ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

CHARACTERISTIC OF LIVING THINGS

● Reproduce
● Grow
● Develop
● Need food/require energy
● made of cells
● responds to their environment
● adapt to their environment

CELLS and HEREDITY

Cell Theory
1. all living things are made of cells.
2. the cells is the basic unit of structure and functions
3. all cells come from preexisting cells.

Organelles and Cell parts

1. Cell Membrane ( Plasma membrane )
● Surrounds cells
● selective barrier
● controls what substances enter and exit the cell
2. Cytoplasm
● jelly-like material that fills the cells
3. Ribosomes
● site of protein synthesis (where proteins are made)
4. Golgi Apparatus
● post office of the cell
5. Mitochondria
● powerhouse of the cell
6. Lysosome
● Digest macromolecules
● Eating, digest food
● Digest/recycle old organelles; "stomach of the cell"
7. Centrosome
● Produce microtubules during cell division
8. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Ribosomes attached
● Production of proteins
9. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
● No ribosomes attached
● Produce lipids
● Detoxification of drugs and poison.
10. Nucleus
● Store/protects DNA
11. Nuclear Envelope
● Membrane that surrounds the Nucleus
12. Nucleolus
● Found in the nucleus
● Produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which forms ribosomes
13. DNA
● Deoxyribonucleic Acid
● Contains genes/hereditary information
● Determine structure of proteins
14. Chloroplast
● Site of photosynthesis, which stores the sun's energy in sugars (glucose)
● Found in plants
15. Vacuole
● Storage
● waste, nutrients, water, ions
16. Cell Wall
● Supports and protects plants cells, bacteria, fungi, some protists
● Allows cells to exist in hypotonic environment.
17. Cilia and Flagella
● Movement (locomotion)
18. Microfilaments and Microtubules
● Structural components, "skeleton" of the cell.
Cellular Classification;

Unicellular Organisms
● Single bond
● Bacteria, archaea, some protists (euglena, paramecium, amoeba)

Multicellular Organism
● More than one cell
● Plants, animals, fungi, some …

Eukaryotes
● Nucleus present
● Linear DNA
● Single or multi-celled
● Membrane bound organelles
● Plants, animals, fungu, protist

Prokaryotes
● No nucleus
● No membrane bound organelles
● Single celled
● Circular DNA
● "Primitive"
● Bacteria, archaea

Matter Transportations
Macromolecule
- Carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and nucleic acids are all organic macromolecules, organic molecules are
composed primarily of carbons and are the building blocks of all living things.

Carbohydrates:
● Glucose
- Required to produce ATP Trough cellular respiration
● Glycogen
- Polymer of glucose
- Short term energy storage for animals
- Stored in the liver and muscles
● Starch
- Polymer of glucose
- Short term energy storage for plants (ex. Potato)
- Stored in the roots
● Cellulose
 - Polymer of glucose
- Structural
- Cell wall of plants
● Lipids
- Energy storage
● Fats - animals
● Oils - plants
- Padding and insulation

Nucleic Acids:
DNA

● Structure
- Double helix (looks like a twisted ladder)
- Two strand of nucleotides joined down the middle by hydrogen bonds
- Four bases — adenine, thymine, guanin, cytosine
- A pairs with T
- G pairs with C
● DNA Replication
- Semi-conservative
- Double helix unwind, and each strand separate
- Each strand used template to construct new complementary strand
- Occurs before mitosis and meiosis
● DNA determines structure of proteins
- Each group of three bases code of a single amino acids
- Protein assembled through process of transcription and translation
● RNA
- Single Stranded
- Ribonucleic acids ( contains ribose rather than deoxyribose)
- Four bases — adenine, uracil, guanin, cytosine (uracil replaces thymine)
- Three types
● rRNA - forms the ribosome
● tRNA - transport amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosome
● mRNA - carries information for protein structure from DNA to a Ribosome
● Protein
- Composed of amino acids

Uses
● Enzymes
● Muscle
● Hair
● Nails
● Microtubules

Protein synthesis
● Transcription
- Copies information from DNA to mRNA
- mRNA then transported from DNA to a Ribosome
● Eukaryotes — mRNA leaves nucleus ti find ribosomes
● Prokaryotes — no nucleus, transcription and translation can occur
simultaneously
- mRNA attaches to ribosome
● Translation
 - Information in mRNA used to construct specific sequence of amino acids
- Information is translated from language of nucleotides to the language of amino
acids
- tRNA carries amino acids to ribosomes where they are linked together.

MICROSCOPES

1. What is a microscope?
- A microscope is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the
naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope.
Microscopic means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.

2. Give the function of the microscope.

- A microscope is an instrument that can be used to observe small objects, even cells. The image of an
object is magnified through at least one lens in the microscope. This lens bends light toward the eye and
makes an object appear larger than it actually is.

3. What are the different part of the microscope?

Head – This is also known as the body. It carries the optical parts in the upper part of the microscope.

Base – It acts as microscopes support. It also carries microscopic illuminators.

Arms – This is the part connecting the base and to the head and the eyepiece tube to the base of the microscope. It
gives support to the head of the microscope and it is also used when carrying the microscope. Some high-quality
microscopes have an articulated arm with more than one joint allowing more movement of the microscopic head for
better viewing.

Eyepiece – also known as the ocular. This is the part used to look through the microscope. Its found at the top of the
microscope. Its standard magnification is 10x with an optional eyepiece having magnifications from 5X to 30X.
 Eyepiece tube – it’s the eyepiece holder. It carries the eyepiece just above the objective lens. In some microscopes
such as the binoculars, the eyepiece tube is flexible and can be rotated for maximum visualization, for variance in
distance. For monocular microscopes, they are none flexible.

Objective lenses – These are the major lenses used for specimen visualization. They have a magnification power of
40x-100X. There are about 1- 4 objective lenses placed on one microscope, in that some are rare facing and others
face forward. Each lens has its own magnification power.

Nose piece – also known as the revolving turret. It holds the objective lenses. It is movable hence it cal revolve the
objective lenses depending on the magnification power of the lens.

The Adjustment knobs – These are knobs that are used to focus the microscope. There are two types of adjustment
knobs i.e fine adjustment knobs and coarse adjustment knobs.

Stage – This is the section in which the specimen is placed for viewing. They have stage clips that hold the specimen
slides in place. The most common stage is the mechanical stage, which allows the control of the slides by moving the
slides using the mechanical knobs on the stage instead of moving them manually.

Aperture – This is a hole on the microscope stage, through which the transmitted light from the source reaches the
stage.

Microscopic illuminator – This is the microscopes light source, located at the base. It is used instead of a mirror. It
captures light from an external source of a low voltage of about 100v.

Condenser – These are lenses that are used to collect and focus light from the illuminator into the specimen. They
are found under the stage next to the diaphragm of the microscope. They play a major role in ensuring clear sharp
images are produced with a high magnification of 400X and above. The higher the magnification of the condenser,
the more the image clarity. More sophisticated microscopes come with an Abbe condenser that has a high
magnification of about 1000X.

Diaphragm – it’s also known as the iris. Its found under the stage of the microscope and its primary role is to control
the amount of light that reaches the specimen. It’s an adjustable apparatus, hence controlling the light intensity and
the size of the beam of light that gets to the specimen. For high-quality microscopes, the diaphragm comes attached
with an Abbe condenser and combined they are able to control the light focus and light intensity that reaches the
specimen.

Condenser focus knob – this is a knob that moves the condenser up or down thus controlling the focus of light on
the specimen.

Abbe Condenser – this is a condenser specially designed for high-quality microscopes, which makes the condenser
to be movable and allows very high magnification of above 400X. High-quality microscopes normally have a high
numerical aperture than objective lenses.

The rack stop – It controls how far the stages should go preventing the objective lens from getting too close to the
specimen slide which may damage the specimen. It is responsible for preventing the specimen slide from coming too
far up and hitting the objective lens.

PROTEINS
Proteins is biopolymetric structures that composed of amino acids. Vital part of the human diet and is present in various
foods like eggs, mears, dairy products, seafood, legumes, nut and seeds.

Divided into 3 classes of proteins:

● NON-ESSENTIAL
● CONDITIONALLY ESSENTIAL
● ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

7 Types of Proteins:
● ANTIBODIES
● CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
● ENZYMES
● HORMONAL PROTEINS
● STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
● STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
 ● STORAGE PROTEINS
● TRANSPORT PROTEINS

FUNCTIONS:

ANTIBODIES
- Are specialized proteins that defend the body against antigents or foreign invaders.

CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
- responsible for muscle contraction and movements.
ENZYMES
- The catalyst of all metabolic reactions enable an organism to build up chemical substances necessary for life.

HORMONAL PROTEINS
- Messenger that help coordinate certain body functions.

STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
- Maintains and protect the structure of our body.

STORAGE PROTEINS
- Reserve amino acids for the body until ready for use.

TRANSPORT PROTEINS
- Carrier proteins that move molecules from one place to another in the body

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS:
● GROWTH AND MAINTENANCE
● CAUSES BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
● ACTS AS MESSENGER
● PROVIDE STRUCTURE
● MAINTAIN PROPER pH
● BALANCE FLUIDS
● BOLSTER IMMUNE HEALTH
● TRANSPORT AND STORE NUTRIENTS
● PROVIDES ENERGY

GROWTH AND MAINTENANCE

- New born to adulthood (see ppt for reference)

ENZYMES CAUSES BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS

- Digestion, liver function NOTE: Too much or too little of a certain enze can cause health problem.

ACT AS MESSENGER/MESSENGER
- A process that takes place and this process called protein synthesis.
- Transcript and translation

PROVIDE STRUCTURE
- Helps to build muscle structure, strength and electricity (see ppt for reference)

MAINTAIN PROPER pH / BOLSTERS IMMUNE HEALTH / TRANSPORT AND STORE NUTRIENTS / PROVIDE ENERGY
- See ppt for reference

LIPIDS AND FATS

● The word Lipids comes from a greek word lipids which means FATS.
● Lipids are not biomolecules that contain large hydrophobic structures that are commonly not soluble in water.
● They are not formed through polymerization

FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

Long term energy storage - when lipids metabolized providing 9 kilocalories of energy per gram

Cushioning of vital organs - see ppt for reference

Important role in plasma membrane structure - Polar (head) hydrophilic and nonpolar (tail) hydrophobic.

Serves as insulation - more lipid in the body can keep themselves warmer. Thick fat layers as their form of adaption to
freezing temperatures.

Serve as precursors for important reproductive hormones - see ppt for reference

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LIPIDS

i. TRIGLYCERIDES

ii. PHOSPHOLIPIDS

iii. STEROIDS

iv. WAXES

i. TRIGLYCERIDES

- Contain a glycerol attached to three fatty acids

- Fat refer to solid triglyceride from animal sources such as meat, milk, butter, margarine, eggs and
cheese.
- Oil refers to liquid triglyceride from plant sources. Example are olive oil, corn oil, sunflower, and soybean
oil. Animal fat contains high percentage of saturated fatty acids while plant oil are mostly unsaturated
fatty acids.

FATTY ACIDS

- Essential to understand lipids

- Long chain carboxylic acids that are insoluble in water.
- Can be saturated or unsaturated
- Contain single bonds in its hydro-carbon chain whereas unsaturated fatty acids contain double bonds.

2 TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

1. SATURATED FATS (PALMITIC ACID)

● Contain only single bonds in the fatty acid chain.
- Solid at room temperature
- Found in animal fat such as pork and beef.
- Alao found in butter, lard, cream, cheese, and some processed foods.

Effects: they tend to clog the lining of blood vessels and block the flow of blood when consumed in high amounts
(atherosclerosis) caused hypertension (HPN) and heart attack.

2. UNSATURATED FATS (OLEIC ACIDS)

● Mostly known as oils
● Contain one or more double bonds in the fatty acid chains.
- Liquid at room temperature, the bent structure prevents close packing and results on oil or fats
that are liquid at room temperature.
- Commonly found in plants
- Examples are olive oil, coconut oil, and corn oil

TRANS FAT - May be produced artificially through the process of hydrogenation. (See ppt for reference)

ii. PHOSPHOLIPIDS

- Lipids with a phosphate group

- Contain glycerol, two fatty acids and a phosphate group.
- Have a polar and non polar end. Allows it to transport molecules in the bloodstream.
- Major component in the cell membrane

Two parts of phospholipid can be termed as the;

 - HYDROPHILIC HEAD (PHOSPHATE GROUP)
- HYDROPHOBIC TAIL ( FATTY ACID GROUP)
● Are cyclic hydrocarbon usually composed of four rings.

1. Cholesterol - Steroid Alcohol (STEROL)

● Cholesterol formation usually happens in major organs such as the brain and blood vessels.
● Also major component in the formation of bile salts and gallstones.
2. Sex hormones - are also steroids
A. Testosterone - Male sex hormones responsible for lowering voice pitch, growth and facial and body hair.
B. Progesterone and Estrogen (Estradiol) - Female ovulation cycle
C. 2 Cortisol - your "fight or fight" hormone is designed to let you know when you're in danger. It removes
fatty acids from lipids storage cells and amino acids from body to be used as energy

iv. WAXES

● Are Esters ( Carboxylic Derivatives)

● Combined from certain alcohol and fatty acids
● They are extremely Hydrophobic

CARBOHYDRATES
- Can be represented by the stoichiometric formula ( CH2O )n. Where n is the number of carbon in the molecule.
- The origin of the term carbohydrates is based on it's component carbon (carbo) and water (hydrate).
- Classified into three subtypes monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharide.
- Contains soluble and insoluble element, the insoluble part is known as fiber which is mostly cellulose.

Classifications of Carbohydrates

Simple carbohydrates

● Monosaccharides
- Are those sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates.

Three nutritionally important monosaccharides

● Glucose
● Fructose
● Galactose

Monosaccharides (mono = one & saccar = sweet) most common is glucose. Number of carbon usually range from three
to seven. Names ends with the suffix ose
Glucose (C6H12O6) common in monosaccharide and an important source of energy. Plants synthesize glucose using
carbon

Galactose (a milk sugar) and Fructose (found in fruit) common in monosaccharide, differ structurally and
stereochemically . This makes them different molecules despite sharing the same atoms in the same properties. Glucose
and galactose are aldoses and fructose is ketose

● Disaccharides
- Perceived as sweeter than complex carbohydrates
- Mixes with saliva and reacts taste buds.

Common Disaccharides

- Lactose - consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. Found in milk.

- Maltose or malt sugar - formed by a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules.
- Sucrose or table sugar - composed of the monomer glucose and fructose

Disaccharides (di = two ) form when two monosaccharides undergo dehydration reaction (also known as a condensation
reaction or dehydration synthesis)

Complex carbohydrates

● Polysaccharides
- Long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is known as a polysaccharide (poly = many).
The chain can be branched or unbranched.
● Amylose
- Straight chain
- more resistant to digestion
● Amylopectin
- Branched chains
 - easier to digest

Glycogen vs. Cellulose

● Glycogen is the energy reserve carbohydrates of animals

- storage form of glucose in animals
- long, branched chains of glucose
- stored in liver and muscle
● Cellulose, a fibrous carbohydrates found in all plants, is the structural component of plant cell wall
- cotton fibrils and filter paper are almost entirely cellulose
- cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose