SKELETAL SYSTEM TWO SUBDIVISIONS OF THE

SKELETON
❖ OSTEOLOGY – the science of
1) Axial Skeleton
bones
- supports and protects
FIVE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE organs of head, neck,
SKELETAL SYSTEM and trunk

1. Movement – provides points of - forms the longitudinal

attachment, the legs and arms move axis of the body

when the muscles pull on the bones o skull (cranium and

2. Support – backbone is the main facial bones)

support center of the upper body, o vertebral column

holds the spine and the head (vertebrae and

3. Protection – skull protects the brain, disks)

the ribs protect the lungs and heart o bony thorax (ribs

4. Makes blood – red and white blood and sternum)

cells are produced by the tissue 2) Appendicular Skeleton

called marrow (in the center of the - Includes bone of limbs

bone) and bones that anchor

5. Storage – stores minerals (i.e., them to the axial skeleton

calcium, phosphorus) o pectoral girdle

(clavicles and
PARTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
scapulae)
• Bones (skeletal) o upper limbs
• Joints (arms)

• Cartilages o pelvic girdle

• Ligaments (sacrum, coccyx)

 o lower limbs (legs) THE FETAL SKULL

22 bones in the skull ➢ Large compared to the infant’s total

6 in middle ears body length

1 hyoid bone ➢ Fontanels – fibrous membranes

26 in vertebral column connecting the cranial bones

25 in thoracic cage - Allow the brain to grow

4 in pectoral girdle - Convert the bone within

60 in upper limbs 24 months after birth

60 in lower limbs THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

2 in pelvic girdle
➢ Each vertebra is given a name
Total: 206 bones
according to its location

➢ There are 24 single vertebral bones

THE SKULL separated by intervertebral discs

- Seven cervical vertebrae

➢ Two sets of bones
in the neck
➢ Cranium and Facial Bones
- Twelve thoracic vertebrae
➢ Bones are joined by sutures

o Only the mandible is attached in the chest region

- Five lumbar vertebrae in

by a freely movable joint
the lower back
THE HYOID BONE
➢ The spine has normal curvature
➢ Does not articulate with another - Primary curvatures are
bone the spinal curvatures of
➢ Movable base of the tongue the thoracic and sacral
➢ Aids in swallowing and speech region (present since

birth)
 - Secondary curvatures are ➢ Composed of three pairs of fused

the spinal curvatures of bones

the cervical and lumbar - Illium

region (develops after - Ischium

birth) - Pubis

➢ Total weight of the upper body rests

SACRUM AND COCCYX
on the pelvis
➢ Sacrum – formed by the fusion of
➢ Protects several organs
five vertebrae
- Reproductive organs
➢ Coccyx – formed from the fusion of
- Urinary bladder
three to five vertebrae; “tailbone” or
- Part of the large intestine
remnant of a tail that other
Gender Differences of the Pelvis
vertebrates have

▪ The female inlet is larger and more

THE BONY THORAX
circular
➢ Forms a cage to protect major
▪ The female pelvis is shallower
organs
▪ The bones are lighter and thinner
➢ Consists of three parts
BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
o Sternum

o Ribs ➢ The thigh has one bone

- True ribs (pairs 1-7) o Femur

- False ribs (pairs 8-12) o The heaviest, strongest

- Floating ribs (pairs 11-12) bone in the body

o Thoracic vertebrae ➢ The lower leg has two bones

o Tibia
BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE
o Shinbone
➢ Formed by two coxal bones
 o Larger and medially Functional Classification of Joints

oriented
▪ Synarthroses – immovable joints
o Fibula
▪ Amphiarthroses – slightly movable
o Thin and sticklike
joints
➢ The foot
▪ Diarthroses – freely movable joints
o Tarsals
Structural Classification of Joints
o Two largest tarsals:

calcaneus (heel bone), ▪ Fibrous Joints – generally movable

talus ▪ Cartilaginous Joints – immovable

o Metatarsals – soles or slightly movable

o Phalanges – toes ▪ Synovial Joints – freely movable

ARCHES OF THE FOOT Fibrous Joints

➢ Bones of the foot are arranged to • Bones united by fibrous tissue

form three strong arches (collagenic fibers)

o Two longitudinal • Immovable (synarthroses)

o One transverse • Examples

o Sutures (short fibers)

JOINTS
o Immobile (synarthroses)
➢ Articulations of bones
o Syndesmoses (long fibers)
➢ Functions:
o Allows more movements
o Hold bones together
than sutures (distal end
o Allow for mobility
of tibia and fibula)
➢ Ways joints are classified
o Amphiarthroses
o Functionality (physiology)

o Structurally (anatomy)
 o Gomphosis (periodontal o Saddle

ligament) o Ball and socket

- Immobile - Freely movable

(diarthroses)
Cartilaginous Joints

Features of Synovial Joints

• Bones connected by cartilage

• Examples o Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)

o Synchondrosis (hyaline covers the ends of bones

cartilage) o A fibrous articular capsule encloses

- Immobile the joint surfaces

o Symphysis o A joint cavity is filled with synovial

(fibrocartilage) fluids

- Slightly movable o Ligaments reinforce the joints

o Intervertebral Joints
Structures Associated with the Synovial

Synovial Joints Joints

• Articulating bones are separated by ❖ Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs

a joint cavity o Lined with synovial membranes

• Synovial fluid is found in the joint o Filled with synovial fluid

cavity o Not actually part of the joint

• Examples: ❖ Tendon sheath

- Elongated bursa that wraps

o Plane around a tendon

o Hinge

o Pivot

o Condyloid
SKELETAL CHANGES THROUGHOUT ➢ Curvatures of the Spine

LIFE - Primary curvatures are present

at birth and are convex

➢ Fetus
posteriorly
- Long bones are formed of
- Secondary curvatures are
hyaline cartilage
associated with the child’s later
- Flat bones begin as fibrous
development and are convex
membrane
anteriorly
- Flat and long bone models are
- Abnormal spinal curvatures
converted to bone
(scoliosis, lordosis) are often
➢ Birth
congenital
- Fontanels remain until around
➢ Osteoporosis
the age 2
- Bone-thinning disease afflicting
➢ Adolescence
o 50% of women over age
- Epiphyseal plates became
65
ossified and long bone growth
o 20% of men over age 70
ends
- Disease makes bone fragile, and
➢ Size of Cranium in Relationship to
bones can easily fracture
the Body
- Vertebral collapse results in
- 2 years old = skull is larger in
kyphosis (also known as
proportion to the body compared
dowager’s hump)
to that of an adult
- Estrogen aids in health and
- 8 – 9 years old = skull is near
normal density of a female
adult size and proportion
skeleton
- Between ages 6 - 11 = the face

grows out from the skull

BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY - Two thin layers of compact bone

surround a layer of spongy bone

➢ The adult skeleton has 206 bones
- E.g., skull, ribs, sternum
➢ Two basic types of bone tissue
4. Irregular Bones
a) Compact Bone –
- Irregular shape
homogeneous
- Do not fit into other bone
b) Spongy Bone – small
classification
needle-like pieces of bone,
- E.g., vertebrae, hip bones
many open spaces

ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

ACCORDING TO SHAPE ▪ Diaphysis

- Shaft
1. Long Bones
- Composed of compact bone
- Typically, longer than they are
▪ Epiphysis
wide
- Ends of the bone
- Have a shaft with heads at both
- Composed mostly of spongy
ends
bone
- Contain mostly compact bone
▪ Periosteum
- E.g., femur, humerus
- Outside covering of the diaphysis
2. Short Bones
- Fibrous connective tissue
- Generally, cube-shape
membrane
- Contain mostly spongy bone
▪ Sharpey’s fibers
- E.g., carpals, tarsals
- Secure periosteum to underlying
3. Flat Bones
bone
- Thin, flattened, and usually
▪ Arteries
curved
- Supply bone cells with nutrients
 ▪ Articular cartilage o Projections or processes – grow

- Covers the external surface of out from the bone surface

the epiphyses o Depressions or cavities –

- Made of hyaline cartilage indentations

- Decreases friction at joint

Projections That Are Sites of Muscle and
surfaces
Ligament Attachment
▪ Epiphyseal Plate
a) Tuberosity – large, rounded
- Flat plate of hyaline cartilage
projection; may be roughened
seen in young, growing bone
b) Crest – narrow ridge of bone;
▪ Epiphyseal Line
usually prominent
- Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
c) Trochanter – very large, blunt,
- Seen in adult bones
irregularly shaped process (the only
▪ Medullary cavity
examples are on the femur)
- Cavity inside the shaft
d) Line – narrow ridge of bone; less
- Contains yellow marrow (mostly
prominent than crest
fat) in adults
e) Tubercle – small, rounded
- Contains red marrow (for blood
projection or process
cell formation) in infants
f) Epicondyle – raised area on or
BONE MARKINGS
above a condyle

➢ Surface features of bones g) Spine – sharp, slender, often

o Sites of attachments for muscles, pointed projection

tendons, and ligaments h) Process – any bony prominence

o Passages for nerves and blood

vessels

➢ Categories of bone markings

Projections That Help to Form Joints o A unit of bone containing

central canal and matrix

a) Head – bony expansion carried on a
rings
narrow neck
➢ Central (Haversian) canal
b) Facet – smooth, nearly flat articular
o Opening in the center of an
surface
osteon
c) Condyle – rounded articular
o Carries blood vessels and
projection
nerves
d) Ramus – armlike bar of bone
➢ Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
Depressions and Openings Allowing
o Canal perpendicular to the
Blood Vessels and Nerves to Pass
central canal

a) Meatus – canal-like passageway o Carries blood vessels and

b) Sinus – cavity within a bone, filled nerves

with air, and lined with mucous ➢ Lacunae

membrane o Cavities containing bone

c) Fossa – shallow, basin like cells (osteocytes)

depression in a bone, often serving o Arranged in concentric rings

as articular surface ➢ Lamellae

d) Groove – furrow o Rings around the central

e) Fissure – narrow, slit-like opening canal

f) Foramen – round or oval opening o Sites of lacunae

through a bone ➢ Canaliculi

o Tiny canals
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BONE
o Radiate from central canal to
➢ Osteon (Haversian System)
lacunae
 o Form a transport system - Bone replaces cartilage through

connecting all bone cells to a the action of osteoblasts

nutrient supply ▪ Bones – are remodeled and

lengthened until growth stops

FORMATION OF THE HUMAN
o Bones are remodeled in
SKELETON
response to two factors
▪ In embryos, the skeleton is primarily
- Blood calcium levels
hyaline cartilage
- Pull of gravity and muscles on
▪ Hyaline cartilage is replaced by bone
the skeleton
during development
o Bones grow in width
▪ Cartilage remains in isolated areas:
(appositional growth)
bridge of the nose, parts of ribs,
TYPES OF BONE CELLS
joints

1. Osteocytes – mature bone cells

BONE GROWTH (Ossification)
2. Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells
▪ Epiphyseal plate – allows for
3. Osteoclasts – bone-destroying cells
lengthwise growth of long bones
- Break down bone matrix for
during childhood
remodeling and release of
o New cartilage is
calcium in response to
continuously formed
parathyroid hormone
o Older cartilage becomes
➢ Bone remodeling is performed by
ossified
both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
- Cartilage is broken down
BONE FRACTURES
- Enclosed cartilage is digested

away, opening a medullary cavity ➢ Fractures – break in a bone

➢ Types of bone fracture

 a) Closed (simple) fracture – 6. Greenstick – bone breaks

break that does not incompletely, much in the way a

penetrate the skin green twig breaks (common in

b) Open (compound) fracture children whose bones are more

– broken bone penetrates flexible than the adults)

the skin
REPAIRS OF BONE FRACTURES
➢ Reduction and immobilization –
a) Hematoma – blood filled swelling is
treatment
formed
FRACTURE TYPE
b) Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to

1. Comminuted – bone breaks into a form callus

many fragments (common in older c) Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a

people with brittle bones) bony callus

2. Compression – bone is crushed d) Bony callus is remodeled to form a

(common in porous bones, permanent patch

osteoporosis)
PARANASAL SINUSES
3. Depressed – broken bone portion is
➢ Hollow portions of bones
pressed inward (typical skull
surrounding the nasal cavity
fracture)
➢ Functions:
4. Impacted – broken bone ends are
o Lighten the skull
forced to each other (occurs when
o Give resonance and
one attempts to break a fall with
amplification to voice
outstretched arms)

5. Spiral – ragged break occurs when

excessive twisting forces are applied

to a bone (common sports fracture)