TWO MAJOR BODIES OF SKELETON - Acetabulums: where the leg bone joins

the pelvis; attached to pelvic sockets

1. Axial
2. Appendicular Leg Bones

- Femur: Thigh Bone/Long Bone

- Patella: knee cap; between upper and
AXIAL SKELETON
lower leg
- Forms main trunk of body - Lower Leg composed of:
- Consists of skull, spinal column, ribs, and a. Tibia: known as the shin bone
sternum b. Fibula: runs parallel to tibia
c. Ankle Bones: 7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals,
Sternum – Breast bone and 14 phalanges
Skull – composed of 8 different bones d. Heel (calcaneus)

Spinal Column/Vertebral

- 26 vertebrae and an intervertebral disk Long bones are hard, dense bones that provide
between each disk structure, strength, and mobility.
- Spinal column: protects spinal cord
- Intervertebral disk: act as shock
absorbers between each vertebra

Costae/Ribs

- 24 ribs or 12 pairs of ribs

- 7 pairs of true ribs
- 5 pairs of false ribs
- Last two pairs of ribs are floating ribs
- Ribs protect vital organs such as the
heart, major blood vessels, and the lungs
- Responsible for hematopoesis

Medullary Canal – cavity in the diaphysis, which

is filled with yellow marrow
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Endosteum – a membrane that lines the
- Extremities of the body (shoulder girdle,
medullary canal and keeps the yellow marrow
arm bones, pelvic girdle, and leg bones)
intact
Shoulder Girdle
Periosteum – a tough membrane that covers the
- 2 clavicles (collar bones) and 2 scapulas outside of the bone
(shoulder bones)
Joints – are formed when two or more bones are
Arm Bones joined together

- Humerus: Long Bone 3 MAJOR CATEGORIES

- Radius
1. Diarthrosis or Synovial – freely movable;
- Ulna
ex. Arm socket and ball sockets of hips
- Wrist Bones are attached to the radius
and shoulders.
and ulna
2. Amphiarthrosis – slightly movable; ex.
- 8 carpals are attached onto the wrist
Vertebrae
bones
3. Synarthrosis – immovable; ex. Sutures
- Hand bones are attached onto 8 carpals.
and cranium joints
Consist of 5 metacarpals (palm) and 14
phalanges (fingers and thumbs)

Pelvic Girdle Ligaments and Cartilage – supportive structures

for the joint
- 2 os coxae (hip bones)
- Hip bones are divided into
a. Ilium
b. Ischium
c. Symphysis
 SPINE
- Lordosis/Sway Back: abnormal curve of the
lumbar spine
- Khyposis/Hunchback: abnormal curve of the
thoracic spine
- Scoliosis: abnormal curve from side-to-side
Cervical (neck)
- the main function of the cervical spine is
to support the weight of the head (about
10 pounds). The seven cervical vertebrae
are numbered C1 to C7.
- The neck has the greatest range of
motion because of two specialized
vertebrae that connect to the skull.
- The first vertebra (C1) is the ring-shaped
atlas that connects directly to the skull.
This joint allows for the nodding or "yes"
motion of the head.
- The second vertebra (C2) is the peg-
shaped axis, which has a projection
called the odontoid, that the atlas pivots
around. This joint allows for the side-to-
side or "no" motion of the head.
Thoracic (mid back)
- the main function of the thoracic spine is
to hold the rib cage and protect the heart
and lungs. The twelve thoracic vertebrae
are numbered T1 to T12. The range of
motion in the thoracic spine is limited.
Lumbar (low back)
- the main function of the lumbar spine is
to bear the weight of the body. The five
lumbar vertebrae are numbered L1 to L5.
- These vertebrae are much larger in size
to absorb the stress of lifting and
carrying heavy objects.
Sacrum
- the main function of the sacrum is to
connect the spine to the hip bones (iliac).
There are five sacral vertebrae, which are
fused together.
- Together with the iliac bones, they form
a ring called the pelvic girdle.
Coccyx
- the four fused bones of the coccyx or
tailbone provide attachment for
ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor.
- While vertebrae have unique regional
features, every vertebra has three
functional parts (Fig. 3):
a. a drum-shaped body designed
to bear weight and withstand
compression
b. an arch-shaped bone that
creates a hollow tube for the
spinal cord and nerves
c. star-shaped processes designed
as outriggers for muscle
attachment
Facet Joints
- The facet joints of the spine allow back
motion.
- one pair that connects to the vertebra
above (superior facets) and one pair that
connects to the vertebra below (inferior
facets)
Ligaments
- The ligaments are strong fibrous bands
that hold the vertebrae together,
stabilize the spine, and protect the discs.
The three major ligaments of the spine
are the ligamentum flavum, anterior
longitudinal ligament (ALL), and
posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL).
- The ALL and PLL are continuous bands
that prevent excessive movement of the
vertebral bones. The ligamentum flavum
attaches between the lamina of each
vertebra.
Spinal cord Coverings & spaces

- The spinal cord is about 18 inches long. - The spinal cord is covered with the same
It runs from the brainstem to the 1st three membranes as the brain, called
lumbar vertebra protected within the meninges.
spinal canal. - The inner membrane is the pia mater,
- The spinal cord serves as an information which is intimately attached to the cord.
super-highway, relaying messages - The next membrane is the arachnoid
between the brain and the body. mater.
- an injury to the thoracic or lumbar area - The outer membrane is the tough dura
may cause motor and sensory loss of the mater
legs and trunk (called paraplegia). - The space between the pia and
- An injury to the cervical (neck) area may arachnoid mater is the wide
cause sensory; and subarachnoid space, which surrounds
- motor loss of the arms and legs (called the spinal cord and contains
tetraplegia, formerly known as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
quadriplegia). - The wide subarachnoid space is most
often accessed to deliver anesthetic
Spinal Nerves
numbing agents, commonly called an
- Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves branch epidural, and to inject steroid
off the spinal cord. The spinal nerves act medication.
as "telephone lines," " carrying messages
back and forth between your body and
spinal cord to control sensation and
movement.
- Each spinal nerve has two roots:
a. The ventral (front) root carries
motor impulses from the brain
and
b. the dorsal (back) root carries
sensory impulses to the brain.
- The ventral and dorsal roots fuse
together to form a spinal nerve.
- The smaller branch (called the posterior
primary ramus) turns posteriorly to
supply the skin and muscles of the back
of the body.
- The larger branch (called the anterior
primary ramus) turns anteriorly to
supply the skin and muscles of the front
of the body and forms most of the major
nerves.
- The spinal nerves are numbered
according to the vertebrae above which
it exits the spinal canal. The 8 cervical
spinal nerves are C1 through C8, the 12
- thoracic spinal nerves are T1 through
T12, the 5
- lumbar spinal nerves are Li through L5,
and the 5 sacral spinal nerves are S1
through S5. There is 1 coccygeal nerve.
 ANATOMICAL MOVEMENTS
Muscular System
- Provide movement for the body
- Muscles receive their ability to move
through the nervous system
5 Major Properties
1. Excitable or irritable: capable of
receiving stimulation and responding to
stimulation from the nerves
2. Contractible – capable of contracting or
shortening
3. Extensible – muscle can be stretched
without damage by the application of
force
4. Elasticity – a muscle is able to return to
its original shape and length after being
extended or contracted
5. Adaptability – the muscular system is
adaptable in that it can be changed in
response to how it is used
Hypertrophy – enlarging the muscle
Atrophy – wasting away of muscle
5 Types of Movements
Adduction – moving a body part toward the
midline of the body
Abduction – moving a body part away from the
body
Flexion – Bending a joint to decrease the angle
between two bones or two body parts.
Extension – straightening and extending of the
joint to increase the angle between two bones or
body parts
Rotation – moving a body part around an axis
3 Types of Muscles
Cardiac Muscle
- involuntary muscle
- Form the walls of the heart and contracts
to circulate the blood
- Not dependent on the nervous system
Visceral/Smooth Muscle
- Involuntary Muscle
- Found in organs or organ systems
Skeletal Muscles
- Voluntary Muscle
- Attach to the skeleton and provide the
skeleton with the ability to move
Supportive Structures
- Tendons: attach a muscle to a bone
- Fascia: attach muscle to muscle
Tendons and Fascia work together with the
muscles, which create the muscular system
necessary for movement.
Nervous System
- Connected to the muscular system
- Essential to the voluntary skeletal
muscles
ANATOMICAL TERMS OF MOVEMENT
Flexion – decrease the angle of the joint/
bending the joint
Extension – increasing the angle of the joint/
straightening the joint
Dorsiflexion – decreasing the angle of the ankle
joint
Plantarflexion – increasing the angle of the ankle
joint
Elevation – moving a body part in a superior
direction
Depression – moving a body part in an inferior
direction
Eversion – rotating the ankle so that the sole of
the foot points away from the other
Inversion – rotating the ankle so that the sole of
the foot points toward the other
Abduction – moving a limb away from the center
line of the body
Adduction – moving a limb towards the center
line of the body
Lateral Rotation – rotating a limb away from the
center line of the body
Medial Rotation – rotating a limb towards the
center line of the body
Pronation – rotating the forearm so that the
palm faces down if the forearm is flexed
Supination – rotating the forearm so that the
palm faces up if the forearm is flexed
Retraction – posterior movement of the arm at
the shoulder
Protraction – anterior movement of the arm at
the body
Lateral Flexion – bending the spine to the side,
away from the center line of the body
ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Anterior - In front of or front
Posterior- In behind of or behind
Ventral - Towards the front of the body
Dorsal- Towards the back of the body
Distal - Away or farthest away from the trunk or
the point of origin of the body part
Proximal - Closer or towards the trunk or the
point of origin of the body part
Median - Midline of the body
Medial - Towards the median
Lateral - Away from median
Superior - Towards the top of the head
Inferior - Towards the feet
External/Superficial - Towards the surface,
superficial
Internal/Deep - Away from the surface, deep
Frontal - Towards the front of the brain
Occipital - Towards the back of the brain
Unilateral – involving one side of the body
Bilateral – involving both sides of the body
Skeletal System
1. Support: Provides structural support for
the body.
2. Protection: Protects vital organs such as
the brain and heart.
3. Movement: Serves as the framework for
muscles to produce movement.
4. Hematopoiesis: Involved in the
production of blood cells in the bone
marrow.
Muscular System
1. To produce movement of the body parts.
2. To maintain posture.
3. Heat production.
Biomechanics
• The study of human movement and the
forces acting upon it during motion and
when stationary.
• Helps identify the best techniques for
performing actions.
Centre of Gravity (COG)
• The point at which all parts of an object
are equally balanced.
• Changes depending on the body's
position.
Base of Support (BOS)
• The points of contact with the ground
and the area in between them.
• A larger BOS leads to greater stability.
Line of Gravity (LOG)
• The vertical line passing through the
COG to the ground.
• Important for determining the stability
of an object.
• LOG inside BOS = relatively stable, LOG
outside BOS = relatively unstable.
Force
• The basis of all movements, involving a
push or pull.
• Gravity is a significant force acting upon
the body.
Stability & Support
• Stable posture requires body parts to be
appropriately supported in relation to
the base of support.
• The size of the BOS affects stability and
posture.
Key Principles for Stability
1. Closer COG to the center of BOS =
greater balance.
2. Broader BOS = greater balance.
3. Lowering COG relative to BOS increases
stability.
4. Extending body parts away from LOG
reduces balance unless compensated.
Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD)
• Can result from extreme postures and
cumulative trauma.
 • Risk of injury highest in extreme
postures and lowest near midpoint of
motion range.

Symptoms of MSD

• Numbness, burning, pain, tingling,

cramping, stiffness, tightness, decreased
range of motion, deformity, decreased
strength, loss of function.

Risk Factors for MSD

1. Awkward postures.

2. Repetitive motions.

3. High force.

4. Vibration.

5. Time (frequency, duration, recovery).

ANATOMY OF THE SPINE BASE OF SUPPORT

- In the points of contact with the ground

and the area in between them.
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
- The larger the BOS, the more stable an
Skeletal System object will be.
- Framework of the body
- The body would be without form and it
wouldn’t be possible to walk upright LINE OF GRAVITY (LOG)
- Protects the vital organs such as: - The vertical line that passes through the
o Brain COG to the ground
o Heart - Important when determining the
o Lungs stability of an object.
- If the LOG falls within an object’s base of
Forensic Anthropology
support (BOS), the object is relatively
- A field of study that bones are very stable.
Important - If the LOG falls outside an object’s BOS,
1. Support the object is relatively unstable.
2. Protection
3. Movement LINE OF GRAVITY, BASE OF SUPPORT AND
4. Hematopoiesis PHYSICAL ACTIVITY.

• LOG must go outside the BOS to initiate

Muscular System
or continue movement
1. To produce movement of the body parts • The direction of the LOG moves in will be
2. Maintain posture the direction that the object will move
3. Heat production in.
• In order for the body to be stable, the
BIOMECHANICS
combined center of gravity (COG) must
- The study of human movement and the fall within a base of support (the contact
forces acting upon it both internal and area between the body and the
external, during motion and when supporting surface)
stationary.
- Is important to study because it helps to
identify the best techniques to perform
an action

CENTRE OF GRAVITY (COG)

- The point at which all parts of an object

are equally balanced.
- For a normal human being standing in
the anatomical position, the COG lies
around their belly button.
- Changes depending on what position the
body is in, sometimes it can be outside FORCE
of the body.
- The basis of all movements
- A push or pull
- The main force acting upon your body

STABILITY AND SUPPORT

• A stable posture can be maintained only

if the various body parts are supported
and maintained in an appropriate
relation to the base of the support.
• The size of the base of support
determines not only the stability of the
 body but also the postures which can be Elbow Pain
adopted.
- Tennis/Golfer’s Elbow
The body is in a static equilibrium condition - Overuse/Repetitive Strain Injuries
within the following situations:
Wrist Pain
1. Upward forces (from the floor) must
- Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
equal downward forces (body weight
- De Quervain’s Tenosynovitis
plus any objects held)
2. Forward forces (e.g. bending forward) Hip Pain
must equal backward forces (extension
- Osteoarthritis
of back muscles)
- ITB Syndrome
3. Clockwise torques (e.g. from
- Bursitis
asymmetric loads) must equal
counterclockwise torques (back and hip Lower Back Pain
muscles)
- Mechanical LBP
KEY RINCIPLES FOR STABILITY - Disc Bulge/Herniation
1. The closer the line of gravity to the Knee Pain
center of the base of support, the
greater the probabilities of maintaining - Osteoarthritis
balance. - Jumper’s Knee
2. The broader the base of support, the - Ligament/Meniscal Injuries
greater the probabilities of maintaining
Ankle Pain
balance.
3. The probability of maintaining balance is - Sprain/Strain
increased when the center of gravity is - Plantar Fasciitis
lowered in relation to the base of
support.
4. The further one body part moves away 1. EXTREME POSTURES AND PAINS
from the line of gravity, the chance of - are identified with perceived stress and
maintaining balance decreases unless pose risks on the onset of acute
another body part moves to compensate musculoskeletal pain
for it.
Postures that lead to postural stress:
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS (MSD)
❖ Neck
- Problems that strain the muscular and - when at < = 20 degrees, when tilted
skeletal systems. backwards, sideways, or twisted.
- Can induce single incident or cumulative ❖ Shoulder joint
trauma effect - when the arms elevated in any direction
- The risk of injury to muscle-joint systems from the body.
is greatest when they are in extreme ❖ Elbow
postures and least when around the - supination, pronation, flexion, extension
midpoint of the range of motion ❖ Standing
- lumbar extension, lumbar bending or
Neck Pain rotation
- Cervical Strain/Sprain ❖ Sitting & standing
- Headache - flexion of the back

Shoulder Pain

- Rotator Cuff Strain ❖ Hip

- Biceps Tendonitis - all extreme hip movements in standing,
flexion, extension, adduction, medial
Mid Back Pain and lateral rotation
- Postural Strain/Overuse
2. LOW BACK PAIN
 - caused by shear and compression of ➢ To help you identify, reduce, eliminate,
forces on the spine due to the or safely manage potential risk factors in
mechanical load your work environment.

3. BACK PAIN AND MUSCULAR FATIGUE Risk Factor 1: AWKWARD POSTURES

- repetitive lifting, carrying weights in Postures that commonly have a direct effect on
front of the body, leaning forward or the low back:
with trunk extended
1. Twist and Shout
- Usually seen when loads are being
4. SPINAL PROBLEM IN STANDING
moved from one location to another
- extended posture, arching of backs,
- The twisting motion puts extremely high
standing person working with trunk
forces on the lower back
inclined forward

5. SPINAL PROBLEM IN SITTING

- full extension of legs

SYMPTOMS

• Numbness
• Burning
- Look for
• Pain/Aching transferring components or finished
• Tingling products from one surface to another
• Cramping such as off-loading conveyors, repetitive
• Stiffness splicing type operations or transferring.
• Tightness
• Decreased Range of Motion 2. “Butts Up” Position
• Deformity - Most common in the plant
• Decreased Strength - A good indicator of risk possible low-
• Loss of Function back problems

RISK FACTORS FOR MUSCULOSKELETAL

DISORDERS

Risk Factor

- Any feature of a job which has a

potentially harmful effect on the
operator
- Also called job stress factor
- Any factor that reduce the physical
strength of the body parts
- Can be seen off-loading conveyors,
pushing and positioning component
carts lifting and loading material, etc.

Risk Factors:

1. Awkward Postures 3. Horizontal Distance

2. Repetitive Motions - Usually seen when loads are being
3. High Force handled away from the body
4. Vibration - Can put great forces on the spine
5. Time

Each risk factor is significant; however,

discomfort or injury is more likely to develop
when:

➢ 2 or more of these factors are combined

and
➢ The risk exposure is sustained overtime

The Goal:
 - Anytime there is a lack of clearance - Look for this posture whenever tools are
which prevents the worker from getting used.
close to the load there will be trouble.
2. Elbow Out

Postures that are the result of failure to locate

the work to be done in the proper place:

1. “Shoulder Too High/Shoulder Too Low”

Position

- Most common where screwdrivers and

pliers are used.
- Can also be observed when the product
is being worked on or manipulated.

Postures that are not seen as often but also

- Usually the result of controls or tools can cause ergonomic injury/illness
located at the wrong height. problems:
- Look for this at workstations, especially
1. “Sit-Stand”
product assembly.
- Usually seen when around conveyors
“Comfort Zone” Position and tables.

- Usually seen when loads are being lifted

from floor level or t workstations

- Observe work stations to make sure that

there is adequate space for the feet and
- Observe workstations to make sure that
that there are no knee obstructions
the work is located well within reach.
- Can also greatly effect product quality
2. “Hungry Head” Position
and productivity.

Postures commonly observed when tools are

being used:

1. “Tool/Target” Position

- Usually the result of inspection and/or

handling material.
- Look for this at workstations in final
finish, maintenance and inspection
areas.
- Can also result from working too high or
too low. 3. Washrag
 - A summary of the stressful hand and
wrist postures making it very easy to
spot
- Continuous movement of the wrist and
hands, increase like likelihood of
repetitive motion disorders.
4. Bad Vibes
- A problem that can occur with powered
hand tools
- This can result from using pneumatic
tools that are worn out.
- Can also occur when the work id
performed on or around vibrating bins or
feeders
5. “Don’t Give Me Static” Position
- Occur when stationary positions are
maintained.
- Look for instances of prolonged standing
or holding.
- Static problems can also occur when
carrying boxes or other objects
Minimize Overhead Reaching
Consider Options to:
• Lower work
• Use mirrors or magnifiers
• Relocate to work bench
• Alternate positions/tasks to lessen time
spent in with elbows above the
shoulders.
Minimize Neck and Back Angles
• Adjustable stands
Minimize Kneeling and Squatting
• Alternate Positions
• Extend Tools
• Raise Work
Minimize Awkward Hand Positions
- Consider handle design and operational
needs when purchasing tools and
equipment
Risk Factor 2: HIGHLY REPITITIVE MOTION
Workers repeat same position every few
seconds for extended periods:
• Neck
• Shoulders
• Elbows
• Wrists
• Hands
MINIMIZE REPITITIVE MOTIONS
Steps to reduce repetitive motion:
• Order materials – Precut, pre-drilled,
pre-shaped to maximum extent possible.
• Mechanize – Use powered tools for
large, highly repetitive projects.
• Vary tasks – Perform repetitive tasks in
several small time blocks rather than all
at once; perform dissimilar tasks in
between.
• Vary methods – Periodically switch
process flow, switch tools, switch
positions, switch hands to perform the
same task.
MINIMIZE VIBRATION
➢ Regular Maintenance
➢ Keep wrist & elbow in a "neutral"
position
➢ Keep hands and rest of body warm
➢ Use two-handed grips (where possible)
Balancers, isolators, damping material
➢ Tool Selection:
o low-vibration tools
o Battery rather than pneumatic
power
o High power to weight ratio
o High friction, contoured handles
o Low torque w/cutoff rather than
slip-clutch
Risk Factor 5: TIME – FREQUENCY, DURATION &
RECOVERY
 - Minimize key risk factors and Balance
time spent exposed to risks with
adequate recovery time.

KEEP IN MIND:

• No “One Right Way” to achieve

ergonomically healthy work postures
and practices. Stay aware of risk factors
and consider options to eliminate,
reduce, or safely manage them.
• Adjusting one aspect of your work
activity will affect other aspects. For
example, switching from a hand tool to a
power tool lessens the force and
repetition of the job, but increases
exposure to vibration. Consider these
impacts when making changes