
67 per cent for the same period. About 84 per cent of children worldwide received at least
one dose of measles containing vaccine in 2013, up from 73 per cent in 2000.
Goal 5: Improve maternal HEALTH
Since 1990, the maternal mortality ratio has declined by 45 per cent worldwide, and most of
the reduction has occurred since 2000. In Southern Asia, the maternal mortality ratio
declined by 64 per cent between 1990 and 2013, and in sub-Saharan Africa it fell by 49 per
cent. More than 71 per cent of births assisted by skilled health personnel globally in 2014, an
increase from 59 per cent in 1990. In Northern Africa, the proportion of pregnant women who
received four or more antenatal visits increased from 50 per cent to 89 percent between
1990 and 2014. Contraceptive prevalence among women aged 15 to 49, married or in a
union, increased from 55 per cent in 1990 worldwide to 64 per cent in 2015.
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
New HIV infections fell by approximately 40 per cent between 2000 and 2013, from an
estimated 3.5 million cases to 2.1 million. By June 2014, 13.6 million people living with HIV
were receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) globally, an immense increase from just 800,000
in 2003. ART averted 7.6 million deaths from AIDS between 1995 and 2013. Over 6.2 million
malaria deaths averted between 2000 and 2015, primarily of children under five years of age
in sub-Saharan Africa. The global malaria incidence rate has fallen by an estimated 37 per
cent and the mortality rate by 58 per cent. More than 900 million insecticide-treated mosquito
nets delivered to malaria-endemic countries in sub-Saharan Africa between 2004 and 2014.
Between 2000 and 2013, tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis and treatment interventions
saved an estimated 37 million lives. The tuberculosis mortality rate fell by 45 per cent and
the prevalence rate by 41 per cent between 1990 and 2013.
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
Ozone-depleting substances eliminated since 1990, and the ozone layer is expected to
recover by the middle of this century. Terrestrial and marine protected areas in many regions
have increased substantially since 1990. In Latin America and the Caribbean, coverage of
terrestrial protected areas rose from 8.8 per cent to 23.4 per cent between 1990 and 2014.
In 2015, 91 per cent of the global population is using an improved drinking water source,
compared to 76 per cent in 1990. Of the 2.6 billion people who have gained access to
improved drinking water since 1990, 1.9 billion gained access to piped drinking water on
premises. Over half of the global population (58 per cent) now enjoys this higher level of
service. Globally, 147 countries have met the drinking water target, 95 countries have met
the sanitation target and 77 countries have met both. Worldwide, 2.1 billion people have
gained access to improved sanitation. The proportion of people practicing open defecation
has fallen almost by half since 1990. The proportion of urban population living in slums in the
developing regions fell from approximately 39.4 per cent in 2000 to 29.7 per cent in 2014.
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

Official development assistance from developed countries increased by 66 per cent in real
terms between 2000 and 2014, reaching $135.2 billion. In 2014, Denmark, Luxembourg,
Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom continued to exceed the United Nations official
development assistance target of 0.7 per cent of gross national income. In 2014, 79 per cent
of imports from developing to developed countries admitted duty free, up from 65 per cent in
2000. The proportion of external debt service to export revenue in developing countries fell
from 12 per cent in 2000 to 3 per cent in 2013. As of 2015, 95 per cent of the world’s
population covered by a mobile-cellular signal. The number of mobile-cellular subscriptions
has grown almost tenfold in the last 15 years, from 738 million in 2000 to over 7 billion in
2015. Internet penetration has grown from just over 6 per cent of the world’s population in
2000 to 43 per cent in 2015. As a result, 3.2 billion people linked to a global network of
content and applications.
Despite many successes, the poorest and most vulnerable people left behind
The significant achievements on many of the MDG targets worldwide, progress has been
uneven across regions and countries, leaving significant gaps. Millions of people left behind,
especially the poorest and those disadvantaged because of their sex, age, disability,
ethnicity or geographic location. Targeted efforts needed to reach the most vulnerable
people.
Gender inequality persists Women continue to face discrimination in access to work,

economic assets and participation in private and public decision-making. Women are also
more likely to live in poverty than men are. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the ratio of
women to men in poor households increased from 108 women for every 100 men in 1997,
117 women for every 100 men in 2012, despite declining poverty rates for the whole region.
Women remain at a disadvantage in the labour market. Globally, about three quarters of
working-age men participate in the labour force, compared to only half of working-age
women. Women earn 24 per cent lesser than men globally. In 85 per cent of the 92 countries
with data on unemployment rates by level of education for the years 2012–2013, women
with advanced education have higher rates of unemployment compared to men with similar
levels of education. Despite continuous progress, today the world still has far to go towards
equal gender representation in private and public decision-making.
Big gaps exist between the poorest and richest households, and between rural and urban
areas in the developing regions, children from the poorest 20 per cent of households are
more than twice as likely to be as those from the wealthiest 20 per cent. Children in the
poorest households are four times as likely to be out of school compared to those in the
richest households.
Under-five mortality rates are almost twice as high for children in the poorest households
compared to children in the richest. In rural areas, skilled health personnel, compared to 87
per cent in urban areas, attend 56 per cent of births. About 16 per cent of the rural
population do not use improved drinking water sources, compared to 4 per cent of the urban
population. About 50 per cent of people living in rural areas lack improved sanitation
facilities, compared to only 18 per cent of people in urban areas.
Climate change and environmental degradation undermine progress achieved, and poor
people suffer the most Global emissions of carbon dioxide have increased by over 50 per
cent since 1990. Addressing the unabated rise in greenhouse gas emissions and the
resulting likely impacts of climate change, such as altered ecosystems, weather extremes
and risks to society, remains an urgent, critical challenge for the global community. An
estimated 5.2 million hectares of forest were lost in 2010, an area about the size of Costa
Rica. Overexploitation of marine fish stocks led to declines in the percentage of stocks within
safe biological limits, down from 90 per cent in 1974 to 71 per cent in 2011. Species are
declining overall in numbers and distribution. This means they are being threaten with
extinction. Water scarcity effects 40 per cent of people in the world and projected to
increase. Poor people’s livelihoods more directly tied to natural resources, and as they often
live in the most vulnerable areas, they suffer the most from environmental degradation.
Conflicts remain the biggest threat to human development. By the end of 2014, conflicts had
forced almost 60 million people to abandon their homes—the highest level recorded since
the Second World War. If these people were a nation, they would make up of 24 largest
country in the world. Every day, 42,000 people on average forcibly displaced and compelled
to seek protection due to conflicts, almost four times the 2010 number of 11,000. Children
accounted for half of the global refugee population under the responsibility of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2014. In countries affected by conflict, the
proportion of out-of-school children increased from 30 per cent in 1999 to 36 per cent in
2012. Fragile and conflict-affected countries typically have the highest poverty rates.
Millions of poor people still live in poverty and hunger, without access to basic services
despite enormous progress, even present, about 800 million people still live in extreme
poverty and suffer from hunger. Over 160 million children under age five have inadequate
height for their age due to insufficient food.
Currently, 57 million children of primary school age are not in school. Almost half of global
workers are still working in vulnerable conditions, rarely enjoying the benefits associated with
decent work.
About 16,000 children die each day before celebrating their Overview of fifth birthday, mostly
from preventable causes. The maternal mortality ratio in the developing regions is 14 times
higher than in the developed regions. Just half of pregnant women in the developing regions
receive the recommended minimum of four antenatal care visits.
Only an estimated 36 per cent of the 31.5 million people living with HIV in the developing
regions were receiving ART in 2013. In 2015, one in three people (2.4 billion) still use
unimproved sanitation facilities, including 946 million people who still practise open
defecation. Today over 880 million people are estimated to be living in slum-like conditions in
the developing world’s cities. With global action, these numbers can turned around.
(http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July
%201).pdf
As one can clearly see “poverty and hunger” is the number one issue, as the World Bank
states that, “that one-point-four (1.4) billion people in developing countries were living in
extreme poverty in 2015... Using a new threshold for extreme poverty now set at (one dollar
and twenty-five cents) $1.25 a day”. Here is where another fallacy occurs in the minds of
everyday people. It thought that others make small amounts of money due to their country's
economic conditions, thus allowing them to live comfortably or at least adequately. On the
contrary, while some of those countries have a low cost of living, most do not and so its
people forced to rely on very little, creating widespread poverty and hunger.
The targets set forth by the Millennium Development Goals should guide all industrialized
and financially able nations to combat issues of great importance to the world
(http://www.developmentgoals.com).
Yet the job is unfinished for millions of people—we need to go the last mile on ending
hunger, achieving full gender equality, improving health services and getting every child into
school. Now we must shift the world onto a sustainable path. The global Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), or Global Goals, will guide policy and funding for the next 15
years, beginning with a historic pledge on 25 September 2015, to end poverty everywhere
and permanently.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

“World leaders have an unprecedented opportunity this year to shift the world onto a
path of inclusive, sustainable and resilient development" - Helen Clark, UNDP
Administrator. At the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit on 25 September
2015, world leaders adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which includes
a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end poverty, fight inequality and
injustice, and tackle climate change by 2030.
The Sustainable Development Goals, otherwise known as the Global Goals, build on
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), eight anti-poverty targets that the world
committed to achieving by 2015. The MDGs, adopted in 2000, aimed at an array of issues
that included slashing poverty, hunger, disease, gender inequality, and access to water and
sanitation. Enormous progress has been made on the MDGs, showing the value of a
unifying agenda underpinned by goals and targets. Despite this success, the indignity of
poverty has not been ended for all.
The new SDGs, and the broader sustainability agenda, go much further than the MDGs,
addressing the root causes of poverty and the universal need for development that works for
all people.
United Nation Development Program (UNDP) Administrator Helen Clark noted: "This
agreement marks an important milestone in putting our world on an inclusive and
sustainable course. If we all work together, we have a chance of meeting citizens’
aspirations for peace, prosperity, and wellbeing, and to preserve our planet."
The Sustainable Development Goals will now finish the job of the MDGs, and ensure that no
one left behind.
UNDP supports countries in three different ways, through the MAPS approach:
mainstreaming, acceleration and policy support.
 Providing support to governments to reflect the new global agenda in national

development plans and policies. This work is already underway in many countries at
national request;
 Supporting countries to accelerate progress on SDG targets. In this, we will make
use of our extensive experience over the past five years with the MDG Acceleration
Framework; and
 Making the UN’s policy expertise on sustainable development and governance
available to governments at all stages of implementation.
Collectively, all partners can support communication of the new agenda, strengthening
partnerships for implementation, and filling in the gaps in available data for monitoring and
review. As Co-Chair of the UNDG Sustainable Development Working Group, UNDP will
lead the preparation of Guidelines for National SDG reports are relevant and appropriate for
the countries involved.
UNDP is deeply involved in all processes around the Sustainable Development Goal roll out
through extensive programming experience to bear in supporting countries to develop their
national SDG efforts.
(http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/mdgoverview/post-2015-development-
agenda.html).
1.1.3 Indicators of Development (Qualitative & Quantitative)
According to Amartya Sen, 1981, “Development requires the removal of major sources of
un- freedom poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic
social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of
repressive states….”
1.1.3.1 Qualitative indicators of development
Qualitative indicators are simply the values that one can feel but are difficult to measure
quantitatively. They include standard of living, happiness, moral, values, culture and serenity
(Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
 Improving the economic, political, and social well-being quality of the people.
 Improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community by creating and
retaining quality jobs and supporting or growing quality incomes and the tax base.
 Enhancing the factors of quality productive capacity such as land, labour, capital, and
technology of a national, quality state or local government.
 Increase in the ability to produce quality goods and services.
1.1.3.2 Quantitative indicators of development
Quantitative indicators show ratios and overt values such as gross national product (GNP),
per capita income, birth rate, infant mortality rate, quantity of export, industrialization level,
and total foreign debt (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
 Improvement in a varied quantity of indicators such as literacy rates, life expectancy,

poverty rates, changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive
resources.
 Improvement by a reduction in the quantity of inequalities, poverty and
unemployment rates.
 Growth of a specific quantity measure such as real national income, gross domestic
product, or per capita income. National income or product is commonly expressed in
terms of a measure of the aggregate value-added output of the domestic economy
called gross domestic product (GDP).
 Ability to provide for growing quantity of infrastructure to its citizens such as roads,
drains, schools, police stations etc. other than providing those facilities, the
government should also manage to maintain or improve the condition of the facilities
and infrastructure.
1.2 DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES
1.2.1 The Conservative Perspective:
Among the leading contributors of this perspective are Adam Smith and Ricardo. In the
economic sector, the conservatives give priority to the capitalist system that built on the
foundation of open competition and maximization of profits. Freedom and wealth is a natural
opportunity for all.
Those who are diligent will gain the benefits, on the other hands; those who are lazy would
suffer the consequences of their own free choice. Decision-making based on individual,
family, or company that is acting in respond to create an equilibrium and harmonious market.
The effect from such an economic activity is the elevation of desire and individual ego for the
sake of maximizing freedom and wealth.
Social change will only happen as a response to actions taken freely by individuals with
limited intervention from the government. Social change will only happen as a response to
action taken freely by individuals. The main function of government is to maintain security,
through the implementation of local and international laws by the police and military force to
ascertain that the capitalist system works without any barriers. The conservative believes
that active government involvement would only stir more problems than actually solving it
1.2.2 The Liberal Perspective
Fundamentals view of the liberals such as Keynes rejected the basic assumptions made by
conservatives. The liberals trust the role of government to control the level of economic
activities so that they are in line with the national interest (state capitalist).
The liberals put individual and social justice as an end. To achieve social justice,
government needs to regulate laws, policies and programs for the people.
The government would be able to redistribute the nation’s wealth through a progressive
taxation system specially to help the poor. The liberals believe government should intervene
and readjust the market mechanism fails to fulfil consumers demand and basic needs of
man caused by monopolistic control of imperative economic sectors within the nation and
the lack of highly efficient programs.
The liberals are of the opinion that the problems faced by the government as well as the
international front caused by monopolistic control of imperative economic sectors within the
nation and the lack of highly efficient programs. Therefore, in order to overcome these
dilemmas, the government should intervene and readjust the market mechanism fails to fulfil
consumers demand and the basic needs of man (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
1.2.3 The Radical Perspective
The radical perspective is totally against the capitalist paradigm of development. Emphasize
on social reward, reject the liberals’ claim that man could enjoy the same opportunity within
the social class when the majority rules.
The radicals believe that in an open economy, the government only satisfy the interests of
the capitalist class and denying the interest of the workers. The radicals also believe that the
root of class struggle is the capitalist system itself.
The exploitation of one group over the other based on the struggle to personal own
production factors within the country. To the radicals, the economic mechanism is supposed
to produce economic growth; however, it is manipulated for the interest of capitalists.
Imbalances in development do not happen only in matters pertaining to the distribution of
wealth, they are also prevalent in across regions. (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
1.2.4 The Islamic Perspective
There is one thing that must not change due to time changing which is Islamic doctrine,
principle and faith of the Muslim for their God, Allah. Islam still prohibit the act like murder,
rape, zina, robbery, and others criminal acts and we still have to properly dress according to
Shari’ah. We must differentiate between Halal (allowed acts) and Haram (prohibited acts).
Therefore, development in Islam means the process of progressing and changing from one
stage (the present stage) to the other stage (the better stage) without negligence towards
Shari’ah and Islamic way of life. It is a holistic approach, which incorporates all aspects of
man's life, from spiritual to family, society, state and universe levels. Islamic development
management therefore refers to the management of all aspects of man's life, either from the
social, economic and political perspective, in the Islamic way. In short, development in
Islamic perspective is the improvement and transformation or alteration towards an
enhanced and better condition of life regarding to the Al-Quran and As-Sunnah.
Main concepts of development in Islam:
1. A holistic approach in development, which includes morality, spirituality and material

being. Humanistic aspects should not be alien from material aspects.
2. Foundation of development is humanity, and not so much of economic development.
Development in Islam begins with individual, then his family, his neighbourhood, the
society and finally the grand Islamic ummah.
3. Economic development begets responsibilities among the rich and the government in
helping the poor and needy. The institution of zakat (alms giving) not only helps the
poor but also purifies the rich.
4. Economic equilibrium and holistic development. Quantitative benchmark index such
as GNP may be able to show the wealth of a nation but it may not consider the
qualitative elements that may portray a different picture altogether.
5. Encourages the use of optimum resources. Use of resources through fair and
equitable resources.
The Concept of Development Purported by Khurshid Ahmad
Concept of Khalifah
From birth onwards, every child should learn to know that Allah created him/her to be His
Khalifah. Every child needs to come to understand its role as Khalifah of Allah in the fullest
and detailed manner possible. In English the Arabic word 'khalifah' is often translated as
'vicegerent'. Vicegerent means one who acts in the place of the leader or king. Included in
the meaning of vicegerent is the assumption that the person in that role will act in every
instance as the leader or king would want them to act. This also is the meaning of the Arabic
term khalifah. What a glorious and exciting role to given, to act as a representative of Allah -
even if only within the limited scope of human ability. It is the highest honour given. Most
blessed are we that Allah, through His Divine and Unlimited Mercy, has humankind to
receive this greatest of all honours
Allah created Adam with a specific purpose. Allah created Adam (and all human beings after
Adam) to be His Khalifah on Earth. When Allah created human beings, He gave us free will.
In our role as Khalifah of Allah we have the responsibility to use the free will give to us by
Allah to continue His plan for Creation. Allah gave us the responsibility to ensure that His
Creation continues to progress so that His Attributes will be more and more perfectly
expressed in physical world. Our responsibility as the Khalifah of Allah has three parts.
These are to perfect ourselves according to the Will of Allah, to perfect all of human society
according to the Will of Allah, and to perfect the physical world of space and time (our planet
Earth and the whole universe) according to the Will of Allah.
Due to concept of human as the Khalifah of the earth therefore we need to do something to
avoid the Allah’s creatures being manipulated by the troublesome person. Pollution and
deterioration in the quality of environment will not only affect negatively the health of the
people but also the progress and economy of the country. The importance of the quality of
the environment to man is proven by research and studies within and outside the country. A
number of research conducted this century shows that unless man takes care and conserve
the environment to avert all negative effects, the quality of life will deteriorate as a result of
his own doing.
“You are the best of peoples evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right,
forbidding what is wrong and believing in God”(Translation Al-Quran: 3:110).
The concept of Vicegerency (khalifah) studied. “It is He Who hath made you (His)
vicegerents, inheritors of the earth: He hath raised you in ranks, some above others, that He
may try you in the gifts He hath given you: for thy Lord is quick in punishment, yet He is
indeed Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful”(Translation Al-Quran: 6-165). Therefore, what happen
around us like natural disaster is due to our act. We cannot blame the nature or God
because the disaster happens because we are simply polluted the environment and cutting
down the trees without any intention to replant.
Concept of Tazkiyyah
The mission of all the prophets of God was to perform the Tazkiyyah of man in all his
relationships – with God, with man, with the natural environment, and with society and the
state. We would submit that the Islamic concept of development is derived from its concept
of tazkiyyah, as it addresses itself to the problems of human development in all its
dimensions and is concerned with growth and expansion towards perfection through
purification of attitudes and relationship. The result of tazkiyyah is falah – prosperity in this
world and the hereafter.
The concept of tazkiyyah highlights the roles of individuals and society continuously purify
themselves through the system called as akhlak or morality, belief, conservation of the
environment including factors of production. Mostly economic problems might lead to
several matters such as poverty, social, development and others. Giving the Zakat is part an
act of worship in a form of offering thanks to God for the means of material well-being one
has acquired. The money collected distributed to the poor people fairly. In addition, the
actions taken still relate with the Islamic way, which Malaysia is one of the Islamic countries
in this region. In Malaysia, our government performs Zakat in order to ensure the fair
distribution of welfare in this country. Zakat define as grow (in goodness) or 'increase',
'purifying' or 'making pure'. This show how the distribution of wealth being implemented.
However, there was a Zakat organization, which is Baitulmal in Malaysia, though it is still not
effective. As we know there, still lots of people that still live in bad condition. Baitulmal failed
to distribute the Zakat collection effectively to all people, so the organization should
restructure back their organization in order to make it become more effective and efficient.
For example, the Baitulmal itself should look for poor people and give aid to them. Most of
the poorer people are lack of information and knowledge that they usually do not know
where and how to seek help from Baitulmal (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
1.3 DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
1.3.1 Ideal-type Construct Theory
 To measure the absolute term of development by benchmarking it to an ideal state.

 Philips (1979) defines ideal – type construct as a gauge to differentiate a given
condition against another condition that deemed superior.
 A mechanism to explain development of a developing nation by comparing its
achievement against some mutually acceptable criteria.
 Benchmarking a state against an ideally developed state through some identification
of accepted elements of development.
The ideal type derived inductively from the real world. You compare the type with empirical
reality to see how it differs and how it works or already worked in some other already
developed states or nation.
1.3.2 Social-psychology Theory
 Based on the notion of social change.
 Most important aspect in development renders change in the human population.
 This theory assumes those psychological factors are among the important impetus
of change and development within a society that focuses on individuals and their
characteristics that could lead to advancement.
 Different psychological attributes could push an individual forward and backwards.
Sociological social psychology, also known as psychological sociology, is an area of

sociology that focuses on micro-scale social actions. This area may described as adhering to
"sociological miniatures", examining whole societies through the study of small groups as
well as individual thoughts, emotions and behaviors. Of special concern to psychological
sociologists is how to explain a variety of demographic, social, and cultural facts in terms of
human social interaction. Some of the major topics in this field are social inequality, group
dynamics, prejudice, aggression, social perception, group behavior, social change,
nonverbal behavior, socialization, conformity, leadership, social identity and symbolic
interactions.
Social-psychology theory
Motivation Status Withdrawal

(David McClelland) (Everett Hagen)
Need For High

Achievement
Motivation is indeed a very important element in determining the propensity of a given

society to develop in every lifestyles. According to Mc Clelland, these needs are found to
varying degrees in all workers and managers (and the community), and this mix of
motivational needs characterises a person’s or manager’s style and behaviour, some people
exhibit a strong bias to a particular motivational need and this motivational or needs “mix”
consequently affects their behaviour. According to him:
1. The n-ach (need for achievement) person is “achievement motivated”, and therefore
seeks achievement, attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement in the
job. There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress, and a need for a
sense of accomplishment.
2. The n-pow (need for power) person is “authority motivated”. This driver produces a need
to be influential, effective and to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and / for
their ideas to prevail. There is also motivation and need towards increasing personal status
and prestige.
3. The n-affil (need for affiliation) person is “affiliation motivated”, and has a need for friendly
relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other people. The affiliation driver
produces motivation and need to be favoured and held in popular regard.
McClelland firmly believed that achievement-motivated people are generally the ones who
make things happen and get results, and that this extends to getting results through the
organization of other people and resources because they prioritize achieving the goal above
the many varied interests and needs of the people.
Everett Hagen is of the opinion that development begins when there is a dramatic change
from traditional lifestyle to the modern lifestyle. There is a sentiment that this group of society
begins to perceive that their community and their values not appreciated and respected by
others, they would embark on a long journey of change. Those of them who live in the city or
its outskirt eventually would feel discontent with the mainstream view on them, as second
class and “unworthy” to be among the modern society. They would gradually leave these
places and move to new dwellings where accepted them as they are. The sentiments
between themselves have created what Hagen called status withdrawal. This group of
people would endure an isolated lifestyle and filled with frustration and agony of their fate.
They would live in a closed community in villages or other isolated places in the city. They
accept their condition as their destiny and thus, nothing done to overcome it. The irony
would last for few generations. Changes in the community brought by motherly inspirations
and positive education among their children. At home and at school, children thought with
new values and roles that they should play until every one of them would ended up with
good occupation in the cities (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
1.3.3 Diffusion Theory
 Diffusion of innovations (new ideas, new things or information) described as “the

process by which an innovation (new ideas, new things etc.) is communicated through
certain channels over time among the members of a social system” (Rogers, 1995).
 The channels are the means where an individual, groups or organization

communicates the innovations (ideas) to other individuals, groups or organizations.
The channels can be either the mass media or interpersonal (Rogers, 1995).
Throughout the diffusion process there is evidence that not all individuals exert an equal
amount of influence over all individuals. In this sense, there are Opinion Leaders, leaders
who are influential in spreading either positive or negative information about an innovation.
Rogers relies on the ideas of Katz & Lazarsfeld and the two-step flow theory in developing
his ideas on the influence of Opinion Leaders in the diffusion process. Opinion Leaders have
the most influence during the evaluation stage of the innovation-decision process and late
adopters (Rogers, 1964). In addition, opinion leaders have a set of characteristics that set
them apart from their followers and other individuals. Opinion Leaders typically have greater
exposure to the mass media, more cosmopolitan, greater contact with change agents, more
social experience and exposure, higher socioeconomic status, and are more innovative.
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
a) Explain TWO (2) types of development indicators.
(10 marks)
b) Discuss THREE (3) objectives of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

(15 marks)
QUESTION 2
a) Identify the qualitative indicator of development.
(5 marks)
b) The concept of Khalifah and Tazkiyah in Islamic perspective of development.
(20 marks)
QUESTION 3
a) Explain TWO (2) objectives of development.
(10 marks)
b) Discuss the application of the diffusion theory in development.
(15 marks)
QUESTION 4
a) Define development.
(5 marks)
a. Explain FOUR (4) demerits of conservative perspective of development.
(20 marks)
QUESTION 5
Differentiate between the quantitative and the qualitative indicators of development.
(25 marks)
2
TITLE
DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION
Chapter Overview
Development Administration
Importance of development
administration to developing
countries.
The relationship between development

administration and
public administration
Definitions – classical and

contemporary of development
administration
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
 Development Administration comprises two different words: Development and

Administration.
Development is on all sides of two important processes such as change and progress. For
instance is like a growth, change, advancement, expansion, progress, improvement and
other. All the activity will occur when the people and the country wants to improve and
implement their program with the aim to achieve objectives and fulfills their goals. The aim
and the objectives of the goals are the same for almost every government that strive for
development.
Besides that, all the activities showed especially when government had planned a lot of
program to enhance productivity and output of the country. Other than that, it is also a lot of
program, which give so many benefits to the local people and the country itself. It is a simple
similarity with words such as agricultural development, educational development, social
development, social welfare development and other development as well. In each part of
development, it needs a lot of support and effort to ensure that all the activities can achieve
the goals. All people especially for those who hold the responsibilities need to do their task
in an efficient way because the entire program uses or involves a lot of money. When the
administration is good and efficient, all the activities run smoothly (Fred Riggs, 1970).
 It is a simple analogy with expressions such as agricultural development, educational

development, social welfare development and other development as well.
Administration well recognized as a mechanism or a tool that generates affairs of state.
Administration of development needs to be distinguished from the development of
administration. It consists of two different interrelated aspects of development administration.
Administration helps in arranging human and resources accordingly and therefore in this
context, it is a mechanism that helps generate the development efforts in a state. The
administration of development shows that is a responsible in running all matters regarding to
development.
 However, much of the literature definition regarding to development relates it to

economic growth, the increased production of capital and consumer goods.
 The essential idea of development lies in the increased ability of human societies to
shape their physical, human and cultural environments. It is also similar to a process
of modernization. Modernization is generally a process of improving the capability of
a nation’s institutions and value system to meet increasing and different demands.
Generally, administration often described as the development, implementation and study of

government policy. An administration linked to pursuing the public good by enhancing civil
society and social justice. Though an administration has historically referred to government
management, it increasingly encompasses non-governmental organizations that are not
acting out of self-interest. In this sense, administration acts as an agent responsible to
develop a state. Development administration thus, considered a practical solution to help
governments of developing countries towards modernization.
1.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION TO DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES
1. ECONOMY
In the aspect of economy, development administration contributes to improve standard of
living of the people in a state. Strategies and initiatives to increase the quality of life of the
people to enhance their motivation to generate the income of the country initiated through
development administration.
During the pre-colonial for instance, our country provided or sold raw materials to other
countries because there was no expertise in producing our own manufacturing products.
Later, after development administration, our country had tried to introduce or had produced
our own manufacturing local products using our own materials such as rubber to produce
shoes, palm oil to produce cooking oil etc. Initiatives to produce the best product and
maximum profit for developing country, makes developing country able to maximize the
peoples’ per capita income and the state’s gross domestic product.
2. POLITICS
Before development administration, the local people depended to British in their
administration, but later after development administration, the local people had tremendous
participation in politics precisely the administration of the state and the policy making as well.
Thus, development administration had generated more participation of new generation to

involve in politics. It is important because this new generation is the citizen creates new
ideas and new policies to develop the people and the country. This is the most important
element as it creates or shapes the administrator of the country by choosing their own
representatives that will create policies for them.
New Economic Policy by Tun Razak our ex-Prime Minister for instance, had successfully
changed the life of the local people, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad and his Look East Policy
that had generated our country to be developing by benchmarking Korea and Japan.
3. SOCIAL
In terms of social, we can divide the term social in the three main division such as education,
health and facilities.
In terms of education, the development administration is very important because it increases

the facilities, opportunities and education level among the citizen. Due to the efforts made
under the development administration, the government had able to create a positive mindset
to the citizen with the existence of more universities and private colleges. Government also
provide scholarships and loans to students to continue their study in our country or
overseas. This benefit will increase the motivation of the student and it is important because
students are the new generation of administrator.
After development, all races had equal chances to get education. The government built more
schools and higher learning education institutions in order to help citizens to get comfortable
and best learning education. Since 2008, about 14 private universities, 16 university colleges
and 20 public universities in Malaysia were established (www.mohe.gov.my).
Aftermath the 1969 racial crisis, drastic action by the government was to help the Bumiputra
in education. In order to provide greater education opportunity to inculcate the Malaysian
national identity and foster loyalty to the country, the national language Bahasa Malaysia
used as a medium of learning and teaching in education institutions. The English primary
and secondary schools gradually converted to Malay Language National School, beginning
with the primary schools in 1970. Later, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) established
drastically to resolve the problem entrance opportunity for Bumiputra due to their lack of
English proficiency that was required as entrance requirement in Universiti Malaya (Syed
Arabi Idid, 2008).
In terms of health, development administration in developing country had increased the level
of health among citizen. Recently after independence (within ten years), Malaysia did not
have hospitals or clinics in the rural areas. Some of these facilities just existed in the urban
areas. As a result, it increased the rates of death because of small diseases such as
dengue, malaria, and mother giving birth to babies and babies whom did not get enough
immunization. In the first decade after independent, the government relies that the doctor
and nurses really needed to manage many cases in the hospital. For example, Perlis as the
smallest state of the Federation with a population about 150,000, at that time then had only 3
doctors in the state general hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid, 2008).
After development administration, the government managed to increase the element of

health because the government knows the importance of health that generate the best
generation to come or in the future. Thus, citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health
as it creates stabilization in our country. In present day, rural areas provided with abundance
of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors and nurses. It will help the people
in that area to get the early treatment before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if
cannot be treated by rural doctors and nurses. These clinics also have a responsibility to
give enough immunization to the children especially babies.
Moreover, the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen by giving benefit to
certain people because as we know, the cost of the health treatment is expensive. For
example, government servants and student had given discounted low prices for treatment
and medicines. This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough treatment if
they are sick. The establishment of 1Malaysia clinics by the present Prime Minister (Datuk
Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people.
In the matter of facilities, there also have significance of the developing administration in our
developing country such as to and had increased the number of facilities in our country. For
example, before the development administration, there were not enough public transport
services. This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel. Public transports at that time
were only trishaw, bicycles and there were less of car usage.
After the development administration, the government provides more facilities in terms of
transportation. A convenient and conducive public transportation provided in urban areas
and in rural areas as well. Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic, it also
helps the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient way. Thus,
government had increased the level of transportation through the Light Railway Transit
(LRT).
4. CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect, we also can look at the significance of development
administration in developing our country through the cultural aspect. In terms of culture,
development administration gives people or organizational new culture. When new
development were brought to organization, majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in new technologies and
factors of resistance towards change. However, some workers were willing to accept
development as they think every development have their own benefits and will reduce
burden and expenses. Actually, it is a challenge to them towards new changes due to less
understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced.
An organizational culture, precisely the government organizations, efforts to improve and

develop the civil service initiated since independence. All these efforts directed at increasing
output as well as providing more efficient, speedy and effective delivery of service, providing
also to reduce the work burden of the public servants and reduced government’s expenses
as well. Due to this, various policies, programs and activities introduced in the public
administration of Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981.
Amongst were the introduction of policies, program and strategies such as the Civil Service
Core Principles introduced in 1979. Civil Service Codes of Ethics in 1980; Enforcement of
nametags in 1981; The Look East Policy in 1982; Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in
1982; The Punch Clock System in 1982; and Leadership by Example and Enculturation of
Islamic Values in 1983.
1.1.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION AND

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
According to Dwight Waldo, public administration described as a management of people and

material to achieve government objective. According him also, public administration acts as
an art and science of management that related to state matters. Besides that, Public
Administration is all about the management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of
public policy (Williams, 1980).
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the legislative, executive
and the judiciary as well. It the use of managerial, political and legal theories, which involves
processes to fulfill legislative, executive and judicial government, mandates. Public
administration covers a wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state. These
two areas are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management, organization,
political, economy, environment and development.
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial methodological techniques

that lead to the most efficient result. It is a management of men and materials in the
accomplishment of the purpose of the state (Rosenbloom, 1993).
• It is the science of how a country to be ruled.

• It is a government’s central instrument for dealing with general social problems.
• It is the management of resources to achieve government’s goals and objectives.
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies. A policy typically

described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. Policies
normally guide every action. It provides a framework for every aim to achieve certain
objectives. There are three branches of government that are responsible to generate and
implement policies, which is executive, legislative and judiciary. Nevertheless, major parts of
administration carried out by the executive branch. The duty of executive branch is to design
and implement the policies, rule and regulation. While the power of legislative branch is to
debate and enact rules of the society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in
safeguard the fundamental rights and liberties of societies. These three branches play an
important role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly to give benefit
to state and people itself. For the example, before make a policy, government have to make
an investigation and analysis of the advantage and disadvantages of the policy making, in
order to ensure the effectiveness when the policy are implemented.
Public Administration:
i. Management of people and material in executing government policies and act as an

art and science of management, which related to state matters.
ii. It covers wide area of providing services to citizens and the state, which also
covers providing services to minor areas such as management, organization,
political, economy, environment and development.
iii. It concerned with the use of managerial methodological techniques that includes
the management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of the
state.
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing countries however,
are still unprepared for changes, not to mention about quality, productivity, effectiveness and
efficiency (Bryant and White, 1992). It is more appropriate to use the term development
administration and not mere public administration in the developing countries because the
underpinning issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world.
Therefore, a special kind of administrative institution needed, and he called it as
development administration.
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with a special
purpose inclusive of political, economic and social development that becomes as a sub-field
of public administration. This is because it will guide a developing nation towards the
achievement of its development goals. As a sub-field of public administration, it is action
oriented and places administration at the hub of nation building.
Edward Weidner therefore, stated that development administration, as a sub-field of public

administration is to form administrative machinery to the objective of government. It divides
into two, which is process and area of study. By process, development administration means
the process through which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political, economic and social progress or country development as a whole.
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area under public

administration (Nicholson and Connerly, 1989). Development administration emerged as a
field of study result of research, observations and implementation carried out by scholars of
public administration who are interested in the progress that took place in the developing
nations. It is partial of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development. As the outcome of emphasis, it expected to be efficient in running
development programs and projects. Accordingly, administrative machinery must be adapted
to the existing and new task. The essential ideas of development lie in the increased ability
of human societies to shape their physical, human and cultural environments. It is also
similar to a process of improving the capably of a nations institution and value system to
meet increasing and different demands.
Development Administration:
ii. Administration of development programs using prescribed governmental methods to
implement policies to achieve development objectives that also include elevating
administrative capabilities.
iii. A sub-field of public administration that is to form administrative machinery to

achieving development objectives of government.
iv. It is development oriented. Its central concern is with social economic change.
Malaysian Administrative Modernization and Management Planning Unit (MAMPU) is one of

the few central agencies in Malaysia, responsible for ‘modernizing and reformation’ the public
sector in the areas of administrative reforms. MAMPU placed under the Prime Minister
Department. Essentially, MAMPU established in 1977 as an agency that is given the tasks to
reform and modernize public administration in the public sector.
MAMPU in general is to assist the various governmental organizations at the Federal, State,
and Local government levels, on matters pertaining to modernization and reformation of the
public sector and public administration,Profil MAMPU
especially that of administrative reforms.
Menyingkap tabir sejarah, MAMPU ditubuhkan hasil daripada Laporan 'Development

Administrative in Malaysia' oleh Prof. John D. Montgomery dan Milton J. Esman yang
memperakukan peningkatan profesionalisme melalui program-program pendidikan dan
latihan bagi semua lapisan kakitangan dalam Perkhidmatan Awam. Atas cadangan laporan
yang sama, maka pada tahun 1966, Unit Pentadbiran Pembangunan (DAU) ditubuhkan
yang bertanggungjawab dalam pengembangan usaha-usaha pembaikan pembaharuan
pentadbiran Kerajaan.
Thus, MAMPU can be regarded as the highest authority in setting the standard and policy for
DAU kemudiannya
developing, dikembangkan
modernizing menjadi
and reforming ICDAU
public yang berfungsi untuk menyelaras projek-
administration.
projek pembangunan serta perancangan tenaga manusia.Selaras dengan perkembangan
pentadbiran awam yang pesat lagi dinamik, ICDAU kemudiannya telah disusun semula pada
tahun 1977.
Pada tahun 1986, fungsi perancangan tenaga manusia telah dipindahkan kepada beberapa
agensi lain bagi membolehkan MAMPU memberi tumpuan kepada pemodenan tadbiran dan
perundingan pengurusan Sektor Awam. Sejak itu, MAMPU dikenali sebagai Unit
Pemodenan Tadbiran dan Perancangan Pengurusan Malaysia.
1.1.3 CLASSICAL AND CONTEMPORARY DEFINITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION
According to Fred Riggs (1970), definition of development administration is about the

administration of development programs using prescribed governmental methods to
implement policies which due for development objectives and to elevate administrative
capabilities. As we all know in all developing countries, government had plan and provide a
lot of development program to lessen poverty of the country, upgrade or enhance output and
productivity, help to improve and develop the way of living of the people especially in
education and economic sector.
Besides that, according to Fred Riggs also, development administration as the

administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies chosen by the
government to fulfill or achieve its development objectives and to upgrade the capacity of
administration. Government also must ensure that all the mission and program will give
benefit to all level of society and not only to the country itself.
Furthermore, in the developing nations, it is essential or necessary for the government to

create policies and implement them by desirable quality and good value of projects and
programs complete with specific objectives and goals. All the programs and plans arranged
or structured by the government must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the
entire program is not useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the
people). More than that, the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people.
However, the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot give profit and
benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to administer it in a proper,
efficient and cost effective way. This is because, government need to arrange it properly so
that all the programs must be restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the
people can follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives.
Furthermore, as we all know all government programs have used a lot of allotment of
country’s wealth. Especially in the developing nation, government must provide a big amount
of money in operating expenses for the high cost project. It is more burdening and acquires
high-risk compare to developed country. A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct
or provide road services for instance. The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have houses, money, and
opportunity to go to school or to get education, and also an opportunity to get nutrient food to
continue their live every day.
However, road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to enhance
economic opportunities. Activities of the country and directly will provide more job
opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also for the graduate, enhance and
improve in income of the people, and also not to forget it can help to distribute back profits of
the country equally to all citizen.
In other word, we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or incentive in a
variety way and method. However, all this only can happen if the 300 million projects
properly planned and run in an effective way. All the plan and project also must be well
understood and implemented by the instituted of bureaucracy. Besides that, what is more
important is that we need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and
play their role effectively.
Other than that, government plays an important role to provide facilities or services to make
the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in implementing their responsibility.
According to Riggs, in developing nation, development administration can only be fair and
good if it gives full attention to the human resource in their organization aspect. For public
services servant, government need to upgrade their skills, give them a lot of experience and
provide incentives as much as they needed.
In organization system, it improved by using modern administration and new technology to

facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality. For countries that have been developed,
what is more important is to maintain and give services that are full of quality and
productivity and must response and responsive to the public’s need and voice of the people.
Development administration furthermore, is development orientation. Its central concern is

with social economic change. It is committed to people’s welfare (Hazary, 2006). It is
positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of the people. It is client oriented.
Bureaucracy expected to be involved and committed. It expected to be result oriented and
time oriented. Development programmed is to achieve within a period. It is this special
orientation, which concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations.
However, in any large scale of administration arrangement, bureaucracy can never be threw
overboard. Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected. There should redesign to
enable cooperative decision-making. Secondly, authority should be decentralized to enable
filed unit to take decisions on the spot as far as possible. Thirdly, supremacy of the politician
must be accepted and bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise, fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people in development
work. Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it may be, it cannot take the
entire responsibility and load of development. The people must understand that they have to
look after themselves. They have to be the primary factors in the development. It is in their
interest not to be dependent on the government administration. Self-help is the best help.
1.4 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN MALAYSIA
The Colonial Period (Before Independence) Administration:
In 1950s, the government of Malaysia focuses were on agriculture. During this period, the
agricultural policy designed to serve primarily the needs of British colonial rule with a
purposive neglect of the rural sector. While the British companies projected into plantation
agriculture, largely rubber and other commercial produce agriculture, the local people, which
is Malays, remained largely in subsistence and smallholder agriculture
(http://econ.upm.edu.my).
Most of the time, development that occurred during that time was merely for the benefits of
the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period. They only want to develop
their own people and give education to their own new generations. The local people only
become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the administration that only
provided benefits to their own people without considering the local people. All the
administration system and the policies created by them were one of the ways to make their
social and economy activities easier.
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue. It was not strong enough to
implement the newly independent Malaya government's plans (after 1957) for a rapid social
economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by the domestic and global
economic and political changes. Administration is the administration in the colonial period
that was before our country gained independence from British. It was merely maintaining the
welfare, interest, security or safety and peaceful life of the people.
The neglected rural economy in general became involutes: incomes were very low because
output and prices were low; output was low because of poor traditional production
techniques; and low income led to a lower standard of welfare. This scenario, considered as
the legacy of the British colonial agricultural policy, became the basis that shaped Malaysia
rural development policy after independence. In addition, development of agriculture also
helps the government to improve and implement the objectives and goals of the Malaysian
government later on.
The Post Colonial Period (After Independence) Development Administration – A reform

made in the administration. Therefore, the administrative reform was planned by the
government to respond to these changes in the national status from that of a colony to self-
government. There were serious and rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation
precisely the development of Malaysia in economy, social, culture, politics and environment.
Policies made to achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to
administer the programs and projects to achieve the development goals.
Development administration however, is the administration in the postcolonial period, which

is after our country gained its independence from the British. It is generally about the
reformation of the administrative system. It means that the postcolonial government had
restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British before.
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its scope
had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson & Connerly, 1989).
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in the
1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed almost the
entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared towards efforts in
socio economic development based on the objectives and strategies of the New Economic
Policy and now the National Development Policy. The role of the public service was
essentially that of facilitator, supporter, adviser, regulator and evaluator. Certainly, these new
tasks require adjustment in human capacity, organizational structure, work process and
procedures and in some cases even reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public
service employees.
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
Question 1
a) Define briefly the meaning of development administration.
(5 marks)
b) Discuss FOUR (4) common problems in the efforts of developing a country.
(20 marks)
Question 2
Discuss FOUR (4) important contributions of development administration in Malaysia.
(25 marks)
Question 3
Differentiate between public administration and development administration.
(25 marks)
Question 4
Explain outstanding characteristics of poor, developing and developed countries.
(25 marks)
Question 5
Describe the indications of successful development efforts in the development administration

of Malaysia.
(25 marks)
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION
3
TITLE
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION -
MALAYSIAN EXPERIENCE
Chapter Overview
Development Administration – Malaysian Experience
1 Phase I – Instillation of Western

administrative and management
techniques into developing
countries
Phase II – Political
modernization, institution
building and administrative
reform (including reorganization,
reinventing the government,
debureaucracy)
Phase III – Projects planning,
privatization & public enterprise
Phase IV – Development
Management – quality
management, Civil Society
(Responsible individuals and
NGOs), deregulation,
administrative achievements in
developing countries
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Explain the history of Development Administration.

2. Elaborate on the instillation of western administrative and
management techniques into developing countries.
3. Discuss the political modernization, institution building and
administrative reform (including reorganization, reinventing the
government, de-bureaucracy
4. Identify projects planning, privatization and public enterprise.
5. Elaborate on development management, precisely regarding to
quality management, civil society, deregulation and administrative
achievements.
3.0 History of Development Administration
The period from 1957 through 1980 in the development of Malaysia characterized by
institution building, proliferation of public enterprises and dominant role of government
agencies. Policies related to programs for better accessibility to education, better social
welfare benefits, equitable distribution of economic cake and social services, improved
contribution of agricultural sector to the economy and planned diversification of the nation's
industrial base remained important features of the government's long-term plan.
Development in 1950s, the government focused was on agriculture. Agriculture was one of
the important economic sources for the country then. Most of the Malays in 1950 lived in
rural areas and their income depended on agriculture. During this period, the agricultural
policy designed to serve primarily the needs of British colonial rule with a purposive neglect
of the rural sector. While the British companies projected into plantation agriculture, largely
rubber and other commercial produce agriculture, the local person, which is Malays,
remained largely in subsistence and smallholder agriculture (http://econ.upm.edu.my).
The neglected rural economy in general became involutes: incomes were very low because
output and prices were low; output was low because of poor traditional production
techniques; and low income led to a lower standard of welfare. This scenario, considered as
the legacy of the British colonial agricultural policy, became the basis that shaped Malaysia
rural development policy after independence. In addition, development of agriculture also
later helps the government to improve and implement the objectives and goals of the
government.
In Malaysia, rigorous reform made in 1967 the first time under the efforts of the late Tun
Abdul Razak. The reform made with a purpose to solve numerous problems within the
nation’s public administration specially to expedite the implementation of development
programs.
In the 1970s, Malaysia began to imitate the four Asian Tiger economies (Republic of Korea
(South Korea), Republic of China (Taiwan), then British Crown Colony of Hong Kong and the
Republic of Singapore) and committed itself to a transition from being reliant on mining and
agriculture to an economy that depends more on manufacturing. With Japanese investment,
heavy industries flourished and in a matter of years, Malaysian exports became the country's
primary growth engine.
Development administration effort in 1980’s is the most important and crucial effort made by
the government because it is the beginning to develop a modern country. During this era
there are many changes made by the government to develop this country effectively. Efforts
in 1980’s also considered as the most important step in the development of the country as in
these years we see that the private sector is being encouraged by the government to be
involve in the development administration through privatization and corporation policy.
Besides that, the government also try to improve the public sector although it did not been
clearly seen in these years. There are several efforts made by the government to improve
development administration in the country. Among the efforts are improving the capacity of
public and private institutions, privatization policy, distribution policies, the values of
responsiveness and accountability and decentralization of developments projects (Rozalli
Hashim, 2005).
3.1 Phase I – Instillation of Western administrative and management

techniques into developing countries
Development Administration proponents focused on importing western public management

techniques into the developing nations. Most scholars reviewed back the indoctrination of
public administration following the Weberian tradition.
The goal of this instillation was to establish a bureaucracy that is rational, free from political
interference, efficient and following the ideal-type Weberian tradition (Rondinelli, 1993).
However, what goes well in the western do not necessarily goes well in the east. Upon
realizing the incompatibility problems, development administration scholars responsively
modified their agenda. Strong pressure exerted upon the civil service to increase its
performance and play a developmental role.
There are some problems of incompatibility in most poor countries at the earlier stage
of development. Problems occurred due to differences in culture, values, financial
strength that hinder the successful instillation of western management techniques
such as:
1. Positions determined by hierarchy.
2. Positions filled in based on merit, candidates appointed.
3. Staff paid with substantial wages and with provision of pension.
4. Staff subjected to control and set up systematic discipline.
The successful general election of 1964 in Malaysia, the Alliance Government sought to
fulfill its promises of increasing the welfare of the citizens and raising the standard of living of
the masses. It showed, however, that the burdens the first time in the bureaucracy asked to
shoulder since history of independence had increased more rapidly than public service their
capabilities.
Government of Malaysia obtained the services of a team of consultants to undertake a

review of the public made to study administration (Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad, 1994). This was
the first time in the administrative history of the public service that a deliberate system of the
attempt made to study the administrative country with systems of the country with a view to
suggesting a view to reforms and innovations.
The main objective of suggesting the study was to achieve efficiency and administrative
reforms and leadership in the public service to meet the needs of innovations. The Report
recommended improving administrative systems by speeding government action, reducing
costs, and improving the quality of service (Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad, 1994).
3.2 Phase II – Political modernization, institution building and administrative
reform (including reorganization, reinventing the government, and de-
bureaucracy)
3.2.1 Political modernization
Political developments in the 1950s forced the British to take steps to overcome the
Emergency and prepare the Malays for self-government. Municipal elections held in Kuala
Lumpur and Penang. The first Federal election held in 1955. The Malayan Indian Congress
(MIC), formed as a communal political party concerned mainly with the interests of the Indian
community in Malaya, had decided to join the Alliance Party in December 1954 (Shakila
Yakob, 2006). As a coalition of three communal parties, the Alliance generally avoided
discussions of communal issues. The coalition gained considerable support by promising
Independence and offering amnesty for communist guerrillas and which secured them a
landslide win of 51 out of 52 seats. Tunku Abdul Rahman, as the President of UMNO and
the leader of the Alliance, elected as, Chief Minister. After the electoral win, the Alliance
announced that it would press to the three important Issues mandated by the are
independence, official pardon for communist guerrillas and internal self-government (Shakila
Yakob, 2006).
The ability of a political system to produce new behaviours and organizations that changes
in demands over time. Political stability was a pre-requisite for the successful implementation
of development programs. Efforts to establish political culture emphasized on people’s
participation. Also to a government’s efforts to carry out programs designed to reshape its
physical, human, and cultural environment and to also enlarge government’s capacity to
engage in such programs. In virtually all governments, the action arm, the main instrument
for program implementation, is the public bureaucracy. Not only that bureaucrats do
exercise political functions, but that they, and that a significant degree of bureaucratic power
is functionally requisite for the organization of a developed system of government.
However, in Malaysia at that time in the 1960s, countries vastly ruled and administered by
political elite. Polarization of society based on status and race was apparent (elite v. the
mass). Political democracy is available but controlled by the ruling elite this is due to lack of
education and opportunity for political participation / involvement of the public. There was no
distinction between policy formulation and implementation, which is against the dichotomy of
policy and administration.
Therefore, it is important to break the monopoly of power in the society, and redistribute it
among the new contenders, to ensure peace and prosperity, in the society as a whole
(Shaukat Ali, 1982).
The civil service entrusted with the mammoth task of implementing the five-year economic
plans. The government effort contributed to the remarkable performance of the economy.
However, the inequitable distribution of the wealth among the major ethnic groups resulted in
a racial turmoil in 1969 that almost became catastrophic. Consequently, the New Economic
Policy (NEP) formulated and implemented in 1970, which necessitated an even bigger role
for the government in terms of its size, involvement and expenditure. This was done to
ensure the successful implementation of programs for poverty eradication and restructuring
of society; the two primary objectives of the policy. Measures taken to upgrade the planning
and implementation capabilities of the government so that the plans executed without any
serious shortfall. Administrative reform was on the agenda of among leaders in the
developing nations for at least four decades since 1960s.
Malaysia’s New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1970 as the principal policy response to the post-
election race riots of May 1969, which also resulted in a significant regime change. The
events of May 1969 involved a widespread popular rejection of the ruling Alliance coalition
as well as a ruling United Malays National Organization (UMNO) as the assistance in
supporting then-Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak sidelined Prime Minister Tunku
Abdul Rahman, who had led the UMNO from 1951 and the country to independence in
August 1957 (Jomo, K.S, 2004).
The Introducing NEP had two aims, which are namely “poverty eradication regardless of
race” and “restructuring society to eliminate the identification of race with economic function”.
The NEP was supposed to create the conditions for national unity by reducing interethnic
resentment due to socioeconomic disparities. Although the NEP policies were seen as pro-
bumiputera, or more specifically, pro-Malay, the largest ethnic community, this is due to
poverty reduction efforts have been seen as primarily rural and Malay, with policies
principally oriented to rural Malay peasants. As poverty reduction efforts had been
uncontroversial and had declined in significance over time, the NEP came to increasingly
identified with efforts at “restructuring society” efforts to reduce interethnic disparities,
especially between ethnic Malay and ethnic Chinese Malaysians (Jomo, K.S, 2004).
These policies are believed to be especially important in terms of influencing public policies
affecting corporate wealth ownership as well as other areas, especially education and
employment opportunities with an intention and effort to modernize the society especially the
rural and malay people at that time.
3.2.2 Institution Building
Institution Building & Project Planning were picked as strategies to further guide the
government of developing countries during the first part of the 1970s (Rondinelli, 1993).
Institution defined as procedures, morale, norms and values that are supposed to control
one’s behavior (Van Arkardie, 1990).
In the context of development administration, institution defined as organizations such as

government agencies, public enterprises, banks, the arm forces and hospitals (Van Arkardie,
1990; Van Rennin and Waisfisz, 1988).
Milton Esman (1972) defines institution building as the process of planning, structuring, and
guiding, new and restructured organizations. As a result, three initiatives introduced that is
closure of unnecessary organizations, creation of new organizations, restructured existing
organizations with new goals and objectives.
Government organizations underwent strenuous re-definition exercises.
According to economists (especially development economists), institution can be defined as

procedures, morale, norms and values that are supposed to control one’s behaviour (Van
Akadie, 1990 : Feeny, 1988 : North, 1981). Ruttan and Hayami (1984) define institution from
this perspective as procedures that are applicable to a given society or to a group of people
that constituted into perception, which is shared among members of that particular group or
society (Van Arkdie, 1990).
In other words, institution refers to “instruments” that are available within society or a nation
that actually control the behaviour of the people in terms of norms and values. Society in
this context does not only refer to individuals in their groups, but it also comprises of other
economic elements such as the government, private sector, consumer and all the
transactions carried out between them (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
In this context of development administration, institution can be defined as organization such

as government agencies, public enterprises, banks, the arm forces, and hospitals (Van
Arkdie, 1990 : Van Rennin and Waisfisz, 1988).
Thus, in terms of institution building, institution seeing from a micro and macro perspectives.
Government institutions referred as the macro level because it includes the whole
government machinery especially those that are functional in formulating policies. At the
micro level, institutions referred to as departments, agencies and other governmental bodies
that are involved in the implementation policies (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
Second Malaysia Plan incorporated a National Rural Development Plan aimed at

reorganizing and mobilizing institutions and efforts toward modernizing and
developing the rural sector. At the district or local level, the District Rural
Development Committee implemented, monitored and reviewed as the rural
development projects in what known as the Rural Economic Development (RED Book)
Plan (Fatimah Mohd. Arshad, 1997). The projects focused on building basic
infrastructures and institutions such as RISDA, MARA, Koperasi, Bank Pertanian, Bank
Pembangunan and so on. The infrastructural approach intended to provide linkages to the
rural economy provide rural employment and raise productivity and incomes of rural
peasant. The social and economic infrastructures provided were rural roads, drainage and
irrigation facilities, basic amenities like rural electricity, water, school, health, community and
religious centres and others. The rural institution such as MARDI established to facilitate
production and marketing functions; and Koperasi Desa also to provide the credit need of
the rural peasants. These infrastructures and institutions expected to generate rural
employment besides raising productivity, incomes socio-economic status of the rural
population (Fatimah Mohd. Arshad, 1997).
3.2.3 Administrative Reform
Administrative reform simply means a transformation of administrative machinery,

taking up a new form, new goals and objectives (Rondinelli, 1993).
The term administrative reform has acquired multiple views but no doubt, there is consensus
that the outcome of administrative reforms should result in efficient and effective public
sector service structures, improvement of public sector operational performance and
economic development (Caiden, 1991).
Difficulty in administering reform is that policies that threatened the livelihood of political
actors, including bureaucrats with stakes, avoided. See evidence of this in the policies of
deregulation, financial reform, and privatization due to the political and economic influence.
In other words, successful implementation required the cooperation of the very political
actors who were the targets of reform. In developing countries, the distinction between
politicians and bureaucrats tends to be blurred and an alliance between the ruling elite and
high-ranking officials has often led to an oligarchy of power and privilege (Seidman and
Seidman, 1994).
In the case of Malaysia, the post-independence period involved the extensive expansion of
state functions. For instance, economic management programs and projects launched, and
new public organizations created. Mobilization programs were also established and variously
labelled nation-building programs. The main goal, of course is to involve the citizens into the
mainstream of economic and social development. Public institutions and bureaucracy were
the centrepiece of these new endeavours. Doctrines of guardianship via political parties and
the executive dominated the management of public affairs largely to the exclusion of public
participation.
First step taken by Tun Abdul Razak was to transform completely the colonial-based
bureaucracy that filled with weaknesses such as corruption and red tapes. Moreover, the
problems of the attitudes of the public servants at that time which he quoted as the “Seven
Deadly Sins”.
THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS
Interdepartmental jealousy in the course of day- to-day execution of
governmental functions and conflicting departmental policies
A lack of coordination between departments in what they were trying to do
in the rural areas
A complete lack of cooperation between officers on the ground, mostly
due to a lack of understanding of each other.
Every department thinking its actions were the most important.
A lack of proper planning in various departments resulting in an unfit
master plan for the rural areas.
A lack of sufficient directive control at the top to ensure that Government
in the rural areas.
A lack of a master plan at all levels for the purpose of achieving the
maximum development of rural areas.
The 1967 reformation adopted institution-building approach to elevate bureaucratic

effectiveness (Esman, 1972). The role of public service and administration has significantly
changed over the years, in line with the country's economic growth and development. Its
mission, objectives and functions had undergone various degrees of reform, especially
under the explicit and implicit influences of changes in public policies, development
strategies and initiatives. These reforms took place in two distinctive phases, namely the
period of rapid economic growth in 1960s and 1970s, which required development
administration and institution building, and the period from 1980 to the present that
necessitated the consolidation and qualitative upgrading of the government machinery. The
success of Malaysia's development programs to a significant extent can be attributed as not
only to the efficient and effective functioning of the economic system, but also to the
stabilizing and integrative functioning of the country's public administration system.
MALAYSIAN EXPERIENCE: 1948 – POST 2000
Administrative system in 1948
-The first phase was during the Colonial period when British replaced the traditional-
feudal administrative system with a more modern, organized and systematic
administrative structure. For the first time, aspects of public administration introduced in
the public service.
-The British model of financial accounting and judicial system more structured and
advanced introduced in Malaysia (then Malaya). Although the British had their own
interests, in terms of introducing and developing a more sophisticated and advanced
government machinery that replaced the old structure controlled by the rulers, chieftains
and headmen, this was significant in the history of Malaysian public service.
-The British laid down the basic principles of the modern public administration system in
the country and based on this background, the Malaysian public service had developed
and progressed.
Administrative Reform 1966 in Malaysia;
 Headed by Allahyarham Tun Abdul Razak in 1965 as he noticed that there were so many
problems in the administration which he called “The Seven Deadly Sins of Bureaucracy”
 Aided by the Ford Foundation and Harvard University, John Montgomery and Milton J.
Esman
 The government focused on socio-economic development programmes to upgrade the
peoples’ living standards and infrastructure
 The Red Book System introduced for systematic monitoring of the development
programmes to ensure its progresses.
Esman Montgomery Report - Proposals
3 The creation of Development Administrative Unit in the PM’s Department (MAMPU)

4 Staffed by professional management analysts
5 Plan and guide the major programs of administrative improvement
6 Focus on government wide systems
7 Improvement of the government’s education and training programs for all levels of the
civil servant (INTAN)
8 Strengthening the professional competence of the MCS so that it can provide the
necessary administrative leadership
Esman Montgomery Report – Four Strategies of Action
1. To work within the existing structure
2. To give priority to central government-wide processes rather than to specific
operating programs
3. To induce social change which has been identified as institutional building
4. To emphasize technological instruments for inducing organizational and behavioral
changes
The Seventies
 The occurrence of May 13 that was caused by economic disparity between Malays and
non-Malays had led to the initiation of the New Economic Policy (NEP)
 Besides economic restructuring, the government also looked into intensive reforms in
education and training to enhance the civil service skills.
 Tun Dr. Mahathir introduced Malaysian Administrative Modernization and Manpower
Planning Unit (MAMPU) to accelerate the modernization of Malaysia and increase the
civil service productivity.
The Eighties
 The government was highly mobilized towards industrialization.

 As the economy was more public-driven, the initiation of privatization has helped to
relieve the government’s financial and administrative burdens thus catalysing the
country’s further growth.
 Policies such as ‘Look East’ policy encouraged Malaysians to emulate the diligent
Japanese and South Koreans working ethics in achieving socio-economic success.
The Nineties
 The commencement of the National Development policy (NDP) retained some of NEP’s
elements to continue its objective of economic real location and eradicating poverty.
 Tun Dr. Mahathir established the objective of Vision 2020 that is to turn Malaysia into a
developed country in its own mold by year 2020. That objective remains the core of the
government’s economic policy until today.
Administrative reform can be defined as….”the artificial inducement of administrative
transformation against resistance and administrative reform refers to change in the
overall public administrative system. According to Dror (1976), administrative reform is an
effort to introduce a purposeful change upon the administrative system at all level of
government (Dror, 1976; Leemans,1976).
 These efforts of reform comprises of department reorganization, mission and function
definition of administrative units, procedures and methods improvement, staff training
etc.
 The objective of administrative reform is not temporary success but a permanent
improvement in administrative performance.
Administrative Reform
Attempts made by scholars over the years to define administrative reform, but none has
been accepted as the official definition.
Montgomery (1967) defined administrative reform as: “A political process designed to adjust
the relationships between a bureaucracy and other elements in a society, or within the
bureaucracy itself…both the purposes of reforms and the evils addresses vary with their
political circumstances” (Montgomery, 1967).
G.E.Caiden (1990), in his pioneering book on the subject has described the work in
administrative reform as being patchy in appearance and variable in quality. He further
explained that conceptually it is not something new, it is as old as administration itself and
the subject has only been seriously discussed as a field in the discipline of administration in
the last two decades. Therefore, in many aspects it lacks systematic and detailed treatment.
He finally defined the term as:
“An artificially inducement of administrative transformation against resistance.”
He considers the administrative reform as an effort made to encourage a change opposed.
Scholars like W.F.Finan, R.A.Chapman, Hanh-Been Lee, Leemans and many others
(including United Nations) have since then argued and analysed the subject matter in one
way or another. Although there is no universally accepted definition, there is fundamental
agreement among research/scholars of public administration that it meant to improve
administrative capability and capacity, particularly in the developing countries, for achieving
national goals effectively.
In other words it is meant to encourage an effective administration capable of bringing about
economic, political and social development, or, as explained by Caiden, to enhance and
increase the quality of public services and deliver such goals and services to citizens more
economically, efficiently and effectively (Caiden, 1969). Therefore, efforts to evaluate the
administrative reform programmes in most of the developing countries will be in the context
of national development, that is, when administrative reform is regarded as “a conscious and
deliberate attempt to improve bureaucracy in order to attain national development goals.”
Hahn (1970) stressed about innovation in the definition of administrative reform. He defined
administrative reform as:
“…an effort to apply new ideas and combinations of ideas to an administrative

system with a conscious view to improving the system for positive goals of
national development.”
(Hahn, 1970)
Even though there is difference between the terms innovation and reform, but the term
reform translated as an effort to applied new ideas and the combinations of ideas can be
directed to improve and to give positive impact in order to achieve national development
goals.
According to Hahn (1970), the changes involve new value and new attitude. new value and
new attitude when introduced in an organization, it must be protected and should be put into
practice until it is accepted by those involved in administrative reform. Administrative reform
is a complex process in which the effect arises at a certain time. Three categories effect the
reform, namely:
i. The nature of reform;
ii. Change agent; and
iii. Elements of environment.
Based on the definitions set forth above, the administrative reform in general is an intentional
effort made planned by the government to improve the system of government administration
and public services. Administrative reform involves changes in structure, procedures and
behavior the civil servants. Administrative changes seen as a form of innovation that
involved use of new ideas to improve the system of the current administration. Since to
administrative reform is the introduction of new processes, it should be encouraged and
used in the organization. There are three factors that influence administrative reform, which
were the nature of reform, change agents and the element of environment.
Leemans (1976) defined administrative reform as the reform of the administrative machinery
at any level of gove rnment because it considers as a directed act. Leemans (1976), opinion
is consistent with Dror (1970), which defines the administrative reform as directed changes
of the main elements in administrative system. In addition, Dror (1970) stated that there are
two orientations that commonly used in administrative reform, which were: a) goal orientation
that is done consciously and; b) method to assess the scope of the administrative changes.
However Quah (1976), went on further by saying that the changes that are to bring about in
an organization cover both (a) structure and procedures of public bureaucracy (the
institutional aspect); and (b) the attitudes and behavior of the public bureaucrats involved
(the attitudinal aspect) in Malaysia.
Definition of administrative reform has a broad meaning (Abdullah, 1979). In terms of

definition, Abdullah (1979) has been defining administrative reform as a:
“usaha-usaha yang sengaja dilakukan dan yang melibatkan pewujudan nilai-
nilai dan teknologi baru dalam sistem kerajaan yang sedia ada.”
(Abdullah, 1979)
Abdullah define administrative reform as the efforts that intentionally done and involves the
creation of new values and technology in the existing system of government. Therefore,
administrative reform defined as positive efforts to bring about changes to the government
administrative system towards a more efficient and effective public service (Abdullah Sanusi,
1987).
Caiden (1990), pointed out to administrative incapacity as a determinant factor of

administrative development and reform.
Administrative incapacity meant that:
1. Things could not achieved easily or fast or on a grand scale without effort,
persistence and resources.
This administrative incapacity also known as symptoms of administrative incapacity. Bryant
and White (1982) are convinced that: “Administration in most third world nations is more
marked by incapacity than by imaginative, responsive institutions”. They define
“administrative incapacity” as an:
2. It is further characterized by a swollen bureaucracies encumbered with formalistic

procedures that delay rather than expedite service delivery and program implementation.
According to Caiden (1969), the task of administrative reformers is to improve the

performance of the administration for individuals, groups, and institutions and provide input
on ways that taken to achieve goals more effectively, economically and faster. The main
objectives of structural reforms include the reduction of overlapping and duplicating
functions, redefinition of responsibilities, reduction of span of control and redesigning of
organization and institutions. In essence, the administrative reforms implemented in the
country are to bring change so that the public administration is more efficient and
accountable.
According to Abdullah (1979), the purpose of administrative reform in developing countries is

that most of these countries from the colonialism recent. They have inherited the colonial
administrative system of government and that certainly does not fit another followed in an
independent country. These countries have also realized that the only stable sector in
developing countries is the public service. The purpose of administrative reform is to
improve the administrative system and achieve efficiency and administrative leadership in
the public service to meet the needs of a dynamic and rapidly developing country.
Guzman, Pacho and Legada (1985), stated the main purpose of the administrative reform is:
 Create changes in structure, policies and functions of the bureaucracy and the
behavior and attitude of staff to achieve maximum efficiency and responsiveness
while providing a service to the public. This means that administrative reform era
leading to the formation of new structures and influence of the traditional
administration, such as the importance of the status quo.
 To ensure faster implementation of the design development plans to enhance
economic growth and improve better community life
 Reform efforts aimed to improve the administrative system to accelerate the
achievement of development goals.
Leemans (1976) argues that the goal of administrative reform is to change policies and
programs, increase the effectiveness of the administration, improve the quality of human
resources, and to anticipate criticism and threats from outside.
While three other goals related to the public are:
 Adjusting administrative systems to the growing public complaints.
 Changing the division of work between administrative systems and political

systems, such as improving the professional autonomy of the administrative system
and enhance its influence in a policy.
 Changing the relationship between system administration and population,

for example through the relocation of the centres of power.
On the other hand, Hahn Been Lee (1970), argues that there are three purpose of
administration reform, which was:
a) Completion Order (the improved order)
Regularity or order is inherent virtue in government. If you want addressed is the

perfection of order, would not want reforms to be oriented on the arrangement and control
procedures. Which needed by administrators in this new era is blocking agent reformer. As a
logical consequence of the strong and rigid bureaucracy needs to be built soon. Type of
reforms undertaken with completion of the order referred to the reform of procedural
(procedural reform).
2. Completion Method (improved method)
Completion done in the field of technical and working methods. New techniques and
methods that said to be useful if this could achieve the goals more broadly. If the goal of
administrative reform articulated well and effectively translated into concrete programs of
action, improved methods will improve the implementation of the program, which in turn
would enhance the realization of goal achievement. This type of reform undertaken by
perfecting the method called with the reform of technical assistance (technical Reform).
3. Performance Improvements (improved performance)
More performance improvement goals in the substance of its work program on the
improvement of technical methods of improving the regularity and administrative. Its primary
focus is on shifting from form to substance, the shift of economic efficiency and the
effectiveness of the work, the shift from the bureaucratic skills to the public welfare. This type
of reform undertaken by the performance improvement called with the reform program
(programmatic reform).
Muhammad Rais (1999) stated that, in the era of 1980s, reform revolved around the need to
improve the quality of public sector management and to shift the responsibility for economic
development to the private sector. To improve the quality of service offered by public sector
agencies to clients at the "service" counter, the government took several measures to
improve existing procedures and systems, introduced office automation and information
technology to strengthen information and service delivery, and enhanced the capacity of
district. It means that the administrative reform purpose is to improve the quality of service
though the some changes made. The administrative reforms introduced since independence
classified into the following focus areas, namely:
(a) Structural changes;
(b) Improved productivity and delivery of services;
(c) Office automation and information systems technology for the public Sector;
(d) Measuring efficiency and effectiveness;
(e) Improving performance reporting in the public sector;
(f) Total quality management;
(g) Attitude and behavioral changes;
(h) Strengthening statistical capacity;
(i) District administration.
The administrative reform agenda in the Malaysian public sector geared towards change
objectives that broadly categorized into six main are namely:
a) providing customer oriented services

b) improving system and work procedures
c) upgrading the use of information technology (IT)
d) strengthening public-private sector cooperation
e) enhancing accountability and discipline; and
f) Inculcating values of excellence.
In addition, Zauhar (2002) stated that there are six (6) the objectives of reform. The purpose
of administration reform are:
a) Administrative efficiency, in terms of saving money, which achieved through the

simplification of form, changes in procedures, eliminating duplication and
organizational activities of the other methods.
b) Elimination of administrative weaknesses or diseases such as corruption, favouritism
and the system of friends in the political system and others.
c) Introduction and promotion of a merit system, the use of PPBS, the processing of
data through automated information systems, increased use of scientific knowledge
and others.
While three other goals related to the public are:
 Adjusting administrative systems to the growing public complaints.
 Changing the division of work between administrative systems and political

systems, such as improving the professional autonomy of the administrative system
and enhance its influence in a policy.
 Changing the relationship between system administration and population,

for example through the relocation of the centres of power.
Malaysian Administrative Reform Development
Malaysia has gone through three phases of administrative reform efforts.
1. The political development in the late 1960s influenced the formation of the
long-term social economic policies in the early 1970s. Social economic development had
been the main thrust of developing countries development goals. Under the various
international aid programs, the emphasis made on social economic development, planning,
implementation, coordination and monitoring system. Thus, the various technical aspects of
the planning and implementation became important then. Malaysia is of no exception to this
development and entrusted with the technicality of the development aspects introduced by
the western countries. It revealed that the Colonial bureaucratic system and culture was no
longer appropriate to shoulder the added functions given to the local public service in the
1960s and 1970s. “Development Administration” became the catchword of these decades
and regarded as panacea to all administrative malaise. Thus, the Ford Foundation’s study
and recommendations became the second stage of Malaysian Administrative Reform efforts,
which emphasized mainly the structural changes in the government administration.
2. Later, the New Economic Policy (NEP) demanded strong commitment on the
part of the government through various mammoth social economic development projects.
The government’s substantive traditional function national building, which is common among
the newly independent countries, added to with a new role in national development. The
government started encroaching the economic and commercial activities in order to remedy
the economic imbalance among the multi-ethnic groups. Especially at a time when there was
a weak private sector which was not capable of shouldering the national economic
development and social responsibilities and this resulted in the growth of the public sector
that eventually caused not only fiscal crisis for the ruling government but also resulted in the
sluggishness in the public service. The economic situation in the late 1970s and the
recession in the early 1980s, inspired the then government to introduce remedial action to
solve its economic and financial problems. The situation has also impressed on the
government the need to review the effectiveness and efficiency of its public service in line
with its efforts to ease its financial difficulties.
3. Tun Mahathir era is regarded as the third and most important with regard to
managerial reform in the history of the Malaysian Public Service. The local and international
political and economic climate had forced the fourth Malaysian Prime Minister, Tun Dr.
Mahathir Mohamed, to overhaul not only the government’s policies but also the
government’s machinery to create a small but effective, efficient and reliable public service.
The cautious culture of the Colonial administrative system found to be a hindrance to most of
the development efforts in the 1970s. Therefore, it is replaces by a new corporate image and
a culture, which was up to date and dynamic. Although not mentioned specifically, the new
administration in the 1980s is seeking to reinvent a public service that is small but stronger.
Mahathir’s administration upheld the philosophy of public-private sector cooperation in
developing and promoting economic growth. The Japanese experience with its remarkable
economic growth, inspired the Malaysian government to formulate the Malaysia Incorporated
(MI) Policy, and later, strengthened by privatization program, to provide the avenue to the
emergence of an effective and dynamic private sector.
Similarly, there is a need for the establishment of a strong, reliable and effective public
service to serve the private sector efficiently. The service arm prescribed by the MI policy
called for a review in the public service that needed a new direction and image. The Public
Service should play the role of a facilitator, supporter, regulator and adviser. Mahathir’s
administration, later, outlined the nation’s desired path that becomes binding on everyone.
Vision 2020 conceived to provide a focus and direction for the nation during the next 30
years. The attainment of some of the targets in this policy depends very much on the
effective cooperation between the public and private sectors. By 1990 the New Economic
Policy (NEP) was then replaced with the National Development Policy (NDP). The main
objective of NDP is to obtain a balanced development in order to establish a more united
and just society as envisaged in the Vision 2020. The NDP was an advanced stage of social
engineering process to restructure the multi-racial society, which stress not only economic
and social aspects but also moral and ethical values.
The First Malaysia Plan thus, had to address the problem of unemployment, which reared its
head for the first time in the 1960s; despite encouraging growth in the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP), employment rates had not grown at a commensurate pace. In addition, there
was also the problem of ethnic specialization in certain professions, with the Chinese
dominating the marketplace, the Malays dominating the civil service, and the Indians largely
participating in specialist professions such as law. The income disparity between rural and
urban areas that the Second Malayan Five Year Plan had sought to resolve not satisfactorily
eliminated. Therefore, what the government does is to increase the level of employment and
to give chances to the unemployed and make sure that the standard of living becomes well
(http://www.state.gov).
THE PHILOSOPHY OF ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM
Ahmad Sarji (1995) highlights six (6) philosophy of administrative reform, which are:
a) Customer Focus
Customer satisfaction has become the focal point of all Civil Service operations. The Civil
Service provides services that responsive to the needs of its primary customer, the public.
The standards of service stipulated in line with customer expectations of efficient, fast and
friendly service, reliability, credibility, accessibility and timeliness.
b) A Sustainable Framework for Change

Sustainable reforms programmes require as a first prerequisite clear targets and continuous
effort to provide credibility to the change process. Instrumentalism and continuous
improvements, which subscribed by all levels of administration, have been factors
determining the success of the reform challenge. The establishment of the institutional
machinery in the Civil Service, dedicated to the design, implementation and monitoring of
progress in reform efforts has been instrumental in providing for sustainable framework for
change.
c) Creativity and Innovation

Deliberate efforts needed to provide the environment conducive for creative solutions where
employees and organizations vie with enthusiasm to solve problems dictated by
environmental changes and the need to increasingly satisfy the customer. Innovations can
bring improvements such as reduction in operational costs, time savings, increases in output
and greater customer satisfaction are encouraged.
d) Transparency in Decision Making
The ability of Civil Service to be more open and transparent will enhance the credibility of the
Civil Service in the eyes of the public and stakeholder. The need for transparency in
decision-making is of great importance to guard against discretion, which may lead to
abuses of power. Clear requests for relevant information and clearly written criteria will
facilitate both provider of the services and service users.
c) Organisational Restructuring
Changes in the role of the Civil Service have deemed it necessary for administrative reform
to realign the structure of the Civil Service. Structural improvements need to emplace as
national development becomes increasingly dependent upon market forces in line with the
dictates of the environment and national policies. The focus that is able to facilitate the
operations of the private sector that deemed the main engine of growth.
e) Inculcation Of positive Values and Attitudes
A set of shared values subscribed by all public servants provides the foundation towards
maintaining an efficient, effective, clean, trustworthy and disciplined Civil Service. The
inculcation of positive values such as quality, productivity, innovativeness, discipline,
integrity, accountability and professionalism will act as the catalyst towards the shift in
attitudes deemed necessary for the reform effort to take hold.
f) Results Orientation
To achieve higher levels of performance, concern with outcomes and products must be the
mainstay of Civil Service excellence. A shift must occur from the old paradigm of paying too
much attention to inputs to a stronger emphasis on resource utilization to meet
organizational objectives. A result oriented approach requires agencies to be more focused
in terms of the level of efficiency and effectiveness to be achieved by the programmes and
activities implemented.
Administrative
Reform
Reorganization Reinventing De-bureaucracy
3.2.3.1 Reorganization
The worldwide recession of 1980s and its consequent effects on domestic economy left the
Malaysia government reduce the size of its public sector. Privatization and organizational
reorganization were among the variety of measures initiated towards achieving this goal.
The reorganization measures have contributed to reducing the size of public bureaucracy
and the financial burden of the government through savings in huge operating costs and
capital expenditure. The organizational reorganization initiated in 1989 aimed at ensuring
that the size of the public service was consistent with its new roles and functions in the
society. Between 1992 and 1997 a total of 570 agencies have been reviewed and
reorganized with a considerable reduction in the number of posts (Ahmad Sarji, 1996).
Reorganization of the machinery of government used considered the primary need in

administrative reform. Once the focus of reorganization was on consolidation of small units
and the integration of similar activities, it recognized that the consolidation of units created
massive impersonal organizations that lost touch with the publics. They were supposed to
serve and that the integration of similar activities is endless given the multiplicity, diversity,
and complexity of contemporary government activities. Strategies include relocating central
government away from a choked capital city or at least relocating major administrative units
out of the capital city to less crowded town, thereby de-concentration of public employees
a n d g e og r a ph i c a l l y s p r e ad i n g p u b l i c in v e s t m e nt .
3.2.3.2 Reinventing
The advancements in the field of information technology (IT) has offered enormous prospect
for transforming service provision and widened citizens' expectations for more efficient and
responsive delivery of public services. This has also put pressures on the government to
reinvent itself and produce innovations in the service delivery systems. The Malaysian
government appears to be well ahead of many other developing countries in terms of
emphasizing its significance and undertaking programs for IT application in the
administration.
Electronic government is an initiative aimed at reinventing how the government works. It

seeks to improve both how the government operates, as well as how it deliver services to
the people (Ariff & Chuan, 2000).
In fact, a major feature of the current administrative reforms in Malaysia is the stress on IT.
The Multimedia Super Corridor established in 1996 seen as a milestone in the development
of IT application in all areas including the government. Subsequently, the government
initiated an E-Government scheme seeking dramatically enhance the performance and
quality of public services by harnessing IT and multi-media (GOM, 2000; Karim and Khalid,
2003).
3.2.3.3 De-bureaucracy
Redesign of the governmental processes was essential in order to achieve dramatic

improvements in service delivery. Two important studies initiated by the government in the
early 1990s led to the introduction of major revision in procedural matters of the business of
the government. Public agencies in general asked to review the existing ways of doing
things in order to reduce red tape and expedite the delivery of services and to take
appropriate actions to ease regulations and procedures for the benefit of their clients (Sarji,
1996).
The emphasis was on efforts to rid administration of bureaucratic practices and speed up
approval process for applications related to issuance of permits, licenses, and land
administration as well as economic, investment and other matters. This eventually has led to
the introduction of new application forms, merger of several forms into a composite
application form, reduction of time taken for processing of applications, extension of validity
of licenses, and the establishment of licensing centers especially at the local level. Some of
the prevailing systems abolished and the correspondence procedure has been streamlined.
In other words, it is an initiative by the government of the state to improve the delivery
services in public sectors by reducing the unnecessary common “red-tape” long process or
procedures.
3.3 Phase III – Projects planning, privatization & public enterprise
3.3.1 Projects Planning:
In 1970’s, developing nations were all over the world rushed to secure foreign aides in every
shape and figure. There were active roles by international financial institutions in providing
funds for developing nations in project planning. This was due to the favourable economic
achievements in the West and savings into financial institutions skyrocketed with
unprecedented high since World War II. Financial experts in those countries had suggested
that these institutions provide long terms and low interest rate loans to developing nations to
help them with their development agenda. One of the main requirements for such loans was
that recipient countries need to set up a comprehensive project planning and appraisal
system (Rondinelli, 1993).
The objective of project planning was that only feasible projects determine the recipients’
ability to service their loans. By this time, recipient countries still lacked experience and
expertise especially in high technological skills and know – how. Foreign experts brought in
and paid from the loans secured. Direct intervention from foreign organization and even
their governments were very difficult to curtail and in some instances, their involvement
exceeded beyond the limits. Failure to pay back loans made few poor countries indebted to
the rich countries, not only in terms of money but in terms of political authority as well.
Governments of developing nations much tensed with such development but they were tight
up with procedures and requirements. Project appraisals also determined by fund providers.
Although officials from the recipient countries were also involved, they did not have the
knowledge to perform project assessment on their own. Management training became a
very important avenue for the officials to upgrade their knowledge and to learn from the
foreign experts (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
Projects implementation through decentralization:
Cheema and Rondinelli (1983) had suggested that development projects implemented
based on decentralization. The local government system in Malaysia was perhaps the most
successful implementation of decentralization. The rationale was local managers or officers
understood better the needs and requirements of their localities and resources optimally
used.
Cheema and Rondinelli has suggested that the implementation of the development project
need to be decentralization as they feel that centralization of power can cause delay in
project because of poor supervision as there is far from the management.
Decentralization refers to the policy of delegating decision-making authority throughout an

organization, relatively away from a central authority. Some features of a decentralized
organization are fewer tiers to the organizational structure, wider span of control, and a
bottom-to-top flow of decision-effecting ideas.
The local authority given more autonomy in doing their job. Two types of decentralization
practice in Malaysia that is devolution and deconcentration. Deconcentration is a process of
delegation of responsibility and authority by the central government to the local unit while
devolution refers to the transferring of power to make decision to the local authority.
Example of deconcentration is District Officer while devolution is Local Government
Although Malaysia practices decentralization since independence, but there is still much
power that are hold under the federal. Thus by transfer power to the local authority that are
directly involve in the development, the project will become successful. The rational is local
authority that implement the project are more knowledgeable on what the problem and the
need of the local people.
A good and effective project planning approaches therefore, had tremendous effect on
economic growth due to superb infrastructure development especially in the urban area.
Urbanization centred on the capital of states and earmarked areas for administration, culture
and commerce.
Urbanization is widely accepted as part of the development process. Arguably, however are
the positive and negative consequences of that process where much literature has focused
on the latter in many developing countries? Diffusion of urbanization in Malaysia has
contributed to the general improvements of the living environment through the provision of
infrastructure and services such as conventional housing, water and electricity supplies,
sanitation, sewerage, transport and telecommunications and so forth.
3.3.2 Privatization
The government has to provide all the infrastructure and accommodation for the country
including road, electricity, water supply and building and industrial facilities. This is because
the private sector in the country during that time did not have enough capital to finance the
development projects. The private sectors need assistance from the government to
implement huge projects.
However, the private sector slowly starting to take over the function of the government to
develop the country by sharing the burden to finance the development project with the
government due to the strong government policies protecting local business endeavour. The
responsibility to develop the country slowly goes to the private sector and multinational
corporate agency. These open the opportunity for the privatization and corporation between
the public sector and private sector.
Thus, this would allow the government to reduce its stakes in some projects and releasing
public funds for other purposes. The burden of developing certain projects gradually shifted
to private companies. This initiative had widely opened the propensity to privatization and
joint venture efforts between the government and the private sector.
This scenario is seeing in countries such as Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong,
Brazil and Malaysia. The development that shared between the government and private
sector would allow the government to reduce its stakes in those projects and cutting
expenses.
Tun Dr Mahathir Bin Mohamed introduced privatization Policy on March 1983 after the
announcement of the Malaysia Incorporated Policy in 25th February 1983. Privatization
policy simply means the transfer of property or responsibility from the public sector
(government) to the private sector (business). Given the resource constraints, the
government has decided that it will facilitate the private sector to play the aggressive role in
the future economic development of the country. It is therefore apparent to the civil servants
that to achieve this objective, a new management culture needed. Quick reactions and
decisions are imperative and in fact critical to enable the private enterprises to be
competitive on a global scale.
Privatization seen to be the means of stimulating and improving the overall efficiency of the
economy. Privatization will not only relieve the government of the financial and
administrative burden but also improve the efficiency and increase the productivity of the
services. It will also stimulate private entrepreneurship and investment thus accelerating the
rate of growth of the economy and able to reduce the size and presence of the public sector
with the monopolistic tendencies in the economy, and help to meet the objectives of the
National Development Policy.
The objectives are to reduce the government financial and administrative burden. The scope
of government is wide. They cannot cover all the aspects in the Malaysia. Therefore, the
main objective for the government is to reduce their burden in term of financial and
administrative. Through this policy, the government transferred some of the property,
responsibility and burden to the private sector. Therefore, as a result the allocation of budget
can be saved and use for other aspect. Second is to create more opportunity for the
Bumiputras to established private corporations. By giving more chances to the private
sector, the government will be able create the opportunity job for the people especially
bumiputras to establish and join the private corporation. It also will encourage them to
increase their economic level for more growth and can compete with other races. Other
objective is to increase efficiency in dividing our natural resources. However, the private
sector has more expertise compare to the public sector. They have many professional that
expert in the particular fields. Therefore, the implementing of privatization policy can manage
the natural resources more efficient and systematic.
Government would select some appropriate agencies that deemed profitable and offers for
complete privatization or simply engaging in joint-venture projects with private enterprises.
The result of privatization is the lowered cost in government spending and open up
opportunity to redistribute the saved resources to other sectors such as helping the poor
community. Privatization involves the transfer of government equities to the private sector.
The government selects suitable agencies that deemed profitable and offers for complete
privatization or engaging in joint-venture projects with private enterprises. This program
successfully implemented in developed countries. As a result, privatization reduces cost in
government’s spending and expenditure. Besides that, it gives opportunity for the
government to redistribute the saved resources to help the poor citizens to increase their
standard of living (Mahathir Mohamad, 1984).
3.3.3 Public enterprise
Development administration was involved largely with the public sector. However, efforts to
develop nation involves a huge sum of money. In 1980s, development administration was
involved largely with the public sector. Private sector rarely involved in any debates and
discussion regarding development administration. One of the reasons was that private sector
in that time is still struggling in terms of doing business relative to the abilities of their
competitors especially foreign and multi-national companies (Donald J.Harris, 1999).
The challenges that appear in that time was to find the ways on how to improve the
capabilities of the public and private sector in planning, preparing for the changes in social
and economic and to regulate the regulation on how to improve the efficiency of the
administration to achieve fair economic development for all the citizen (Rozalli Hashim,
2005).
Recognizing this need, the government continues to promote the spirit of Malaysia in
corporation, which introduced in 1983. This policy represents a new way of approaching the
task of national development. The fundamental basis of this approach is that successful
national development requires the public and private sectors to adhere to the perception of
the nation as a corporate business entity, jointly owned by both sectors and working in
tandem in pursuit of a common mission.
As exemplified by the success of Japan and South Korea, there must be the unity of purpose
of government and business. Business leaders, politicians and government officials ought to
realize that their roles are not mutually exclusive. Unilateral action that affects the well-being
of the other would only breed distrust and contempt.
The resulting benefit of this cooperation is higher growth and expansion of the private sector
leading to spin-offs in economic investment, expansion and growth, as well as the
generation of employment opportunities. The increase in government revenues could then
enable the government to finance not only economic development but also the public
administrative machinery. This policy presupposes a changing role for the public sector, from
the traditional role of a regulator to the new role of a service agency, planner and facilitator
The fundamental basis of this approach is that successful national development requires the
public and private sectors to adhere to the perception of the nation as a corporate business
entity, jointly owned by both sectors and working in tandem in pursuit of a common mission.
The resulting benefit of this cooperation is higher growth and expansion of the private sector
leading to spin-offs in economic investment, expansion and growth, as well as the
generation of employment opportunities.
PETRONAS, short for Petroliam Nasional Berhad, is a Malaysian oil and gas company that
was founded on August 17, 1974. It is a Government -owned corporation (government-
owned corporation, state-owned company, state-owned entity, state enterprise, publicly
owned corporation, government business enterprise, is a legal entity created by a
government to undertake commercial activities on behalf of an owner government.
3.4 Phase IV – Development Management – Quality Management, Civil

Society (Responsible individuals and NGOs), Deregulation,
administrative achievements in developing countries
3.4.1 Quality Management
The quality movement became further intensify and strengthen when a comprehensive
award system introduced in an attempt to institutionalize the culture of excellence in the
public service.
This policy has become the driving force behind the systematic and continuous efforts by
public agencies to upgrade in terms of quality and innovative ways and means to serve
better their customers. While the implementation of such innovations has already marked the
beginning of quality management in the public service, further inroads made with the
adoption of internationally recognized ISO 9000 series in 1996 and the benchmarking
programs in 1999. The government agencies are required to examine relevant best practices
by a benchmarking partner and seek ways and means to adopt and improve upon their
applications in their own organizations (Sarji, 1996).
Responsiveness and Accountability among the core principles objectives in TQM:
“Responsiveness”; administrative responsibility to react immediately upon any demand in

terms of public needs (Deindhart, 1984). To respond immediately to the requirements of
basic needs especially among the rural poor. Responsiveness refers to the quality of being
responsive; reacting quickly; as a quality of people, it involves responding with emotion to
people and events.
“Accountability”: intrinsic responsibility that was supposed to be inherent in all government
administrators (Luke, 1989). Public officials’ accountability referred as the feeling of being
responsible in all actions taken by them in performing their duties.
The public officials are more expose to the complaint and evaluation from the people. Thus,
it is important for them to change to gain the respect from the people. Therefore, the value of
the public service need to be re-access to comply with the want and needs of the people that
have become more complex. Instead of become efficient and effective, they need to become
more responsive and more accountability.
In 1980s, responsiveness simply understood as the administrative responsibility to

immediately reacted upon any demand in terms of public needs (Deinthard, 1984). Among
developing nations, there were dire need to respond immediately to the requirements of
basic needs especially among the rural poor. By establishing good system to react quickly to
public grievances, the government could carry out its development program with minimum
resistance.
Accountability assumed an intrinsic responsibility that was supposed to be inherent in all

government’s administration (Luke, 1989). Public officials’ accountability referred as the
feelings of being responsible in all actions taken by them in performing their duties. Thus,
each duty performed by the officers subjected to its outcome, whether it is good or
otherwise. In the final analysis, officers would be very careful in carrying out their duties.
The trend of development in this era required officers to well train in every aspects of their
work. This was a very important fact because a successful administrative structure needed
to ensure the distribution of development projects to the most remote areas that previously
were underprivileged (Gillis et all, 1987).
3.4.2 Civil Society
Civil society defined as the sphere of institutions, organizations and individuals located
between the family, state and market, in which people associate voluntarily to advance
common interests (Moten, 2008).
Larry Diamond, 1994, defines it as the: realm of organized social life that is voluntary,
(largely) self generating, self supporting, and autonomous from the state, and bound by a
legal order or set of shared rules”.
Civil society organizations in Malaysia have expanded considerably since independence

and, particularly, since the 1980s. In 1957, after independence, there were 1,741
organizations registered with the Registrar of Societies. By 1996 this number had increased
to 28, 219. As of December 31, 1998 there were 29, 574 registered societies in the country,
with 56, 626 branches all over the country (New Sunday Times, February 21, 1999 : Moten,
2008).
This increase indicates changing attitudes in Malaysian society in responding to their socio-
political needs and responsibilities by relying more and more on collective ideas and actions
and not just expecting governmental leadership or familial support. In general, associations
categorized as environmental groups, consumer groups, human rights groups, development
groups and women’s group. Among the major actors are Aliran, Consumers’ Association of
Pulau Pinang (CAP), Federation of Malaysian Consumers’ Association (FOMCA) and many
more others. On issues like drug rehabilitation, juvenile delinquency, youth and child
development or welfare policies, the government has enthusiastically co-operated with civil
associations to promote development (Moten, 2008).
This cooperation is very important as the roles and responsibilities fulfil by these civil
organizations or individuals to some extent had voluntarily helped to reduce social problems,
which at the same time reduces government burden to handle these problems.
(https://www.thestar.com.my/news/focus/2020/05/03/ustaz-in-the-news)
Ebit Irawan Ibrahim Lew comes from Muadzam Shah in Pahang; he is the third child in a
family of 11 other siblings. A Universiti Putra Malaysia graduate, he had his early education
in SK Bukit Ridan, SMK Muadzam Shah, SM Teknik Johor Baru and SMK Abdul Rahman
Talib.
According to reports, the former Lew Yun Pau embraced Islam at the age of 12 after
following the religion closely. What sets Lew apart from preachers who merely lecture from
the pulpit is the fact that he is prepared to reach out to the underprivileged on the streets.
Lew has also gained the media’s attention because he has helped Malaysians regardless of
their race and religion, as he has made many visits to senior citizens who live alone.He has
reportedly said that he gets as many as 3,000 names a day asking for help after people
heard about his Door To Door Ebit Lew programme on Astro.
(https://www.thestar.com.my/news/focus/2020/05/03/ustaz-in-the-news)
3.4.3 Deregulation
Deregulation is the removal or simplification of government rules and regulations that

constrain the operation of market forces. Deregulation does not mean elimination of laws
against fraud or property rights but eliminating or reducing government control of how
business done, thereby moving towards a more laissez-faire, free market. Government re-
emphasized its commitment to deregulation and liberalization, particularly in the financial
sector: measures introduced to extend foreign access to real estate purchases and develop
the capital market.
Regulatory initiatives with a view to minimizing, simplifying, and making more cost effective
regulations.
Such as:
i. By eliminating restrictions on foreign purchasers.

ii. The limit on the number of residential properties a foreigner can buy completely
removed.
iii. A foreigner may also buy a freehold land in Malaysia now.
iv. The sale and purchase agreement will be in their name and written in English.
v. The need to seek approval from the Foreign Investment Committee (FIC) before buying
property removed. Although, one has to acquire State authorities consent to buy a
property and it may take some six months time. The leasehold land owned by the state
can be bought in some areas. The leases usually last for 99 years.
3.4.4 Administrative achievements in developing countries (Malaysia)
Expansion of organizational capabilities:
It shake the entire bureaucracy to be more effective and re-distribute development

benefits equitably across the country.
Objectives of this effort:
- To focus on implementation of development projects and redistribution of

development projects throughout nation boundaries.
In 1970’s, New Economic Plan implemented in Malaysia was the First Economic Plan. It
was the first economic plan for the whole of Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak included — as
opposed to just Malaya, which previous economic plans (such as the Second Malayan Five
Year Plan) had confined them too. This was because development in the 1960s and 1970s
was mainly active in the west coast because of the commercial activities compared to the
east coast and the states of Sabah and Sarawak.
- To successfully achieved a more balanced development throughout nation’s

boundaries due to the redistribution.
In other words, the economic plan with the implementation of the New Economic Policy
(NEP), the government began to improve the distribution of development budget equitably
across the nation’s boundary even to Sabah and Sarawak. This effort at the same time is to
ensure that the poverty will reduced as to achieve zero poverty in Malaysia despite
boundaries. The economic plan also stresses to maintain the welfare of the people in the
country, which the government improve the standard of living among the people in the rural
area or the people that considered poor, nationwide.
- To fight against poverty by efficiently implemented development projects that will

benefit the people
- To provide the need for an extensive administrative development services to the

people
The Plan's objectives were to promote the welfare of all citizens, and improve the living
conditions in rural areas, particularly among low-income groups. The Plan attempted to
increase access to medical facilities in rural areas through the formation of the Rural Health
Service. District hospital facilities upgraded to handle referrals from the clinics the Service
operated. Medical sub centres founded in urban areas and by the end of the Plan, the gap
between rural and urban areas in terms of quality of healthcare had narrowed, eliminated.
Distribution policies:
Distribution of wealth more equitably across the nation.
The main targets development administration in 1980s is to reduce the problem of poverty.
Since the majority of the population at that time is under the poverty, the government needs
to take some actions to reduce this problem. Actually, the planning to reduce the number of
poverty is the main agenda since independence. Many strategies adopted to ensure the
distribution of wealth more equitably across the nation. Some of the strategies employed
were progressive taxation system, provision of subsidies, scholarships and affirmative
action’s (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
Malaysia for example has taken various steps beginning with Malaysian Plan, the New
Economic Policy and later the National Development Policy aimed at compressing the gap
between the rich and the poor. Strategies such as Amanah Saham Nasional and Amanah
Saham Bumiputera clearly depict government’s commitment to distribute economic benefits
to the people irrespective of their economic abilities (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
New Economic Policy implemented in 1970s. It is the twenty (20) years programme and it is
including development administration in 1980s until 1990. The main purpose of this policy is
to create the national unity, eradicating poverty irrespective of race, restructuring of society
to correct the identification of race with economic function and many more.
The fourth Malaysian Plan (1981-1985) and the fifth Malaysian Plan (1986-1990) also are
more concentrating to develop the national unity and to balance socio-economic among the
nation. Other policy such as National Development Policy (NDP) was to achieve balanced
development as a catalyst to establish unity and a just community.
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
a) Explain administrative reform.
(5 marks)
b) Discuss any FOUR (4) pillars of administrative reform as purported by Tan Sri Sarji
Ahmad.
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
The Prime
Minister, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak, introduced the concept of 'People First, Performance
Now' as an effort to improve on the delivery service of the public sector.
Explain any FOUR (4) public reform strategies adopted by the government to improve the
quality of public sector services.
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Differentiate between private enterprise and public enterprise.
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Elaborate on any FOUR (4) benefits of privatization in Malaysia.
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Cheema and Rondinelli (1983) had suggested that development projects implemented
based on decentralization. The local government system in Malaysia was perhaps the most
successful implementation of decentralization.
Elaborate on the benefits on decentralization in Malaysia.
(25 marks)
4
TITLE
SOCIAL CHANGE
IN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Overview
1
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL CHANGE
Definition of Social Change
 Variables / Factors of
Social Change
Theories of Social Change:
 Evolutionary Theory
 Cyclical Theory
 Conflict Theory
 Structural-functional
Theory
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1 Define Social Change.

2 Explain the variables of social change.
3 Elaborate on the theories of social change.
4.0 SOCIAL CHANGE
The successes of any governmental programs are attributed to the serious participation of
the masses (people in the society), towards the various development programs of the
government. Thus, if people’s participation is weak, then the mentioned programs are said to
be not successful (or less successful), and vice-versa. Thus, people’s participation and
support towards the various development programs of the government are crucial for the
success of any development programs of the government, and for the overall development
and progress of the nation as a whole.
Most scholars of development administration would agree that social development requires
social change, hence they synonym social development with social change. Social change
also refers to any significant alteration over time in behaviour patterns and cultural values
and norms. By significant alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social
consequences. Examples of significant social changes having long‐ term effects include the
industrial revolution, the abolition of slavery, and the feminist movement.
Today's sociologists readily acknowledge the vital role that social movements play in
inspiring discontented members of a society to bring about social change. Efforts to
understand the nature of long‐ term social change, including looking for patterns and
causes, has led sociologists to propose the evolutionary, functionalist, and conflict theories
of change (discussed in the next few sections). All theories of social change also admit the
likelihood of resistance to change, especially when people with stakes feel unsettled and
threatened by potential changes.
Important components of social change according to Steven Vago, 2004:
Identity of change – it is a specific social phenomenon undergoing transformation. Definite

practice, behaviour, attitude, interaction pattern, authority structure, productivity rate, are
some of the specific social phenomenon. Identity of change that driven by the direction of
change would help one to understand the course taken by the change process and where it
leads. In the end, it will shape the result of the change and would transform or change the
identity of the society.
Level of change – delineates the location in a social system where a particular change
takes place. It refers to the particular group within the society that is actually experiencing
change. These levels could be individuals, organizations, social groups, institutions and the
community at large. On the group level, we might consider changes in the types of
interaction patterns – in communication, method of conflict resolution, cohesion, unity,
competition, and acceptance and rejection patterns. At the level of organizations, the scope
of change would include alterations in the structure and function of organizations and
changes in hierarchy, communication, role relationship, productivity, and recruitment and
socialization patterns. At the institutional level, change may include alterations in marriage
and family patterns, education, and religious practices. At the level of society, change seen
as the modification of the social stratification, economic, and political systems. If only
individuals or a very small fraction of the community is experiencing the change, it
considered a social change. Social change normally involves a larger group within a
community.
Duration of change – refers to the question of how long a particular change take place.
Period of change to take place that refers to the length of time taken for a significant change
process to be completed. The period could be short or long term, a good example would be
the implementation of government policies that normally have a pre-determined period.
Magnitude of change – maybe based on a three-part scheme of incremental or marginal,

comprehensive, and revolutionary changes. Incremental or marginal changes would be
those that expand, reduce, or otherwise modify the contour of a particular norm or behaviour
without altering or repudiating its basic substance or structure. Changes of revolutionary
magnitude would involve wholesale substitution of one type or norm or behaviour for another
and decisive rejection of the original behaviour as well. It simply refers to the quantity of
change that is taking place. An evolutionary change may be long but it is more
comprehensive than revolutionary kind of change, which is abrupt but may not necessarily
involve the entire social structure. A comprehensive change involves the entire social
structure as compared to incremental change.
Rate of change – the rate maybe based on any arbitrary scale, such as fast or slow,
continuous or spasmodic, orderly or erratic. Measurement of how fast is the momentum of
change. It is not easy though to obtain an agreed upon scale for such measurement. A
compromise approach is to rate the change in relative term.
4.1 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL CHANGE
 “Social change is change in the structure of a social system; that has been stable or
relatively unchanging changes. Moreover, of structural changes the most important
are those that have consequences for the functioning of the system – for attaining its
goals more (or less) efficiently or for fulfilling more (or less) efficiently the conditions
that must be met if the system is to survive”(Johnson,1960).
 ‘Social change is the significant alteration of social structures (that is, of patterns of
social action and interaction), including consequences and manifestations of such
structures embodied in norms (rules of conduct), values and cultural products and
symbols” (Moore, 1968).
 Social change comprises modifications in social systems or subsystems in structure,
functioning, or process over some period of time” (Allen,1971).
According to Mackenzie (1969), social change is the change in attitude of a particular society
in a country, towards the various development programs of the government.
Another definition is it is the change that occurs in the society, might it be planned or
unplanned, quantitative or qualitative (Steven Vago, 1989).
By referring to Oxford Dictionary (2000), social change is change that occurs in a society,
where the people transit from one stage of living to the other.
There are many organizations involves in order to change the society. For example, the
higher level of government structure which is federal government. The federal government
has done a lot of programs, events and activities that relates to the social change. In order to
reduce the burden of the federal government, they have to delegate the power and authority
to the state government and local government.
Social change is a natural phenomenon that constantly taking place in any community.
Humankind universally has experience tremendous amount of change since their beginning;
the changes that bring along benefits to humankind and there are changes that are
destructing. Most probably human kind are not aware of the changes that take place around
us because change is natural and ever happening. Change is a natural phenomenon.
History has provided us with facts and evidences that the history of humankind is about
continuous change. Whether we like it or not, change will continue to happen even without
human intervention (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
4.2 Variables / Factors of social change:
4.2.1. Physical Variable
 Climate & weather
 Natural resources
 Physical nature of the world
 Natural Disasters
 The ability of mankind to cope with the physical changes
Physical variable refers to our earthly environment that consists of natural surrounding and
all the events perpetuated from any changes to the physical environment. Changes to the
physical environment at an enormous scale seldom happen, but when it does, it could
dramatically change the fate of human society (Horton and Hunt, 1989: Rozalli Hashim,
2005).
4.2.2. Biological Variable
a. Ecology : the relationship between mankind and other living things
 natural resources for food, medicine and other needs
 Environment, clean air etc.
 ecological balance
b. Demography: a science of human population
 population density
 physical and social illnesses
 family planning
 change of values and resistance
The biological variable can be divided into two; ecological and demography. Ecology refers
to the relationship between man and other living things such as plants, animals, and
microorganisms. The discipline of human ecology has shown that the same principles that
shape the environmental relationships of other species and other communities also apply to
our species and our communities. Like these other living things, human beings depend for
their survival on natural cycles, and are subject to natural limits. Like the communities of
other living things, human communities – from villages to nations – are shaped by their
history, adapt to their environments, face hard choices between competing goods, and
respond homeostatic ally in order to counter movements toward disruptive change.
Thus, social change is possible, just as environmental change is possible, but it is be

pursued in a very different spirit from the one that motivates the Utopian ideologies of the
present and the recent past. If we are to take human ecology seriously, it seems to me, it is
time to start trying to understand the ecological conditions – the relationships linking human
beings to each other, to other living things, and to inanimate nature – that foster desirable
social changes. Then, in the manner of tribal gardeners carefully replacing noxious plants
with edible ones, those who desire those changes might work to bring about those
conditions, keeping an eye on the results and letting experience rather than ideology guide
their efforts (http://www.energybulletin.net/node/47867).
The ecological characteristics have a unique relationship in the way a society changes. For
the sake of the survival in this world, the human society should strive hard to maintain
ecological balance at any price.
Demographics or demographic data are the characteristics of a human population as used

in government, marketing or opinion research, or the demographic profiles used in such
research. Commonly used demographics include gender, race, age, income, disabilities,
mobility (in terms of travel time to work or number of vehicles available), educational
attainment, home ownership, employment status, and even location. Distributions of values
within a demographic variable, and across households, are both of interest, as well as trends
over time.
Demographic trends describe the changes in demographics in a population over time. For
example, the average age of a population may increase over time. It may decrease as well.
Certain restrictions may be set in place changing those numbers. China for instance, that
has the one child policy of population control.
3.2.3 Technological Variable
New technology is a major source of social change. Since modernization deals with social
change from agrarian societies to industrial ones, it is important to look at the technological
viewpoint. New technologies do not change societies itself. It is due to the response to
technology that causes change. Frequently, technology will be recognized but not put to use
for a very long time. Take for example the ability to extract metal from rock. It was not just a
new technology at one time, however, one that had profound implications for the course of
societies. It was always there, but went unused for a great time. As Neil Postman has said,
"technological change is not additive; it is ecological. A new technology does not merely add
something; it changes everything".
People in society are always coming up with new ideas and better ways of making life easier
and more enjoyable. Technology makes it possible for a more innovated society and broad
social change. What becomes of this is a dramatic change through the centuries that has
evolved socially, industrially, and economically, summed up by the term modernization. Cell
phones, for example, have changed lives of millions throughout the world. This is especially
true in Africa and other parts of the Middle East where there is a low cost communication
infrastructure. Therefore, widely dispersed populations are connected, it facilitates other
business's communication among each other, and it provides internet access, which also
gives greater value in literacy. In addition to technology being a great social and economic
advancement, it also grants these more dependent societies to be more modernized despite
internal conflicts or repressive governments, allowing them to reap the benefits of such
technological advancements.
3.2.4 Ideological Variable
Ideologies have a decisive impact on shaping social change. These factors certainly broadly
shaped directions of social change in the modern world. For example:
 Freedom and self-determination
 Material growth and security
 Nationalism, e.g. French & English Canadians, English & Irish, Germans &
 French, Palestinians, Kurdish, Basque separatists and Spanish
 Capitalism: not only the type of economic system, but also ideology,
connected
 Set of values and ideas emphasizing positive benefits of pursuing one’s
private
 Economic interests, competition and free markets
 Marxism
4.2.5. Norms and Values Variables
Norms are specific behavioral standards, ways in which people are supposed to act,
paradigms for predictable behavior in society. They are not necessarily moral, or even
grounded in morality; in fact, they are just as often pragmatic and, paradoxically, irrational.
(A great many of what we call manners, having no logical grounds, would make for good
examples here.)
Norms are rules of conduct, not neutral or universal, but ever changing; shifting as society
shifts; mutable, emergent, loose, reflective of inherent biases and interests, and highly
selfish and one-sided.
Human values formed by a similar process and act in a similar manner. The word that
commonly used with reference to ethical and cultural principles, values are of many types.
They may be physical (cleanliness, punctuality), organizational (communication,
coordination), psychological (courage, generosity), mental (objectivity, sincerity), or spiritual
(harmony, love, self-giving). Values are central organizing principles or ideas that govern
and determine human behavior. Unlike the skill or attitude that may be specific to a particular
physical activity or social context, values tend to be universal in their application. They
express in everything we do. Values described as the essence of the knowledge gained by
humanity from experiences distilled from its local circumstances and specific context to
extract the fundamental wisdom of life derived from these experiences. Values give direction
to our thought processes, sentiments, emotional energies, preferences, and actions. A
historical study of certain societies bears out the development of ethics in line with cultural
(and individual) development. Gradually, exploitation, injustice and oppression are
recognized and rejected - as can be seen with examples such as the abolition of slavery, the
banning of racism and the introduction of sexual equality
(http://www.worldanimal.net/online_management_book/2%20Social%20Change%20Introduc
tion.pdf).
4.3 Theories of social change (Steven Vago, 2004):
A sociological approach explains human behaviors. It takes previous basis of life to predict
behaviors of the future. It is a relationship structure of different hypothesis or assumptions.
Theories can help empirical studies any conclusive statement accepted through confirmation
of facts.
4.3.1 Evolutionary theory: Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857)
Auguste Comte was as a father of sociology. He formulated the law of three stages. Stages
of human development from the theological stage (nature was mythically conceived and man
sought the explanation of natural phenomena from supernatural beings). Next stage is
metaphysical stage (in which nature was conceived of as a result of obscure forces and man
sought the explanation of natural phenomena from them until the final positive stage in which
all abstract and obscure forces are discarded), and natural phenomena (explained by their
constant relationship). This progress forced through the development of human mind, and
increasing application of thought, reasoning and logic to the understanding of the world.
Comte tried to show the evolution of animals and other organisms through different stages of
change. Comte predicted that through evolution, society would gradually change into a
perfect life. Human society will ultimately achieve its goal not by means of political struggle
or revolution, but the rectification of new moral science called “Sociology” adopted in 1839.
The highest achievement of science should be positivistic in nature derived from
visualization, test, and comparison in order to understand the natural surroundings.
Comte placed greater emphasis on the study of social dynamics, or social change. His
theory of social dynamics founded on the law of the three stages; i.e., the evolution of
society based on the evolution of mind through the theological, metaphysical, and positivist
stages. He saw social dynamics as a process of progressive evolution in which people
become cumulatively more intelligent and in which altruism eventually triumphs over egoism.
This process is one that people can modify or accelerate, but in the end, the laws of
progressive development dictate the development of society. Comte's research on social
evolution focused on Western Europe, which he viewed as the most highly developed part of
the world during his times.
The law of THREE (3) stages:
 Theological stage
The theological stage dominated by a search for the essential nature of things and people
come to believe that all phenomena created and influenced by gods and supernatural forces.
Animism or fetishism, which views each object as having its own will; polytheism, which
believes that many divine wills impose themselves on objects; and monotheism, which
conceives the will of one god as imposing itself on objects.
 Metaphysics stage
The metaphysical stage is a transitional stage in which mysterious, abstract forces (e.g.,
nature) replace supernatural forces as the powers that explain the workings of the world. It is
a stage or period in which causality explained in terms of abstract forces; causes and forces.
 Positivistic stage
Comte also used the term positivism in a second sense; that is, as a force that could counter
the negativism of his times. Stage of the scientific period, in which people develop
explanations in terms of natural processes and scientific laws. At this stage of in a society’s
development, it becomes possible to control human events.
Evolutionary Theory: Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903)
Herbert Spencer, who believed that society was evolving toward increasing freedom for
individuals; and so held that government intervention ought to be minimal in social and
political life, differentiated between two phases of development, focusing on the type of
internal regulation within societies.
Thus, he differentiated between military and industrial societies. The earlier, more primitive
military society has a goal of conquest and defense, is centralized, economically self-
sufficient, collectivistic, puts the good of a group over the good of an individual, uses
compulsion, force and repression, rewards loyalty, obedience and discipline. The industrial
society has a goal of production and trade, is decentralized, interconnected with other
societies via economic relations, achieves its goals through voluntary cooperation and
individual self-restraint, treats the good of individual as the highest value, regulates the
social life via voluntary relations, values initiative, independence and innovation.
Social change traced on a linear and positive gradient transformation. Human society has
moved from relatively simple lifestyle to a complex lifestyle. The different functions of the
society will also change gradually and slowly. The change in the society based on natural
law and ultimately arrived at growth, development, modernization and perfection. The
process of change will take societies from a traditional setting to a new life order the
“industrialized order”. At this time, human life will be steered by individualism, less focus
given to government, end of wars, deletion of states boundaries and the establishment of a
universal society. His arguments still echoed today by those who oppose laws providing for
more equitable treatment of minorities on the ground that morality cannot be legislated.
Evolutionary theory: Ferdinand Tonnies (1855 - 1936)
Ferdinand Tonnies describes evolution as the development from informal society, where
people have many liberties. There are few laws and obligations, to modern, formal rational
society, dominated by traditions and laws and people are restricted from acting as they wish.
Known for his “gemeinschaft” and “gesselschaft” concepts. “Gemeinschaft” – society lives in
primitive, traditional, homogeneous and close relationship. “Gesselschaft” – a social setting
that changes into urbanization, industrialization, formal relationship. It has become a
materialistic and specific structure of society. Social change is a process of transforming
human society from the gemeinschaft order to the gesselschaft order.
He also notes that there is a tendency of standardization and unification, when all smaller
societies are absorbed into a single, large, modern society. Thus, Tönnies said to describe
part of the process known today as globalization. Tönnies was also one of the first
sociologists to claim that the evolution of society is not necessarily going in the right
direction. That social progress is not perfect, and it called a regression as the newer, more
evolved societies obtained only after paying a high cost, resulting in decreasing satisfaction
of individuals making up that society.
Characteristics of Gemeinschaft & Gesselschaft:
 Size
 Population
 Division of labor
 Organizing principle
 Types of groups
 Loyalties
 Status assignment
 Norm enforcement
 Roles
 Values
Gemeinschaft characteristics vs Gesselschaft characteristics:
Gemeinschaft Gesselschaft
Small Large
One racial and religious group Different racial, ethnic, and religious
(homogenous) (heterogeneous)
Minimal (most members able to do same Complex (many different specialties)

tasks
Kinship Formal position of leadership
Primary, informal Secondary, formal
To family and relatives To the society as a whole
Ascribed Achieved
Informal, group pressure from friends, Laws, police, and other salaried officials
family, relatives, neighbors
Interrelated Segmented (people only show their roles

in certain required job)
Emphasis on the sacred and timeless Emphasis on the here and now, rational
control over nature, and change
High, based on similarity of tasks, multiple Low, because of extreme specialization,

ties to others, and shared values predominance of instrumental ties, and
personalized values
Criticism on evolutionary theory:
1. Theories emphasized on change that occurred within a given society only.

2. Assumptions were based on what happen in Western Europe that may not happen /
have the same implications on other side of the world.
3. The human change in evolutionary was perfect that that social change occurred on a
positive gradient change was quite unreal because human history has proven that
society do fell down.
4. A bipolar change was quite abstract in nature, human life was too sophisticated that
reduce in such an abstraction.
Other criticism:
Unilinear evolutionary theory, especially in its earlier versions, criticized for at least three
reasons. First, it simply does not fit the facts: Not all traditional societies organized in the
same way, and when they do change, they do not all pass through the same stages.
Second, the underlying evolutionary assumption that all change is ultimately progress based
on a value judgment, one that became increasingly difficult to maintain in the face of the
world wars and societal upheavals that characterized the twentieth century (Smart, 1990;
Harper, 1993).
Finally, unilinear evolutionary theory used to defend colonialism. If every culture is eventually
going to be like the "advanced" European societies, then it seemed only natural and right
that people in "backward" parts of the world brought under Europeans’ "benevolent" political
and economic control. Kipling called this "improvement" of colonized peoples "the white
man’s burden." In addition, if, in the process, Europeans became wealthy using the labor
power and natural resources of their colonies, what could be wrong with that? This logic
helps explain the great popularity of evolutionary theory in the nineteenth century.
Recognizing the harm that resulted from colonial exploitation later contributed to a
widespread rejection of unilinear thought (Nisbet, 1969).
Some modern sociologists, most notably Neil Smelser (1973) and Gerhard and Jean Lenski
(Nolan & Lenski, 1999), have modified evolutionary thinking. They have retained the idea
that as societies grow, they tend to become more complex, institutionally differentiated, and
adaptive, but they reject the notion that change is necessarily progress and recognize that
societies may change at different paces and in quite different ways (Sahlins & Service,
1960). This approach, which is currently quite popular, called multilinear evolutionary theory.
However, some critics point out that a few societies have become less—rather than more—
complex and differentiated (Alexander & Colomy, 1990).
4.3.2 CYCLICAL THEORY
Emerged mainly to rectify the hypothesis of the evolutionary theory some scholars consider
the cyclical theory as part of the evolutionary theory. The main basis of this theory is that
human society experiences a consistent up and down changes in due time. They rejected
the maxim of linearity posed by the evolutionary theory.
4.3.2.1 Cyclical theory (Oswald Spengler)
Society evolves just like any living organism (born – childhood – maturity – old – die).
Human society rises until the top and eventually dies off to give way to new society to begin
its “life”, a continuous process. New culture starts, Spengler held, when persons in a dying,
static, or purposeless society—at first only a few visionaries, often widely isolated—begin to
see their surroundings from a new perspective. This intruding viewpoint, he suggests,
becomes a driving force that grows to dominate their thinking like a Jungian archetype. Step
by step the increasing influence of this new point of view transforms that entire society--its
political and social structures, its business organizations and commercial practices, its
technologies, mathematics, religious beliefs, music and visual arts, and architecture-- to
exemplify this unique outlook; he terms it the culture’s “prime symbol.”
The process, always similar, takes 1000-1200 years to run its course. In their final 200-300
years, Spengler said, all civilizations stiffen into rigidity and formalism; creativity dies out and
cynicism surges, the countryside empties and cities grow gigantic, and continuous warfare
ends in coalescence of a political-economic world state. Writing in 1910-1915, he evaluated
Western Civilization as already embarked well into this phase.
Spengler made detailed analyses of six cultures, illustrating in charts of parallel columns how
five passed through the same changes at corresponding stages in their development.
Spengler described the dominating viewpoints of these cultures as:
 Egyptian—an arrow-straight path into eternity.

 Chinese—an indirect, seemingly meandering path towards life’s goal.
 Hindu—Prime symbol not diagnosed by Spengler. Possibly nirvana, extinction
through fulfillment. (The mathematical concept of zero invented by the Hindu culture,
which passed it to the West via Arabic mathematicians).
 Classical (Greek-Roman)—the tangible, free-standing object, exemplified by the
nude statue.
 Magian (early Christianity, Mohammedanism)—A magical closed cavern, from whose
upper reaches divine grace descends like a golden mist.
 Western (present culture, born in Western Europe about 1000 A.D.)—A spiritual
reaching out into boundless space.
Cyclical Theory (Pitirim Sorokin)
Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin ranks alongside such twentieth-century figures as Max

Weber, Émile Durkheim, and Talcott Parsons. His pioneering contributions in the
comparative-historical study of revolutions, social mobility, cultural sociology (considerably in
advance of the “cultural turn” of sociology), rural-urban sociology, and the sociology of
altruism are lasting landmarks with a prime focus on the how’s and whys of what he
designated as sociocultural change.
As Coser (1977), noted, there is considerable overlap in the general structural-functional

perspective of Sorokin and Parsons regarding the significance of culture, values, and
meaningful symbols in social organization (both consequently highly critical of economic
reductionism, as in later rational choice theory). Yet these departmental colleagues differed
as to the course of social change in the period of late modernity. Sorokin came to reject a
linear view of social change, opting for a more cyclical and critical perspective; Parsons in
later writings on social change and the value system of modernity took a more optimistic
perspective of current western cultural orientations accepted.
(http://www.sociologyencyclopedia.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_chunk_
g978140512433125_ss1-212).
Human idea subjected to three stages:
1. Ideational (Knowledge)
2. Sensate (Senses)
3. Idealistic (Knowledge + Sense)
Like Comte, Sorokin also believes that societal change are due to their mind.
The best-known sociologist whose work reflects a cyclical view is Pitirim Sorokin (1889–
1968). Sorokin wrote that societies alternate between sensate eras, in which ultimate truth
believed to be discoverable through scientific research; and ideational periods, during which
people seek truth through the transcendent (Sorokin, 1941). Every aspect of culture—from
government to family to art—reflects the underlying character of the era, either sensate or
ideational. Sorokin posited that, after centuries, the possibilities of one cultural pattern
become exhausted and society inevitably shifts either to the other type or, occasionally, to a
short-lived idealistic era, when both possibilities blend. He thought that contemporary
civilization was in an "overripe" sensate phase, almost ready to shift to another pattern,
probably ideational, with faith replacing reason and science
(http://wps.aw.com/wps/media/objects/0/657/summary/ch24/2403.html).
Cyclical Theory (Arnold Toynbee)
Toynbee criticizes Spengler’s idea on social change:
In his idea:
 Society rationally will not allow the downfall to prolong.
 The theory relies heavily on written history about human rise and fall.
 The theory fails to show different societies and civilizations behaved and coped with
changes differently.
Toynbee's ideas and approach to history said to fall into the discipline of Comparative
history. While they compared to those used by Oswald Spengler in The Decline of the West,
he rejected Spengler's deterministic view that civilizations rise and fall according to a natural
and inevitable cycle. For Toynbee, a civilization might or might not continue to thrive,
depending on the challenges it faced and its responses to them.
Toynbee presented history as the rise and fall of civilizations, rather than the history of
nation-states or of ethnic groups. He identified his civilizations according to cultural or
religious rather than national criteria. Thus, the "Western Civilization", comprising all the
nations that have existed in Western Europe since the collapse of the Roman Empire, was
treated as a whole, and distinguished from both the "Orthodox" civilization of Russia and the
Balkans, and from the Greco-Roman civilization that preceded it.
With the civilizations as units identified, he presented the history of each in terms of
challenge-and-response. Civilizations arose in response to some set of challenges of
extreme difficulty, when "creative minorities" devised solutions that reoriented their entire
society. Challenges and responses were physical, as when the Sumerians exploited the
intractable swamps of southern Iraq by organizing the Neolithic inhabitants into a society
capable of carrying out large-scale irrigation projects; or social, as when the Catholic Church
resolved the chaos of post-Roman Europe by enrolling the new Germanic kingdoms in a
single religious community. When a civilization responds to challenges, it grows. Civilizations
declined when their leaders stopped responding creatively, and the civilizations then sank
owing to nationalism, militarism, and the tyranny of a despotic minority.
Toynbee argued, “Civilizations die from suicide, not by murder." For Toynbee, civilizations
were not intangible or unalterable machines but a network of social relationships within the
border and therefore subject to both wise and unwise decisions they made.
4.3.3 CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict is the structure of disagreement. Suggested that in order to understand the dynamic
of society, one must look at different conflicts and tensions that occurred in the society.
Conflict theorists prefer to analyze conflict as impetus of change than any other reason.
Social change therefore, according to this theory is a result of conflicts and tensions within a
given society.
4.3.3.1 Conflict theory: Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
Conflict theories are perspectives in social science which emphasize the social, political or
material inequality of a social group, which critique the broad social-political system, or which
otherwise detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservatives. Conflict
theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast
historically dominant ideologies.
Of the classical founders of social science, conflict theory is most commonly associated with
Karl Marx. Based on a dialectical materialist account history, Marxism posited that
capitalism, like previous socioeconomic systems, would inevitably produce internal tensions
leading to its own destruction. Marx ushered in radical change, advocating proletarian
revolution and freedom from the ruling classes.
Conflict theory is a notion deeply rooted in the concepts of class struggle, economic slavery
and repression. The power of relationships between those who own the means of production
in a capitalist society (the bourgeoisie and to a lesser extent, the petty bourgeoisie) and
those who are simply tools to be used in the production of greater capital (the proletariat – or
workers).
Conflict theory can also extend to other struggles existent in society – racial tension between
blacks and whites, sexism primarily exerted toward women, religious punishment against a
minority group of believers, and so on.
Conflict theory in sociology normally refers to the deeply realized social stratification present
in post Industrial Revolution societies. The extortion of the working class – or the proletariat
– by the bourgeoisie – the capitalist (investor) class – is the crux of economic conflict theory.
Workers are paid as little as the market will allow, and without regulation, this pay is often
extortionate, a pittance in contrast to the profit that the bourgeoisie are making from this
labor.
The worker toils to produce goods and services and reaps a reward of subsistence while the
capitalist works very little and takes the remainder of the transaction. As long as the worker
is kept in a subservient, submissive position – unable to take control of the means of
production and to negotiate the terms of sale of his or her own labor – the proletariat
continues to be exploited, and remains in constant conflict against the capitalist class.
The worker removed from his work; he is alienated (distanced) from his own craft, his
livelihood, and his role in society.
The worker is much more susceptible to alienation – a disconnect with society – because
they are no longer directly in control of their labor, the produce from the sweat of their brow –
but rather an unrecognized cog in a much larger assembly line, far removed from the results
of their trade and hard work. Marx postulates that every society, whatever its stage of
historical development, rests on an economic foundation.
(http://politicalphilosophy.suite101.com/article.cfm/sociology_philosophy_marxist_conflict_th
eory).
Conflict theory assumes that social behaviour can best understood in terms of tension and
conflict between groups and individuals. Change viewed as intrinsic process in society, not
merely the outcome of some improperly functioning or imbalanced part of the social system.
Structural differentiation felt to be the source of conflict, and social change occurs only
through this conflict (Vago, 2004).
Conclusion:
 Society will not flourish without conflict.

 History of humankind is the history of social struggle.
 Social struggle of capitalism, socialism and communism.
 Changes occurred due to conflict
Conflict theory: Ralf Dahrendorf
 Did not quite agree to Marx’s idea on conflict theory

 Social conflict seen only based on struggle to gain the basis of production in
economy.
 Conflict occurs due to the competition to gain legitimacy and power source.
 The powerless, after gaining some power source will compete to win legitimacy.
Dahrendorf states that capitalism has undergone major changes since Marx initially
developed his theory on class conflict. This new system of capitalism, which he identifies as
post capitalism, characterized by diverse class structure and a fluid system of power
relations. Thus, it involves a much more complex system of inequality.
Dahrendorf contends that post capitalist society that has institutionalized class conflict into
state and economic spheres. For example, class conflict has habituated through unions,
collective bargaining, the court system, and legislative debate. In effect, the severe class
strife typical of Marx’s time is no longer relevant.
Dahrendorf believed that Marx’s theory updated to reflect modern society. He rejects Marx’s
two-class system as it too simplistic and overly focused on property ownership. Due to the
rise of the joint stock company, ownership does not necessarily reflect control of economic
production in modern society. Instead of describing the fundamental differences of class in
terms of property, Dahrendorf claims that we must “replace the possession, or non
possession, of effective private property by the exercise of, or exclusion from, authority as
the criterion of class formation”.
Thus, society split up into the "command class" and the "obey class" and class conflict
should refer to situations of struggle between those with authority and those without. He
maintains that social conflict is to be “understood as a conflict about the legitimacy of
relations of authority. Dahrendorf suggests that the more the subordinate interest groups
become organized, the more likely they will be in conflict with the dominant group. Conflict,
in turn, leads to structural change because of a change in dominance relations. The type,
speed, and magnitude of change depend on the “conditions of structural change”. These
conditions include the capacity of those in power to stay in power and the pressure potential
of the dominated interest group (Vago, 2004).
4.3.4. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL THEORY
It is a social change theory that heavily influenced the trend of sociology today (even in
Malaysia). Structure means the inter-relationship of different units that build a society.
Culture, education, religion, beliefs, leadership, norms and values are examples of structure.
Function means the role-played by each unit of the structure. The theory depicts that any
changes that happen to any of the structure (units) or its functions will cause the society to
change.
The word structure generally refers to a set of relatively stable and patterned relationships of
social units, and function refers to those consequences of any social activity that make for
the adaptation or adjustment of a given structure or its component parts. In other words,
structure refers to a system with relatively enduring patterns, and function refers to the
dynamic process within the structure (Vago, 2004).
copyright@hazariahfsppp, S3 | P a g e 100
4.3.4.1 Structural functional theory (Talcott Parson)
 Stability is the utmost important element in any society.

 Believes in the “equilibrium state” – should the stability of the society shaken, the
entire society will automatically uses all possible sources to bring it back to stability.
 In order for a society to maintain its stability, all elements and units within its structure
must be in strong coalition by – culture (the key to social strength).
There are two main types of changes, depending on the source (exogenous and
endogenous) of the model for re – equilibrium once the forces to repair boundary destruction
are underway. “The first …. Is the one where the principal model components come from
outside the society? This has been true of the contemporary underdeveloped societies….
The second is that occurring when the cultural model cannot be supplied from socially
exogenous source, but must…be evolved from within the society” (Parsons, 1961).
Structural functionalism concentrates on the positive and negative functions of social

structures. Societal functionalism is a particular type of structural functionalism that aims to
explain the role of social structures and institutions in society, the relationship between these
structures, and the manner in which these structures constrain the actions of individuals.
According to structural functionalists, individuals have little to no control over the ways in
which particular structures operate. Indeed, structural functionalists understand individuals in
terms of social positions. For example, when the structural functionalists Kingsley Davis
and Wilbur Moore discuss social stratification, they do not refer to individuals, but to the
positions, these individuals occupy. It is not individuals who ranked, but positions that ranked
according to the degree to which they contribute to the survival of society. High-ranking
positions offer high rewards that make them worth an individual’s time and effort to occupy
(http://www.bolenderinitiatives.com/sociology/talcott-parsons-1902-1979/talcott-parsons-
structure-social-action).
According to Parsons, the state of equilibrium is the characteristics of an ideal structure. A

structure said to be stable when its relationship with the other units within itself and its
environment is in harmony. The structural – functionalist theorists do not like the idea of
change and social change because it could contribute to the state of disequilibria. Thus,
whenever there is a social change, they would suggest the entire members of community to
readjust their behavior so that a new equilibrium is sustainable (Horton & Hunt, 1989).
Parson views society as a system surrounded by three other systems (personality, the
organism, and culture). He considers a society in equilibrium when its boundaries with the
other three systems not breached.
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
a) Explain TWO (2) roles of social change in the field of development administration.
(10 marks)
b) Explain the physical variable of social change.
(15 marks)
QUESTION 2
d) Define the term social change.
(5 marks)
e) Discuss the biological variable of social change.
(20 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on any FOUR (4) criticism of the evolutionary theory.
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Elaborate on any FOUR (4) variables of social change.

(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
a) Identify the evolutionary theory

(10 marks)
b) Describe the law of three stages in the evolutionary theory.
(15 marks)

PAD390 - Topic 1,2, 3 &amp; 4 (New Syllabus)

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PAD390 - Topic 1,2, 3 &amp; 4 (New Syllabus)

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INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT

1. Identify the development concepts (definition, objectives and

1.1.2 Development objectives

Unprecedented efforts have resulted in profound achievements:

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

Goal 5: Improve maternal HEALTH

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

Gender inequality persists Women continue to face discrimination in access to work,

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

 Providing support to governments to reflect the new global agenda in national

1.1.3 Indicators of Development (Qualitative & Quantitative)

1.1.3.1 Qualitative indicators of development

1.1.3.2 Quantitative indicators of development

 Improvement in a varied quantity of indicators such as literacy rates, life expectancy,

1.2 DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

1.2.1 The Conservative Perspective:

1.2.2 The Liberal Perspective

1.2.3 The Radical Perspective

1.2.4 The Islamic Perspective

Main concepts of development in Islam:

1. A holistic approach in development, which includes morality, spirituality and material

1.3.1 Ideal-type Construct Theory

 To measure the absolute term of development by benchmarking it to an ideal state.

1.3.2 Social-psychology Theory

 Based on the notion of social change.

 Most important aspect in development renders change in the human population.

 Different psychological attributes could push an individual forward and backwards.

Sociological social psychology, also known as psychological sociology, is an area of

Motivation Status Withdrawal

Need For High

Motivation is indeed a very important element in determining the propensity of a given

1.3.3 Diffusion Theory

 Diffusion of innovations (new ideas, new things or information) described as “the

 The channels are the means where an individual, groups or organization

a) Explain TWO (2) types of development indicators.

b) Discuss THREE (3) objectives of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

a) Identify the qualitative indicator of development.

b) The concept of Khalifah and Tazkiyah in Islamic perspective of development.

a) Explain TWO (2) objectives of development.

b) Discuss the application of the diffusion theory in development.

a. Explain FOUR (4) demerits of conservative perspective of development.

Differentiate between the quantitative and the qualitative indicators of development.

The relationship between development

Definitions – classical and

 Development Administration comprises two different words: Development and

 It is a simple analogy with expressions such as agricultural development, educational

 However, much of the literature definition regarding to development relates it to

Generally, administration often described as the development, implementation and study of

1.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION TO DEVELOPING

Thus, development administration had generated more participation of new generation to

In terms of education, the development administration is very important because it increases

After development administration, the government managed to increase the element of

An organizational culture, precisely the government organizations, efforts to improve and

1.1.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION AND

According to Dwight Waldo, public administration described as a management of people and

Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial methodological techniques

• It is the science of how a country to be ruled.

Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies. A policy typically

i. Management of people and material in executing government policies and act as an

Edward Weidner therefore, stated that development administration, as a sub-field of public

Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area under public

PAD390 - Topic 1,2, 3 & 4 (New Syllabus)

PAD390 - Topic 1,2, 3 & 4 (New Syllabus)