Body in Motion

Critical Question 1
How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of
the body influence and respond to movement?

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Syllabus dot points:
Students learn about:
● Skeletal system
- Major bones involved in movement
- Structure and function of synovial joints
- Joint actions
Students learn to:
● identify the location and type of major bones involved in movement, e.g. long
bones articulate at hinge joints for flexion and extension

Physiology: The study of how the body works and the various functions of body parts.
Anatomy: The study of body structure and the relationship between body structures.

Major Bones Involved in Movement

- The skeletal system forms the frame that protects internal organs
- Including the bones of the skeleton, the cartilage, ligaments and other connective
tissue that stabilise or connect the bones.
- Muscles and skin surround the skeletal system.
- It is held together by ligaments and joints between two or more bones, providing you
with mobility
- There are 206 bones in the human body

Major bones
Axial Skeleton • Cranium
• Mandible
• Sternum
• Ribs
• Vertebral column
- cervical
- thoracic
- lumbar
- sacral
- coccyx

Appendicular skeleton: Upper Limbs

• Clavicle
• Scapula
• Humerus
 • Radius
• Ribs
• Ulna
• Carpals
• Metacarpals
• Phalanges

Lower Limbs
• Pelvis
• Femur
• Patella
• Tibia
• Fibula
• Tarsals
• Metatarsals
• Phalanges

Function of the Skeletal System

Stop
Procrastinating
Begin
Motivating
My
Self

Support - (framework for muscles) → support our shape

Protection - (for internal organs) → skull protects and brain, the vertebral column protects the
spinal cord and the ribs protect the lungs
Blood cell production - (red bone marrow) → red bone marrow
produces RBC, platelets and WBC
Movement - (from the muscles attached to bones) → muscles pull on bones which
allows us to move
Mineral storage - (in particular calcium) → – bone stores 99% of the
body’s calcium and 85% of the phosphorus
Storage of energy - (yellow bone marrow) → in the form of lipids in
areas of yellow bone marrow

Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

The bones of the human body can be divided into two sections:
Axial Skeleton:
- Central axis of the body
- Consists of 80 bones of the head and trunk (upper body).
- Forms the central axis of the body and consists of the skull, vertebral column and
thoracic cage (thorax).
Appendicular skeleton:
- Consists of 126 bones in the upper and lower limbs
- Connects and includes all the limbs and bones that unite with the axial skeleton.
- Upper and lower arms, wrists, hands, pelvis area, upper and lower legs and the feet.
- These bones allow the body to be upright and supported

Bones of the Human Body

Types of Bones
The human skeleton has a number of functions such as protection and supporting weight.
Different types of bones have differing shapes related to their particular function. There are 5
types of bones in the skeleton.

Type of Bone Description Example

Flat Bone - Flat, thin and parallel - Skull

 - Provides protection - Sternum
to the bodies of vital - Coastals (ribs)
organs and is a base - Scapula
for muscular - Pelvis
attachment.

Long Bone - Longer than its width - Phalanges

and slender - Femur
- Has growth plates - The radius
(epiphysis) at either - Ulna (forearm)
end - Humerus (upper
- Hard outer surface of arm)
compact bone and a - Fibula, tibia (lower
spongy inner known leg)
as cancellous bone - Metacarpals
containing bone - Metatarsals
marrow.

Short Bone - Box- like (cube) - Carpals (wrists)

- As wide as they are - Tarsals (ankles)
long - Patella
- Primary function of
providing support
and stability with little
movement.

Irregular Bone - Shape does not fit - Mandible

into any other - Vertebra
category - Sacrum
- Complex shapes

Sesamoid Bone - Usually small, round - Patella (knee cap)

and flat
- Embedded in
tendons
- Help protects the
tendon from wear
and tear
- Often found in the
muscles of hands
and feet

Anatomical terms
Superior - above
Inferior - below
Anterior - front
Posterior - back
Lateral – away from the
midline
Medial – toward the midline
Proximal – close to point of
attachment
Distal – distant from the
point of attachment
Supine – lying face up
Prone – lying face down

Structure and Function of Synovial Joints

Joint Types
A joint in the location where two bones meet or articulate, they can facilitate not only
movement but stability. There are a variety of joints in the body, each allowing a different
level of movement, they are classifies according to the amount of movement they permit.
Our skeleton relies on our joints for stability and movement. We can differentiate different
joint types according to structure and function.

1. Fibrous Joints (fixed joints ot immoveable joints) :

connects bones without allowing movement, has no joint
cavity.
E.g sutures between skull bones

2. Cartilaginous Joints (slightly moveable joints) :

bones are attached by cartilage (fibrocartilage or hyaline)
and slight movement is permitted, no joining cavity
E.g. intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis.
 3. Synovial Joints (freely moveable joints) :
most common tyoe of joint. Depending on the type of synovial joint, these joints
provide a varying degree of movement. There are six different types of synovial
joints. Has a joint cavity.

Synovial Joints
- Has a joint cavity
- This fluid filled space is the sitr at which the
articulating surfaces of the bones contact
eachother
- Unlike fibrous and cartilaginous joints, the
articulating bone surfaces at a synovial joint
and not directly connected to each other
with fibrous connective tissue or cartilage
- Gives the bones of a synovial joint the ability
to move smoothly against eachother,
allowing increased joint mobility.

Structure of Synovial Joints

All synovial joints have the following structures:
• Articular capsule – a capsule that encloses the
joint cavity.
• Articular cartilage – a connective tissue
covering the surface of articulating bones.
• Synovial fluid – a secretion between joints
that lubricates and nourishes the articular
cartilage at the end of bones and reduces
friction during movement.
• Bursa – small sac containing synovial fluid,
located at friction sites between bones and
tendons

Synovial Joints are connected by

Ligaments – connect bones to bones.
Tendons – connect muscles to bones.
Articular Cartilage - provides smooth,
lubricated surface for articulating bones.
Types of Synovial Joints
Synovial joints are subdivided based on the shapes of their articulating surfaces of the bone
that form each joint. There are six types of synovial joints.
Synovial joint type Function
Pivot joint Allows for rotation of one bone
around another
e.g. top of the neck (atlas and
axis bones).
Hinge joint Allows flexion and extension
e.g. elbow and knee joints.
Saddle joint Allows for flexion, extension,
adduction,
abduction and circumduction
e.g. thumb joint.
Plane/ gliding joint Allows for gliding movements
e.g. joints between the carpals bones are flat or slightly curved and
and tarsals
Condyloid joint Allows for flexion, extension,
adduction, abduction and
circumduction. e.g. between
the radius and carpals bones
of the wrist
Explanation
A rounded portion of bone is
enclosed within a ring formed
partially by the articulation with
another bones and partially by
ligament.
The bones rotate within this ring.
The rotation is around a single axis,
classifying it as a uniaxial joint.
The convex end of one bone
articulate with the concave end of
the adjoining bone.
This tye of joint allows only for
bending and straightening motions
along a single axis, classifying iy as
a uniaxial joint.
Both of the articulating surfaces for
the bones have a saddle shape,
which is concave in one direction
and convex in the other.
This allows two bones to fit together
like a rider sitting on a saddle.
Classified as biaxial joints.
The articulating surfaces of the
of approximately the same size,
which allows the bones to slide
against eachother.
This motion at this joint is usually
small and tightly constrained by
surrounding ligaments.
Can allow multiple movements,
including rotation.
Classified as a multiaxial joint.
Also known as ellipsoid.
A shallow depression at the end of
the bone articulates with a rounded
structure from an adjacent bone or
bones.
 Classified as a biaxial joint that
allows for two planes of movement.

Ball and socket Allows flexion, extension, Has the greatest range of motion.
joint adduction, The rounded head of a bone (the
abduction, internal and ball) fits into the concave articulation
external rotation e.g. shoulder (the socket) of the adjacent bone.
and hip joints Classified as multiaxial joints.
Joint Actions

Planes of the Body

Synovial joints allow for various types of movements known as joint actions, which occur
through different planes of the body. These planes help describe the movement and joint
actions.

(Transverse plane is also known as horizontal plane)

Range of Joint Actions

Flextion is when the angle between two body segments decreases across the joint. Usually
occurs in a sagittal plane and refers to the anterior (front) body surfaces. Bending a limb or
joint.
Extension is when the angle between two body segments increases across the joint.
Straightening a limb or joint.

Abduction is when the body part is moved away from the midline (laterally) of the body.
This movement occurs in the frontal plane.
Adduction is when the body part is moved towards the midline, including movements that
go past the midline.

Protraction moves the scapula forward (anteriorly) and toward the side of the body
(laterally).
Retraction is the opposite movement. It causes the shoulder blades to move back
(posteriorly) and toward the body’s midline (medially).
Circumduction is when the distal end of a limb has a circular movement moving 360
degrees while the proximal end remains fixed.

Rotation is when the body part is twisted and occurs in the transverse plane. Rotation can
be internal (anterior surfaces moves medially) or external (anterior surface moves laterally).

Joint Specific Actions

Supination of the forearm is when the hand rotates to being palm up.
Pronation is when the hand rotates to being palm down.

Inversion is when the plantar surface (bottom) of the foot turns medially (inwards)
Eversion is when the bottom of the foot turns laterally (outwards)

Plantarflexion is when the toes and balls of the foot “flex” downwards (inferiorly)
Dorsiflextion is when the toes and balls of the foot “flex” upwards (superiorly)
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Syllabus Dot Points
● Major muscles involved in movement
● Muscle relationships (agonist and antagonist)
● Types of muscle contraction (concentric, eccentric, isometric)

The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscles. This system allows movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates blood
throughout the body. There is approximately 640 muscles in the body.

Myofilaments: Actin and Myosin

→ Muscle fibres are elongated cells and require two types of myofilaments to contract: actin and
myosin. These two proteins assist with the contraction of muscles to produce movement.

Myofilaments: are the 3 protein filaments of myofibrils in muscle cells. The man proteins
involve are myosin, actin and titin.
Actin: a cellular protein found especially in microfilaments and active in muscular
contraction, cellular movement and maintenance of cell shape.
Myosin: a fibrous protein that works with actin. It is a protein that produces the dense
contractile filaments within muscle cells and converts adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into
mechanical energy.

Major Muscle Involved in Movement

Types of muscle tissue

Skeletal Muscle:
● Made up of muscles fibres that are striated in appearance
● Voluntary (able to control them)
● Attached to the skeleton to govern movement and posture
● Often found over joints and attached to two bones
● Regulates body temperature
● Contract easily
● Requires recovery after exercise
● Powerful and strong.
Cardiac Muscles:
● Only found in the heart
● Striated in appearance
● Involuntary, controlled by the autonomic nervous system that stimulates itself using
electrical impulses to contract and pump blood around the body
● In between the fibres are intermittent spaces containing connective tissue and many
capillaries to ensure a constant supply of oxygen.
Smooth Muscles
● Non-striated
● Involuntary tissues controlled by the autonomic nervous system
● Lines walls of organs in the stomach and bladder as well as blood vessels
● Contracts much more slowly
● Purpose is to move substances through an organ or vessel by contracting in waves

Skeletal Muscles
● Main muscle involved in movement
● Known for allowing the ability to contract and cause movement or stop movement
such as resisting gravity to maintain posture
● Also prevents excess movement of the bones and joints, maintaining skeletal stability
and preventing damage or deformation
● Each skeletal muscle is an organ that consists of various integrated tissues
→ These tissues include the skeletal muscle fibres, blood vessels, nerve fibres and connective
tissue

Main Skeletal Muscles Involved in Movement.

Arm
Deltoids
Biceps brachii
Brachio-radialis
flexor-carpi-radialis
Palmaris longus

Chest
Pectoralis major
Serratus anterior
Intercostals

Abdomen
Rectus abdominis
External obliques
Internal obliques (deep)
Transverse abdominis (deep)

Legs
Satorius
Psoas
Quadriceps (Rectus femoris, Vastus medialis, Vastus lateralis, Vastus intermedius
Tibialis anterior

Origins and Insertion

Muscles have two ends that are attached by tendons to bones on either side of a joint. When
a muscle contracts, one bone moves while the other remains stationary.
Origin → a muscle attaches to a fixed attachment, stationary end of bone
Insertion → muscle attaches to the mobile end of the bone which moves with contraction
Example:
- At the elbow joint, the origin of the biceps is the humerus and the insertion is the
ulna.
- At the knee joint, the origin of the quadriceps is the femur and the insertion is the
tibia.

Muscle Contractions
Muscle contractions are classified as isotonic or isometric, depending on what type of
tension is produced.

Isotonic Contraction: In isotonic contractions, muscle length changes through a range of

motion or action. Concentric and eccentric are types of isotonic contractions.
Concentric → the muscle shortens as it contracts. E.g bicep curl flextion
Eccentric → the muscles lengthens as it contracts. E.g lowering a bicep curl
Isometric Contraction: Is when force is generated and a muscles contacts but no
movement is produced, meaning the length of the muscle remains the same.
E.g holding a plank, wall sit.

Muscle Relationships
Muscles work in pairs or groups to product an action. Depending on their function, muscles
can be classified into three groups:
1. Agonists → provides main force
2. Antagonists → react, oppose or reverse the movement of another muscle
3. Stablilizer → muscles that aid agonists by promoting the same movement ot reducing
undesired movement

Agonists
- Muscles that apply the force that allows the movement to occur
- Provides primary movement
- Can be a concentric, eccentric or isometric contraction
Antagonist
- Muscles that do not contract in any way during a movement
- At rest while movement is being performed, so they wont get in the way of movement
- Always in opposition to agonist muscles
- However, they aren’t always in a relaxed state, depending on the type of movement,
they can function to slow or stop a movement

Stabalizers
Synergist → the muscle/s that stablises a joint around which movement is occurring which
helps the agonist muscle function effectively and can also help create movement
Fixator → muscle/s that stabalises the origin of the agonist and the joint that the origin spans
to help the agonist function most effectively.

Example: Bicep curl

During flexion, the biceps (concetric contraction) are the agonist because they provide the
force for movement and are being targeted, making the tricep the antagonist. However,
when the arm is extended the biceps become relaxed (antagonist) and the triceps contact
eccentrically, making them now become the agonist. During each stage of the movement the
antagonist is not completely relaxed as it is being activated the stabalise the arm to protect
the joints by providing enough tension to fight against the effects of gravity.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Syllabus Dot Points:

● Structure and function
 ● Lung function (inspiration and expiration)
● Exchange of gases (internal and external)

The respiratory system consists of all the organs involved in breathing. It is defined as the
movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues and the
transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction.

Structure and Function

The respiratory system consists of the following organs: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
These organs combine to allow gas exchange to occur between the lungs and the circulatory
system.

Breakdown of the structure

● Nose
- Nasal cavity
- Nasal conchae
- Nasal vestibule
● Pharynx
● Larynx
- Epiglottis
- Thyroid cartilage – Cricoid cartilage
● Trachea
- Carina of trachea
● Bronchi
● Lungs
● Diaphragm
● Bronchioles
● Alveolar Sacs • Alveoli

Name Function

1 Nose Where air travels through and is warmed,

while the small hairs in the cavity remove
any small particles, such as dust or bugs.
Smelling, tasting, breathing.

2 Mouth Starting point of digestive system, as well

as a secondary inhaler and exhaler

3 Larynx The larynx, also known as the voice box,

is used to make sound and to talk.

4 Lung Essential organs of respiration

5 Right bronchus The right “trunk” ofthe respiratory tree

6 Diaphragm Muscular structure that helps expand and

 contract the lungs to force air in and out

7 Pharynx The nasal cavity and the oral cavity

combine and allows for the movement of
both air, food and liquid (the epiglottis is
used to close off the air way when
swallowing).

8 Trachea The main air pipe that brings air down to

the lungs. Splits into two main bronchi or
bronchus, which continue to branch down
to bronchioles.

9 Left bronchus The left ‘trunk’ of the respiratory tree

10 Bronchiolies The smaller “branches” of the bronchus –

air is filtered here and brought to the
alveoli. Forms the internal structure of the
lungs

11 Alveoli These are the “leaves” of our respiratory

tree and are lined with fluid. They link the
respiratory and circulatory systems.
Gas exchange happens here
They are located at the end of
bronchiolies, covered with small
capillaries and a have thin membrane or
wall which oxygen is transferred into
these capillaries and exchanged for
carbon dioxide. The oxygen is then
returned to the heart and carbon dioxide
is exhaled.
 - The respiratory system will increase the depth of breath in response to physical
activity. This increase the number of alveoli being used for gas exchange and,
therefore, increases the amount of oxygen transferred to the blood and carbon-
dioxide removed.
- The respiratory system will also increase the breathing rate allowing for a faster
change of gas inside the lungs, which increases the amount of gas exchange per
minute allowing for higher delivery of oxygen to the working muscle. This improves
movement efficiency of the muscles.

Lung function
Respiration involved two phases: inspiration and expiration

Inspiration (breathing in): the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward while the muscles
between the ribs contract and pull upwards. This increases the size of the thoracic cavity
and decreases the pressure inside. As a result, air rushes in and fills the lungs.

Expiration (breathing out): the diaphragm relaxes and the volume of the thoracic cavity
decreases, while the pressure within it increases. As a result, the lungs contract and air is
forced out.

Exchange of Gases

The exchange of gases begins with inspiration and

end with the expiration of a breath. Gas exchange
is the transfer of oxygen into the blood via the
cardiovascular system and the removal of carbon-
dioxide out of the blood . During gas exchange
oxygen is transferred to the circulatory system,
while carbon-dioxide is removed.
When we breathe in the alveoli is supplied with a gas that is high in oxygen and low in
carbon dioxide. Simultaneously, blood in the capillaries is high in carbon dioxide and low in
oxygen.

Internal Gas Exchange (diffuses and occurs in

the tissues, blood and cells)
Refers to the exchange of gases between the cells of
the body and the blood.
Oxygenated blood is brought to the muscle/cell,
where oxygen is taken out of the blood and
transferred to the muscle, while at the same time
carbon-dioxide is taken out of the muscle cell and
brought into the blood. The exchange of gases
across the membranes of the capillary and the
muscle is referred to as diffusion and is known as
internal respiration.
Blood flows from the left side to the right sides of the heart during internal respiration.

External Gas Exchange (occurs in the alveoli of the lungs and the environment)
The external exchange of gases occurs between
the alveoli and the capillaries that encode them.
De-oxygenated blood travels in the capillaries to
the alveoli, where carbon-dioxide diffuses out of
the blood and into the alveoli. At the same time,
oxygen that has beeen brought into the alveoli
through inspiration diffuses across the alveoli
membrane and into the capillaries. This results in
oxygenated blood being taken away from the
lungs, back to the heart where it gets pumped
around the body for use, while the carbon dioxide
is expired into the atmosphere.
Blood flows from the right side to the left sides of the heart during internal respiration.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Syllabus dot points:

● Components of blood
● Structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries
● Pulmonary and systemic circulation
● Blood pressure

- Consists of the heart, blood and blood vessels

 - Responsible for the transport of nutrients, blood, hormones, oxygen, carbon dioxide
and waste products to cells and organs around the body
- Blood has many different functions such as regulating body temperature, bringing
waste products to the kidneys and liver which filters and cleans the blood and also
the description below

Components of Blood

Components Description

Plasma Straw coloured liquid substance

responsible for transporting the formed
elements, predominately made up of
water.

White blood Responsible for combating infection

cells and inflammation. When the body has
(leucocytes) an infection the number of white blood
cells increases in order to fight it.

Red blood Formed in the bone marrow. The

cells primary role of red blood cells is to
(erythrocytes) carry oxygen and carbon dioxide. They
contain an iron and protein called
haemoglobin.

Platelets Responsible for blood clotting when a

(thrombocytes) blood vessel is broken or damaged.
This prevents blood loss during injury

Structure and Function of the Heart

The heart contracts rhythmically to produce
enough force to circulate blood around the
body. A wall separates it into left and right
sides, each consisting of two chambers.
- Atria, upper thin-walled chambers that
receive blood returning to the heart
- Ventricle, the lower thick walled
chambers that pump blood from the
heart
A system of one-way valves allows the blood to
flow in one direction only.

Deoxygenated blood enters the heart through

the superior and inferior vena cava and into the
right atrium, it then passes through the
tricuspid valve into the right ventricle and exits
through the pulmonary valve into the
pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery
transports the blood to the lungs where a gas exchange occurs and makes the blood
oxygenated, it then travels back to the heart from the lungs via the pulmonary vein. After
that, it travels into the left atrium, through the mitral valve and into the left ventricle where it
exists through the aortic valve and into the aorta. The aorta then transports the oxygenated
blood into the rest of the body.

Blood Vessles
Blood vessels are pathways that connect the circulatory system together. There are three
main types
Blood vessel Description

Arteries Large vessels with thick muscular walls, they transport

oxygen-rich blood away from the heart and to the
tissues.

Capillaries The smallest blood vessel that has thin walls or

membranes which allow gas exchange to occur.
Capillaries also join arteries to veins.

Veins Slightly thinner walls than arteries, veins carry oxygen-

poor blood (mostly carbon dioxide) from tissues and
back to the heart. Contains valvues to keep the blood
moving in one direction
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
Because of these circuits, the heart receives oxygenated and deoxygenated blood almost
simultaneously.
Pulmonary circulation circulates blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
This occurs on the right side of the heart to the left.
Systemic circulation circulates blood from the heart to all body tissue and then back to the
heart. This occurs on the left side of the heart to the right.

Blood Pressure
The term blood pressure refers to the amount of force exerted on the blood vessel walls. The
flow and pressure of blood in the arteries roses with each contraction of the heart and falls
when it relaxes and refills.
Blood pressure has two phases: systolic and diastolic.
Systolic: measures the force of the contractions in the left ventricle as the heart pushes
blood out of the body. This number is the highest reading recorded.
Diastolic: measures the heart as it is relaxing and filling with blood. This is the lowest
reading recorded.
Critical Question 2
What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and
movement efficiency?

HEALTH-RELATED COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

Syllabus dot point:

● Cardiorespiratory endurance
● Muscular strength
● Flexibility
● Body composition
● Muscular endurance

These 5 components of fitness make up the base work and closely relate to improving health
outcomes, they focus on movement efficiency and performance. They are the foundation of
fitness and are what should be worked on in preseason as they provide the general
conditioning needed for most sports performances and ensure the athlete doesn’t fatigue
and then lose their technique for movement. The importance of these components differs
between different athletes and their needs, depending on what sport they play and in order
to be good they need to train their important compnent/s.

Component of Fitness Definition/description Example of fitness tests

Cardiorespiratory Refers to the respiratory and - Beep test

Endurance circulatory system supplying
oxygen and removing
carbon dioxide during
periods of sustained
exercise. Generally
measured by Vo2 max

Muscular Strength The ability to produce force - Bench press

against resistance, usually - Squat
measured by the maximal - Deadlift
weight lifted in 1 repetition

Flexibility The range of motion about a - Sit and reach

joint

Body Composition Refers to the percentage of - Skin fold test

a fat as opposed to lean
body mass
 Muscular Endurance The ability to generate force - Lifting until failure
over an extended period of - Maxing out pushups
time

SKILL RELATED COMPONENTS OF FITNESS

Syllabus dot points:

● Power
● Speed
● Agility
● Coordination
● Balance
● Reaction time

There are 6 skill-related components of fitness. They relate to skills that are used in sports
and often, not always, combine other components of fitness. For example: power is strength
at speed and agility is a combination of power and balance. In relation to performance and
movement efficiency, usually the skill-related components of physical fitness are required n
order to perform the skills well.

Component of Fitness Definition/description Examples of Fitness Tests

Power A combination of strength - Vertical jump

and speed, the ability to - Standing long jump
apply force as quickly as
possible, resulting in a
dynamic burst of movement

Speed The pace at which an - Speed tests

athlete performs a task - Sprints

Agility The ability to rapidly change - Illinois test

direction with minimal loss of - T test
speed and balance

Coordination The ability to harmonise the - Tennis balls against

messages from the senses the wall (ball toss)
with parts of the body to
produce efficient, skillfully
and well-controlled
movement

Balance The ability to maintain - Stalk test

stability when both static
and dynamic and the state
of equilibrium that results in
an equal distribution of
 weight while stationary or
moving

Is vital not only for

successful application of
the skill, but to also reduce
the likelihood of injury.

Reaction Time The measure of time - Ruler test

between stimulus and first - NFL throw
muscle movement

Purpose of Testing Physical Fitness

1. To determine current health condition, risks and limitations
2. To learn about past injuries or surgeries
3. To assess your current fitness levels so you can find ways of improving
4. To identify fitness goals, interests and motivation for exercising
5. To identify appropriate training options
6. To establish methods to track progress and evaluate your success
7. To allow coaches to make decisions about team selections

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Syllabus dot points:

● The FIIT principle

There are 2 types of training that athletes may undertake to improve their fitness and
sporting performance depending on the type of sport and skills they need.

Type of Training Definition Benefits Examples

Aerobic Aerobic training is any - Builds physical - Long

Training type of cardiovascular endurance distance
conditioning or - Strengthens your runs
“cardio”. During heart and reduces - Walks
aerobic training your your resting rate - Elliptical
breathing and heart - Increases red machine
rate increase for a blood cells
sustained period of - Helps with weight
time. Oxygen is the loss if combined
main energy source with a healthy diet
during aerobic - Can potentially
exercise. Performed reduce risk of hert
at low to moderate disease, stroke,
intensity. Aerobic hight BP diabates,
training aims to get etc
 the heart rate in the - Improve immune
aerobic training zone system and
which is 60-85% Max stamina
HR. - Increase
cardiovascular
endurance

Anaerobic Anaerobic means - Increases bone - Weight

Training “without oxygen” and strength and lifting
uses predominantly density - Sprint
the anaerobic energy - Protects joints - Plyometre
systems (Lactic Acid - Builds muscle - Explosive
and Alactacid energy mass and power jumping
systems). Involves - Improves
quick bursts of energy endurance and
and is performed at cardiorespiratory
maximum effort efficiency by
(above 85% Max HR) increasing
for a short time. VO2max
During anaerobic - Burns fat
exercise, your body - Increase
requires immediate metabolism
energy. Your body, - Increase
therefore, relies on power/explosive
stored sources movement
(glycogen), rather
than oxygen, for fuel.
Anaerobic training
can focus on strength,
power, speed, lactate
removal, muscular
endurance, and much
more.

Athletes that can benefit from aerobic training

Swimmers, soccer, football, marathon/long-distance running

Athletes that can benefit from anaerobic training

Sprinters, weight lifter, powerlifters

The FITT Principle

A common guideline for improving aerobic and anaerobic fitness is the use of the FITT
principle. Following the FITT principle assists people in planning a training session or writing
a fitness program. Manipulating the various components within the FITT principle allows a
gradual progression and overload, increasing the likelihood of achieving set goals.

The 4 FITT principles are:

Frequency: refers to the frequency (how often) of the exercise undertaken
Intensity: refers to the intensity (how hard) of the exercise undertaken
Time: refers to the time (how long) you spend exercising
Type: refers to the type of exercise undertaken
FITT Principle To improve cardiorespiratory
endurance (aerobic)
Frequency At least three sessions per week,
increasing as the body adapts
Intensity For a beginner: target heart rate of
50-70% of maximum heart rate
For an elite athlete: target rate of 70-
85% of MHR
Time Training within your target heart rate
for 20-30 minutes, increasing 45-60
minutes as fitness improves
Type The type of training that is completed
needs to be continuous in nature in
order to improve the cardiorespiratory
system, ideally using whole-body
movements. To improve aerobic
capacity, the exercises or
activities should be aerobic in nature
e.g. running, swimming, cycling
IMMEDIATE PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO TRAINING
Syllabus dot points:
● Heart rate
To improve strength (anaerobic)
Full body resistance training: 3-4
times a week with adequate recovery
Part body resistance training: 5-6
times per week with adequate
recovery
For resistance training: the
‘workload’ can be varied to change
the intensity. There are three ways
this can be done
- The amount of weight lifted
during an exercise
- The number of repetitions
completed during an exercise
- The length of the time
permitted to complete all the
exercises in the set
Intensity often dictates the time of
the session for resistance training.
With a higher intensity training
session, the session may only last
20-30 minutes, a lower intensity
session may last 30-45 minutes or
longer
Targeting the anaerobic lactic acid
energy system. Any activity that
breaks down glucose for energy
without using oxygen. Generally,
these activities are of short length
with high intensity. The idea is that a
lot of energy is released within a
small period of time, and the oxygen
demand surpasses the oxygen
supply. Examples include, weight
lifting, sprint, plyometre and
explosive jumping.
 ● Ventilation rate
● Stroke volume
● Cardiac output
● Lactate levels

- Proportional to the intensity of the training

- Physical activity demands oxygen delivery along with the removal of carbon dioxide
and lactic acid
- Immediate changes help to achieve a higher delivery of oxygen, faster removal of
carbon dioxide and conversion of pyruvic acid into lactate
- Responses can take around 3 minutes to fully adapt to the intensity of training
- The speed at which the responses return to resting level relates to a persons fitness
levels and the body’s ability to recover from training sessions
- The reason for many of the immediate responses to training is the increases amount
of carbon dioxide produced by the working muscles, stimulating an increase in heart
rate, ventilation, stroke volume and cardiac output.
- Lactate levels increase in response to increased use of the lactic acid energy
system and the muscles need to remove lactate to delay fatigue.

Heart Rate
- Largely dependant on an individual’s level of health and fitness
- An elite athlete can have a resting heart rate as low as 28 BPM, which is an
indication of an effective cardiorespiratory system
- A sedentary (unfit/doesn’t move much) adult could have a resting rate of 100 BPM
- The heart rates immediate physiological response to training is to increase,
measured in beats per minute
- This is because during exercise the body demands a greater amount of oxygen and
nutrients to the working muscles causing the heart rate to increase
- Increases with the intensity of exercise, maximum heart rate occurs when an
individual participates in exhaustive exercise
- The cardiorespiratory fitness level of a person determines how quickly the heart rate returns
to resting levels after exercise → the fitter you are, the quicker you recover
- The fitness of a person also determinesz how fast their heart rate increases → the fitter you
are the slower your heart increases because the heart muscle is stronger and doesn’t have to
pump as fast to keep up
 Resting heart rate The rate at which your heart beats at periods of rest
Average RHR = 72 BPM
Elite athletes RHR = 27-28 BPM

Maximum heart rate Calculated by 220 - age

The highest number of beats per minute your body can
pump under maximum stength

Beats per minute Indicates the number of heart beats per minute

Steady state When the heart rate remains relatively constant

Calculating MHR and THRZ

MHR = 220 - age
Target heart rate = MHR x THRZ (eg. 70% for aerobic training)

Ventilation Rate
- Refers to the depth and rate of breathing and is expressed in breaths per minute
- Increases for the same reason as the heart does, the body is responding to the
increase in carbon dioxide and works harder to breathe it out while increasing oxygen
- The size of the increase in ventilation rate is related to the intensity of the training → the
more intense the higher it is
 Ventilation - Movement of air in and out of the lungs and into the
atmosphere
- During rest it is 12 breaths per min of approx 500 millilitres
each breath, resulting in 6L/m
- Increases with exercise, and rapidly declines after exercise
and gradually returns to resting rate

Minute ventilation A measurement of the amount of air that enters the lungs per minute

Tidal volume A measurement of the amount of air that enters the lungs per minute

Inspiration Breathing in

Expiration Breathing out

Stroke Volume
- Refers to the amount of blood pumped from the heart (left ventricle) per beat
- Resting sv is approx 50-60 mililitres for untrained individuals and 80-110 mililitres for
trained individuals
- Increases during exercise to approx 100-120 mililitres for untrained and up to 200 for
trained
- Increased stoke volume is due to the left venticle holding more blood and a stronger
contraction, them emptying more blood per beat

Reason for increase

Firstly there is an increase in blood returning to the heart due to muscular contractions,
which naturally results in greater diastolic filling of the heart increasing the stroke volume.
Secondly, the body has a higher demand for oxygen and therefore the heart contracts more
forcefully during exercise. And thirdly, there is less resistance to the blood moving out of the
ventricle due to vasodilation (widening) of the blood vessels.

Cardiac Output (Q)

- Refers to the amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle each minute
- Can be calculated as: Q (L/min) = SV (stroke volume) x HR (heart rate, BPM)
Under resting conditions is similar for trained and untrained individuals and is approx
5-6 litres
- During exercise this can increase to 22 L/min.
- In elite athletes this can increase to 35 L/min
- Sharp increase as exercise commences and continues to increase as workload
increases in order to meet the exercising muscles’ demands for more oxygen
- Muscles use about 20% of our cardiac output at rest this increases to about 84%
during exercise.

Lactate Levels
- Refers to the amount of lactate and/or lactic acid in your blood.
- Lactic acid is produced by the lactic acid energy system and is quickly converted to
lactate before being transported to your liver where it is converted to glucose.
- Produced by the breakdown of carbohydrates and is cleared from the body by the
muscles
- During exercise, lactate levels will increase as the body produces lactic acid to create
energy for the muscles
- Under resting conditions, its clearing rate is in balance, resulting in constant levels of
1-2 milimole/L
- Amount will vary depending on the intensity of the exercise, high intensity will create
higher lactate levels

Critical Question 3
How do biomechanical principles influence movement?
- Biomechanics combines the studies of biology and mechanics to explain how the
body functions
- It helps individuals:
● Understand techniques used in sport
● Choose the best technique to achieve their best performance with
consideration to their body shape
● Understand the biomechanical principles of how a movement is performed
which improves performance
● Reduce risk of injury
● Design and use equipment that contributes to improved performance
MOTION

Syllabus dot point:

● The application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration and momentum in
movement and performance contexts

Linear motion
- The movement/ motion of a human body, limb or objects propelled by a human body
can be described in terms of either a line or circular pathway
- Movement along a line is called linear motion
- Linear motion occurs when the human body, limb or object moves in the same
direction at the same speed, over the same distance. E.g. running 100m
- There are two types of linear motion:
● Rectilinear motion → movement takes place in a straight line E.g. running
100m
● Curvilinear motion → takes place in a curved path (jumping over) E.g hurdles

- Two terms used to describe a bodys’ motion

● Linear distance → the entire length of the path travelled by an object when it
has been added altogether
● Linear displacement → the most direct path used to measure the distance
between the start and finish point. Uses direction.

Speed and Velocity

- Speed → describes only the magnitude of the speed of the body (how quickly the
body is moving)
SPEED = DISTANCE
TIME

- Velocity → describes both the magnitude and direction. Measures the displacement
of the body and is divided by the time taken to get from point A to B
VELOCITY = CHANGE IN DISPLACEMENT
TIME

EXAMPLE
Calculate both the speed and velocity of a swimmer who swam 150m in a 50m pool at a time
of 95 seconds

Speed = Velocity =

= 150 = 50
95 95

= 1.58m/s = 0.53m/s

The difference between speed and velocity becomes very apparent when comparing them in
a 400m race for the athlete in lane 1. The athletes speed for the event may have been
7.89m/s but her velocity is zero since she started and finished at the same point.

Acceleration
ACCELERATION = CHANGE IN VELOCITY
TIME
Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes in a given amount of time, which
allows an object or person to be able to quickly increases their speed.

- Acceleration is caused by applying a force to an object, whether it be stationary or

moving.
- Having zero acceleration even though an individual may be travelling very quickly is
possible because when a constant speed is maintained, the velocity will remain at 0
and will not change.
- It is a skill that requires intensive training as a slight difference in posture and
technique can greatly impact performance.
- Athletes need to be able to increase and decrease velocity rapidly.
- In a sports context acceleration relates directly to agility. Faster acceleration allows
for better agility
- Acceleration is a vital component of performance and relates directly to the athlete’s
ability to produce power.
- Faster acceleration is beneficial in performance, as it allows opposition less time to
react, and helps you reach your top speed faster

Momentum
MOMENTUM = MASS x VELOCITY

Momentum is a measure of mass in motion (how much mass is in how much motion) and is
a product of mass and velocity

- Once an object starts to move it has the tenancy to keep moving and staying in
motion, this is called momentum
- Objects possessing large amount of momentum can very difficult to stop moving
- Momentum can be
 ● linear → when a person is moving in a straight line.
For example, a sprinter or ski jumper
● Angular → when momentum is generated on an angle
For example, figure skating or vault in gymnastics
- A larger object moving at the same velocity as a smaller object will have greater
momentum
-

Differences in momentum are affected by variations in mass and velocity. In most sports,
mass is constant, so velocity becomes the main influencing factor in momentum, to increase
momentum, simply increase velocity. This is why a smaller player in a contact sport like
rugby league can still generate momentum against larger opponents due to their ability
increase velocity.
For example, by increasing the velocity of a bat, a cricketer can hit the ball further or when
an iceskater bringers her arms in closer to her body during a spin, they will spin faster and to
slow down they move their arms away.

Balance and Stability

Syllabus Dot Points:

● Centre of Gravity
● Line of Gravity
● Base of support

- Balance and stability is important in many sports such as gymnastics, ice skating and
ballet
- Balance is your ability to control your body without movement against gravity. (ability
to control equilibrium)
- Stability is your ability to control your body during movement and return it to the
desired position after being disturbed, for example responding to an attempted tackle
by an opponent. (resistance to the disruption of equilibrium)
- Balance can be both static and dynamic, but it must not have acceleration occurring.
Once acceleration is involved we are talking about stability.

Centre of Gravity (COG)

- The point where weight is evenly distributed and all sides of the object or person are
balanced
- It is a point at which the combined mass of the body appears to be concentrated.
- The position of the centre of gravity depends on how the body parts are arranged
- For the average human, the centre of gravity is at the centre of the pelvis when they
are standing in the anatomical position
- However it can vary depending on, athletic build and movements. For example, an
athlete with larger legs will have a lower centre of gravity unless their upper body is
also large and balances the mass.
 - During certain movements, it can lie outside the body
- To improve stability and balance athletes look to lower their centre of gravity

Line of Gravity (LOG)

- An imaginative line drawn from the centre of gravity to the ground
- The direction that gravity is acting upon the object
- An object is most stable when the line of gravity falls through the centre of the base
of support. Meaning that the wider the BOS, the harder it is to fall
- If the LOG or COG falls outside the BOS a person or object can risk falling and
becoming unstable. For example, standing on two feet and leaning forward will make
you fall as soon as the COG and LOG which is in the core, passes over the toes,
which is the BOS.
- A shorter line of gravity between the centre of gravity and the ground also means
better balance and stability

Base of Support (BOS)

- BOS refers to the area beneath an object or person that includes every point of
contact that it makes with the supporting surface (ground).
- To improve stability athletes look to widen or increase their base of support so weight
is exerted over a larger area and allow more space for the line of gravity to move
around and reside in, making it harder to pass over the BOS and become unstable
- Heavier people also have a more stable BOS as they are harder to move
- When an athlete is anticipating contact from an external player, they will naturally
widen their base of support IN THE DIRECTION OF FORCE (or
impeding force)
 - If you are about to have a forward run into you, you don’t abduct at the hips and
widen your support, as this will not help you. Instead, you stagger your feet front to
back in order to increase your stability.
- However, widening your base of support also makes you less mobile. In order to
increase mobility and improve acceleration, you need to reduce your base of support.
- When there are big changes in direction, stability is often increased by adding
contact points such as putting your hand on the ground for extra BOS
- When it comes to movement the athlete seeks to keep their line
of gravity outside of their base of support in order to create
acceleration and continuous movement.
- The sprinter puts his line of gravity in front of his base of support
in order to allow stability in movement. However, the further the
distance from the base of support, the greater acceleration is
required to maintain stability. Once a set velocity is reached, often the line of gravity
is brought back closer to the base of support, as the body becomes more upright in
order to maintain the velocity with both balance and stability.

Fluid Mechanics

Syllabus dot points:

● Flotation
● Centre of buoyancy
● Fluid resistance

Flotation
- When an object is placed in the water, gravity causes the object to submerge, which
results in the displacement of water.
- Displacement is when an object enters the water, it pushes out water to make room
for itself, the object pushes out a volume of water that is equal to its own volume.
- In order for an object to float, the volume of the water displaced must weigh
more than the object itself, this principle is known as buoyancy
➔ An upward force on an object produced by fluid in which it is fully/partially
submerged
➔ Caused by differences in pressure acting on opposite sides of an object
immersed in water
- If the weight of the volume of water displaced is greater than the weight of the object,
then the water will create a buoyant force that will push the object upwards against
gravity.
- Once these two forces become equal, the object will float in this position known as
the point of equilibrium, meaning the part of the object below the water has displaced
 the same weight of water as the object itself, resulting in a buoyancy force equal to
that of the gravitational force acting on the object.
- Archimedes Principle states that when a body is immersed in water, the body
experiences an upward force equal to the weight of the water displaced by the
body
- If we are less dense and have higher proportions of less compact tissue such as fat,
we tend to float.

ujCentre of Buoyancy
- The centre of mass of the displaced water
- The centre of buoyancy is the centre point of the mass below the water and is the
point through which the buoyant force acts.
- Acts in the opposite direction of the centre of gravity
- In order for the object to not rotate in the water, this buoyant force must pass through
the centre of mass of the object.
- If they do not line up, the object will rotate until they do, which may result in one end
of the object sinking further down while the other end raises.
- For an object to have less gravitational force than the water it displaces, it must be
less dense (mass per unit of volume) than the water.

The first image shows that the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravity do not
line up, meaning that rotation will occur. The second image shows that they do line
up due to the lowering of the legs and the rising of the chest.
Fluid Resistance
● Fluid resisitance is a force that opposes a movement through a fluid
● The term drag is used inerchangebly with ‘resistance’ in biomechanics
● Drag increases with the intensity of the fluid and in proportion to the square of
velocity.
● Drag is the force that opposes the forward motion of a body or object, reducing
its speed or velocity. It is a resisting force because it acts in opposition to whatever
is moving through it. Drag forces run parallel to low direction (airlow, water), exerting
a force on the body in the direction of the stream
● Lift: Force component that acts at right angles to drag, resistance coming up,
essential to most sports
● Negative Lift: Opposite of lift—resistance coming down, keeping body/object down

The amount of drag experienced depends on a number of factors, including:

● Fluid density → because water is denser than air, forward motion in this fluid is more
difficult.
● Shape → If a body or object is streamlined at the front and tapered towards the tail, the fluid
through which it is moving experiences less turbulence and this results in less resistance.
● Surface → A smooth surface causes less turbulence, resulting in less drag.
● Size offrontal area → If the front of a person or object (area making initial contact with the
fluid) is large, resistance to forward motion is increased.

There are two main sources of drag:

- Pressure
- Friction

Pressure Drag
- The force created by changes in pressure of the fluid as the object moves
- Drag created by the shape and size of a body or object
- Different shapes objects create and receive different amounts of pressure drag
- Objects with bigger cross-sectional areas produce more form drag in comparison to
stream- lined objects which, because of shape and smoothness, causes smaller
changes in pressure.
- This is because fluid has to move more widely over larger surfaces and creates more
turbulence
- When objects become as narrow and straight as possible, it is known as streamlining
- Cyclists try to reduce form drag by reducing the size of their frontal area (bending
forward) and by ‘drafting’ or following closely behind other cyclists to reap the
benefits of being in the low pressure area.
Friction
- Friction is another formed of drag caused by friction between the air particles moving
pas the object and the surface of the object.
- Friction: the action of one surface or object rubbing against another that at times,
may cause resistance.
- In many sports, particularly swimming, clothing and equipment has been adjusted in order to
cause less friction → costumes are tight and the material used is water repellent so it
decreases friction to make swimmers faster, caps and google are also used to do the same.
- The amount of fluid resistance is proportional to the density of the fluid, meaning
there is much more resistance moving through water.
- Fluid resistance increases in proportion to the speed of the movement squared.
- This means that if speed double from 1 m to 2 m a second, the amount of resistance
will be quadrupled.
- This means that resistance is much more important for fast movement than it is for
slow ones.

THE MAGNUS EFFECT

● Why something curves when it spins in the air
● Topspin : When ball/object rotates forwards on a horizontal axis, causing it to drop
faster
● Backspin : Opposite, when ball/object rotate backwards, causes to all slowly at end
of flight
● Sidespin : Rotation around vertical axis, causes ball/object to curve left/right during
flight
● Spinning causes formation of pockets of high pressure, low pressure ➥ Will go from high
pressure to low pressure
● The size of the pressure pockets depends on the speed of rotation and roughness of
the surface.
● Topspin creates high pressure at top of ball, low pressure at bottom—high pressure
to low pressure (from top of ball to bottom) causes ball to drop faster. Backspin is
opposite
FORCE

Syllabus dot points:

● How the body applies force
● How the body absorbs force
● Applying force to an object

● A force pushes or pulls an object to make it change its position

● Forces are often applied through direct contact, when one object pushes against
another
● Forces can be internal (develoed within the body e.g. muscle contractions) or
external (e.g gravity)
● Direct contact between objects is not required for all forces → gravity is a force of attraction
between any two objects and the gravity we experience on Earth is the pull of our body
towards the Earth

Newtons Three Laws of Motion

Law one:
A body at rest will remain at reast, and a body in motion will remain in motion unless it is
acted upon by an exterenal force
Law two:
The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its acceleration,
F=ma. In other words, when a force acts on an object the change in movement will be as
large as the force and direction of the force.
Law three; for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The object applies the
same force upon that which is applying the orginal force, but in the opposite direction.
- Force is measures in newtons (N)
- 1 newton of force is the force requires to accelerate an object with a mass of 1 KG 1
m per second squared
How the Body Applies Force
● In order to cause movement the body applies force to the ground
● This is related to Newtons third law → in order for our body to move either upwards or
horizontally, we need to apply force to the ground and then move as a result of the equal and
opposite reaction force.
● Reaction Force : Equal, opposite forces exerted in response to applied
● Players are able to apply forces (biomechanics) to objects such as the ground to
enable them to run faster, or to a tennis racquet to enable them to hit the ball harder.
In doing this, the players are confronted with opposing forces such as gravity, air
resistance and friction.
● The greater the force the runner can produce, the greater is the resistance from the
track
● The body creates force by manipulating the gravitational force on the body and by
generating force using its muscles. Muscular contractions provide the force used to
create movement around joints.
● Smaller input force from the muscles is converted into a large output force and
transmitted to external objects
● Weight is a force exerted by gravity
● Weight of an object is equal to the mass of that object multiplied by acceleration due
to gravity

How the body absorbs force

● While the body applies force to objects, you also allow objects to apply forced to you,
causing you body to deform in response
● How your body absorbs the force determines how much deformation occurs which
can influence your risk of injury
● Larger forces are more difficult to control
● Forces exerted on the body are absorbed through the joints, which bend or flex in
response to the impact
● We see evidence of the body absorbing forces in activities such as rebounding in
basketball, landing in high jump and stopping the bounce while on a trampoline
● The amount of force applied depends on the momentum of the moving objects and
on the amount of time over which the force is applied
● The product of the force and time is called impulse
● Successful control of collisions with the body requires the body to increase the
duration of time over which the force is applied. For example, When the body lands
on a floor or similar surface, it exerts a force on the surface. In response, the surface
exerts a force on the body. If we did not bend the knees and allow a slow, controlled
dissipation of the forces by the muscles, the risk of injury to the joint would be
increased. In an activity such as the landing phase of a long jump, the muscles in the
front of the thigh (quadriceps) lengthen while absorbing the force (see figure 6.34).
Joint flexion helps prevent injury to surrounding tissue.
● In catching process, force is exerted by ball by hand on ball. Catching ball can sting if
force on ball is not absorbed effectively
● Impact felt by object being caught is product of
➔ Force of ball
➔ Distance through which hands move while receiving ball
● Techniques to absorb force more effectively;
➔ Catching arm can be outstretched. When ball meets hand, arm can be drawn
quickly to body
➔ Smothering ball with other hand
➔ Catching with outstretched arm, moving it past, behind body to increase
distance over which ball is caught
➔ Pivoting body during catching action
Applying Force to an Object
● The body is a vehicle used for applying force to an object
● The body does this through the generation of forces by their muscles creating
movement of the limb or body that makes contact with the external object
● In order to generate the maximal force the body needs ot use it largest muscles
(lower body and torso)
● The body can also help genrare force by using gravity and momentum from
movement by transferring force into the object. E.g. football power shot
● The quantity of force applied to the object is important. The greater the force, the
greater is the acceleration of the object. A small soccer player whose mass and
technique allows only small effort production provides little force to the ball in
comparison to the same ball being kicked by a bigger player
● If the mass of an object is increased, more force is needed to move the object the
same distance For example, if a football becomes heavier as a result of wet
conditions, more force is required to pass or kick it
● Objects of greater mass require more force to move them than objects of smaller
mass
● Centripetal force: forces directed towards the centre of a rotating body
● Centrifugal force: forces directed away from the centre of the rotating body
● Greater speed around axis, greater force produced