Communication is a process of sharing and conveying McCornack, 2014

messages or information from one person to another

within and across channels, contexts, media, and
cultures
An interaction in which words are used to relay a Verbal communication
message.
should be appropriate to the environment or occasion Appropriateness
(i.e., whether formal or informal)
Use simple yet precise and powerful words are found Brevity
to be more credible. Avoid fillers and insubstantial
expressions which do not add to the message, such as
“uh,” “you know,” “I guess,” and others.

Words, feelings, or ideas may be interpreted differently Clarity

by a listener; hence, it is essential for you to clearly
state your message and express your ideas and feelings.

Words should be carefully chosen in consideration of Ethics

the gender, roles, ethnicity, preferences, and status of
the person
Words that vividly or creatively describe things or Vividness
feelings usually add color and spice to communication.

Verbal Communication

Nonverbal Communication
An interaction where behavior is used to convey and Nonverbal communication
represent meanings. Responses that are not expressed
in words are classified as nonverbal communication.

NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is… a process
Communication occurs between two or more (The speaker and the receiver)
people
Communication can be expressed through (Nonverbal and verbal)
written or spoken words, actions, or both
spoken words and nonverbal actions at the
same time.

Communication is a two-way process of Gregoriom, J.C., 2015

connecting to both living and non-living
things. It is also a means of sharing and
exchanging messages, information, ideas, and
feelings for mutual understanding.
Connects people and the world they live in. It Communication
is through communication that people are able
to express their thoughts and ideas or convey
information and messages through word of
mouth, gestures and signals, signs, and others.
People have always communicated with one
another in various forms.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Source of information Speaker
Information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the Message
speaker.
Process of converting the message into words, actions, Encoding
or other forms.
The medium or the means Channel
the process of interpreting the encoded message of the Decoding
speaker by the receiver.
The decoder of the message. Receiver
The reactions, responses, or information provided by Feedback
the receiver.
The environment where communication takes place. Context
The factors that affect the flow of communication. Barrier

FUNCTION OF COMMUNICATION
Communication functions to control Regulation or control *Doctors’ Prescription
behavior. It enables the control or *Parents’ Instruction to their
regulation of behavior in many ways. child

Interact with people in almost all Social Interaction *Encouragement

aspects of our life and in every *Marriage Proposal
communication situation. *Invitation
Communication motivates or Motivation “We need to be proactive and
encourages people to live better. stop procrastinating.”
Communication functions to convey Information “Did you know that there’s a
factuality. Giving information comes secret apartment at the top of
usually with statement of facts. the
Eiffel tower?”
To express their feelings, satisfaction, Emotional Expression “I’m so glad that you came
frustration, and needs. into my life.”
“I need you in my life.”
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Process of Communication Example

The speaker generates an idea. Daphne loves Rico, her suitor, as a friend.

The speaker encodes an idea or converts She thinks of how to tell him using their
the idea into words or actions. native language.

The speaker transmits or sends out a She tells him, “Rico, mahal kita bilang
message. kaibigan.”

The receiver gets the message. Rico hears what Daphne says.

The receiver decodes or interprets the He tries to analyze what she means based
message based on the context. on the content and their relationship,
and he is heartbroken.

The receiver sends or provides feedback.

He frowns and does not say something,
because he is in pain.

PURPOSES OF COMMUNICATION
Where the speaker presents factual information. Speech to Inform
Speech to inform is formal and expository.
-. Speech to Persuade or Convince
Aimed at lightening the mood of the audience. Done Speech to Entertain
by stand-up comedians or short segments used as
adlib for long informative or persuasive speeches.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
LINEAR COMMUNICATION One-way, focusing on the transmission of a message
Information
to a receiver who never responds or has no way of
Source Transmitter Receiver Destination responding to the information conveyed.
Channel 1. A notification or automated message that
does not require a reply.
Signal Received
Signal
2. A speech
Message Message 3. A television broadcast
4. Sending a memo
Shannon-Weaver Model: the mother of all
Noise Source communication models, the Shannon-Weaver model
Fig 1. Shannon-Weaver
(1949) depicts communication as a linear or one-way
Model process consisting of five elements:
 a source; a transmitter; a channel; a
receiver; and a destination.
Criticized for missing one essential element in the
communication process: feedback.
INTERACTIVE MODEL Known as converge model. Two-way
communication process where a response is
given after a message is sent. The recipient
of the action intentionally or unintentionally
gives feedback associated with the
information received. Is all about give and
take. It relies on an exchange of
communication from the sender to the
receiver and back again.

Encoder-Source-Decoder (two sources):

The person who originates a message is the
source. The encoder and the decoder are the
same person/source. The second source is
also the encoder as well as the decoder.
Message: Message is the information sent
during the interaction.
Feedback: The decoder forms a second
message after receiving the first which is
known as feedback.
Field of experience: Field of experience is
the experience and knowledge that the
source possesses which affects the message
information and interpretation. For example,
the source’s culture, social behavior, etc.
a) Social media
b) Interactive marketing
and user generated
contents
c) ATM machines
d) Online shopping
e) Chat rooms

Schramm (1954) visualized the process of

 communication as an exchange of thoughts
and ideas. Feedback was added to the
Shannon-Weaver Model. The recipient of
the message decodes it and creates as
feedback based on his understanding of the
information sent and vice versa.

Identifies the six elements of

communication: sender, the message,
receiver, feedback, encoding and
decoding.

Transaction Model Transaction Model is a two- way process with

the inclusion of feedback as one element.
Communication is dynamic. It has a complex
nature. It takes place among individuals at any
given time with any given subject.
This model is more interactive. There is a
collaborative exchange of messages between
communicators with the aim of
understanding each other. It also shows that a
barrier, such as noise, may interfere with the
flow of communication.
The communicator (source) encodes the
message and transmits it through a channel.
The message transmitted may be affected by the
noise (barrier). The receiver (recipient of the
message) decodes, processes, and filters the
message for understanding and is now ready to
give his own feedback to the sender.

COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? An active process that involves giving and receiving
ideas, thoughts, opinions, feelings, and attitudes
between two or more participants.
A process of exchanging thoughts and ideas and
opinions in order to connect with ither people.
Goal is to achieve a clear and effective understanding
resulting to good relationships in the community.
Communication breakdown
A failure to exchange information, resulting in a lack
of communication.

LACK OF COMMUNICATION  Inadequate information

 No communication between or among
concerned parties
 Incorrect assumptions
 Misleading information
Physical Barriers The natural or environmental condition that act as a
barrier in communication in sending the message
from sender to receiver.
1. People talking too loudly.
2. Noise from a construction site
3. Loud sound of a karaoke
4. Blaring of jeepney horns

Psychological Barriers Called as mental barriers. Refer to social and

personal issues of a speaker towards communicating
with others.
1. Trauma
2. Shyness, lack of confidence
3. Depression
4. Fear, stage fright

Cultural Barriers Communication problems encountered by people

regarding their intrinsic values, beliefs, and traditions
in conflict with others.
1. Different beliefs
2. Traditions, and customs
3. Manners of dressing
4. Speaking
Linguistic Barriers Words carry denotative and connotative meanings;
they can sometimes cause confusion and
misunderstanding. Words and symbols also vary
depending on culture.
1. Difference in language
2. Accent and dialect
3. Use of jargon and slang
4. Speech defects or language
impairments
Verderber (1991) He classifies noise into three kinds: External,
Internal and Semantic noise.
External Noises “Sight, sound and other stimuli that draw people’s
attention away from intended meaning.”
1. Noise from vehicles
2. Singing at the neighborhood
3. Visual aids in front of the
classroom
4. The dog barking
5. The sound of airplane

Semantic noises “Alternate meanings aroused by a speaker’s

symbols”. This idea means that a word may have
another meaning in the minds of the students.
1. Incorrect grammar
2. Using excessive technical jargon
3. Using idiomatic expressions
STRATEGIES TO AVOID COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
5 Ways to Avoid Communication Breakdown by Ronnie Peterson
Arrange your thoughts before verbalizing them this Have Clarity of thought before speaking
can help you communicate much more clearly and
succinctly.
Ask them to repeat or explain further in polite Learn to Listen
manner once you don’t understand the point.
Keep your emotions in check, try to maintain eye Take Care of your Body Language and Tone
contact, and adopt a relaxed tone when conversing
with others. Build up your confidence by asking for feedback
Improving your skills by practicing in front of those and observing others
who you may feel more comfortable with.
Face-to-face dialogue means you can convey your Communicate Face to Face on the important
point more clearly, with your body language as well issues
as your tone of voice.

STRATEGIES TO AVOID COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN (QUIPPER N.D.)

Identify your purpose for speaking and as a listener Keep Focused
find the speaker’s purpose thru his/her verbal and
non-verbal cues.
Using the appropriate speaking volume, pitch rate, Speak Intelligibly
proper enunciation, stress, and acceptable
pronunciation.
Pay attention to verbal and non-verbal message. Listen with your Ears and Eyes
Look for a place where you can minimize distractions Minimize Distractions
or noise like closed area, empty room, or quiet
places.
Use simple and concise words as much as possible in Be Specific
delivering a message. Being specific means being
particular and direct to the point.
Conclusions should be drawn after a thorough Do not Jump to Conclusions
analysis of point given or information received.

Features of an Effective Communication

Completeness Complete communication is essential to the quality of
the communication process in general. Hence,
communication should include everything that the
receiver needs to hear for him/her to respond, react,
or evaluate properly.
Conciseness Conciseness does not mean keeping the message
short, but making it direct or straight to the point.
Insignificant or redundant information should be
eliminated from the communication that will be sent
to the recipient.
Consideration To be effective, the speaker should always consider
 relevant information about his/her receiver such as
mood, background, race, preference, education,
status, and needs, among others. By doing so, he/she
can easily build rapport with the audience.
Concreteness Effective communication happens when the message
is concrete and supported by facts, figures, and real-
life examples and situations. In this case, the receiver
is more connected to the message conveyed.
Courtesy The speaker shows courtesy in communication by
respecting the culture, values, and beliefs of his/her
receivers. Being courteous at all times creates a
positive impact on the audience.
Clearness Clearness in communication implies the use of
simple and specific words to express ideas. It is also
achieved when the speaker focuses only on a single
objective in his/her speech so as not to confuse the
audience.
Correctness Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact
on the audience and increases the credibility and
effectiveness of the message.

ORAL COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

INFORMAL 1. Face-to-face conversations
2. Phone conversations
3. Discussions that take place in
business meetings
FORMAL 1. Business presentations
2. Classroom lectures
3. Commencement speeches

OTHER ORAL ACTIVITIES

One-on-One Speaking
Small Group
Full-Class Discussion
In-Class Debates and Deliberations
Speeches and Presentations
Oral Examinations
*Student – Student, or Student – Teacher
Also called as ‘team-based oral work’
‘Teacher – or student - led’
less agonistic, argument-based, and competitive than
debate and deliberation but still dialogue in character
Involve participants who argue one side throughout,
while deliberation allows for movement by
individuals within the process.
The stand-up, podium speech delivered by an
individual from an outline or script.
Includes group presentation or impromptu speaking
A strong element of monologue.
Take place in the instructor’s office, in small groups,
or before a whole class. from one oral question on an
otherwise written exam to an oral defense of a written
answer or paper to an entirely oral quiz or
examination
CENTRAL MESSAGE The main point/ thesis/ bottom line/ take-away of the
presentation. A clear central message is easy to
identify. A compelling central message is vivid and
memorable.
DELIVERY TECHNIQUES Postures, gestures, eye contact, and use of the voice.
speaking materials/notes, uses the voice expressively,
and uses few vocal fillers (“um,” “uh,” “like,” “you
know,” etc.)
LANGUAGE Vocabulary, terminology, and sentence structure.
Supports the effectiveness of a presentation is
appropriate to the topic and audience, grammatical,
clear, and free from bias. Enhances the effectiveness
of a presentation is also vivid, imaginative and
expressive.
CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION Grouping and sequencing of ideas and supporting
materials in a presentation. Supports the effectiveness
of a presentation typically includes an introduction,
one or more identifiable sections in the body of the
speech, and a conclusion.

TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT

SPEECH CONTEXT Speech communication is the surroundings,
circumstances, environment, background or setting
that determine, specify, or clarify the meaning of an
event.
According to DeVito (2005), “Context refers to the
setting in which the communication takes place.
Context helps to establish meaning and can influence
what is said and how it is said.”
INTRAPERSONAL Refers to a type of communication that is focused on
one person, where the speaker acts both as the sender
and as the receiver of the message.
INTERPERSONAL Refers to the type of communication that takes place
between and among people and creates a personal
relationship between and among them. Includes two
individuals, and it can vary from casual and very
personal to formal and impersonal.
DYAD COMMUNICATION Communication that happens between two people.

SMALL GROUP To interactions involving at least three but not more

than twelve people engaged in face-to-face
interactions to achieve the desired goal. All
participants can freely express their ideas throughout
the discussion.

PUBLIC A communication that enables you to send or deliver

 a message before a crowd. Can be transmitted for
informative or persuasive purposes. "In public
communication, unlike interpersonal and small
groups, the channels are more exaggerated. The voice
is louder and the gestures are more expansive
because the audience is larger” (Hybels & Weaver,
2012, p 19).
MASS COMMUNICATION refers to communication through television, radio,
newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, the
internet, and other types of media.

Verbal and Non-verbal Behavior in a Speech 1. Use self-talk to your advantage: Cheering
Context yourself up before an important event or
talking to yourself while completing a task
are two perfect opportunities for self-talk
(Gould, 2018, Talking to yourself is
*When talking to yourself normal, n.d.).
2. Don’t overdo it: While it is normal to talk
to yourself constantly, it is better not to
overuse yourself of doing so. The most
common reason why people end up talking
to themselves is because they feel like they
do not have someone else to talk to. To
address this, you need to be more sociable,
it would give you more people to talk to
other than yourself.

When talking to one person or a small group of 1. Listen carefully: Needless to say, this is
people the very basic foundation of effective
communication. You have to listen
carefully and understand what the other
person is saying. Asking clarifying
questions lets the other person know that
you are indeed listening attentively. More
so, take active part. You also need to be
heard and understood when it is your time
to speak.
2. Check your tone and body language: The
vocabulary of the body is more revealing
than the actual words you speak. So, watch
your tone and body language while you are
talking. Your body language talks more
about your emotions and thoughts than your
actual words. Check your body language to
ensure that it is consistent with your words
(Oakes, 2017).

When talking to the public The key therefore is to come prepared. Be yourself
while you are on stage and speak in the way that you
 will be easily understood by your audience.

TYPES OF SPEECHES ACCORDING TO DELIVERY

EXTEMPORANEOUS Is the presentation of a carefully
planned and rehearsed speech,
spoken in a conversational manner
using brief notes.
IMPROMPTU Is the presentation of a short
message without advance
preparation and is for people
knowledgeable about the subject.
MANUSCRIPT Is the word-for-word iteration of a
written message using visual aids
MEMORIZED Is the rote recitation of a written
message that the speaker has
committed to memory.
EXAMPLE: a campaign
speech before a voting
public
EXAMPLE: a doctor’s
response to the question of a
patient
EXAMPLE: news anchor
with a teleprompter
EXAMPLE: actor’s
dialogue

TYPES SPEECHES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

Informative Speech Mainly performed for the purpose Examples:
of educating the audience on new
or relevant piece of information on
a particular topic.
The information should be based
on facts and are supported by
credible sources.
Entertainment Speech It aims to share laughter and
enjoyment to the audience through
witty and humorous lines.
Commonly delivered in special
occasions (e.g. weddings, awards
ceremonies, motivational talks,
etc.). Atmosphere is light
Persuasive Speech It is given solely for the purpose of Examples:
convincing the audience to agree
with the speaker’s opinion on a
particular topic.
Presents sound claims, provides
supporting evidences, and
organizes information in coherent
manner.
1. Catbalogan City Mayor,
Dexter Uy delivers his
State of the City Address
(SOCA).
2. Lecture of your Englsih
teacher.
Exanples:
1. Speeches of Stand-up
Comedian, Jay Patrick
“Pooh” Roquero
2. A toast at the wedding
1. Speech of a lawyer
2. Aampaign speeches of the
running candidates for
government posts
3. A sales pitch
TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES
INTIMATE This style is private, which occurs EXAMPLE: couple
between or among close family
members or individuals.
This is used for very close
relationships.
The language used in this style
may not be shared in public.

CASUAL This is an informal communication EXAMPLE: classmates

between groups and peers who
have something to share and have
shared background information but
do not have close relations.
This style is common among peers
and friends.
Jargon, slang, or the vernacular
language are used.
CONSULTATIVE This is used in semi-formal and EXAMPLE: teacher and student
standard communication
This style is the standard one.
Professional or mutually
acceptable language is a must in
this style.
FORMAL This style is used in formal EXAMPLE: State of the Nation
settings. Unlike the consultative Address
style, this is one-way.
What the speaker says is
something that has been prepared
beforehand.
FROZEN This style is “frozen” in time and EXAMPLE: pledges
remains unchanged
It does not require any feedback
from the audience.

SPEECH ACTS
Speech Acts and Communicative Maxims
The “code model” of communication
What is problematic in the “code model” of
communication? It has no context.
Why the code model is too simple?
■ It neglects the role of context.
■ It rests on the assumption that meanings are

CONTEXT
 Context makes things “go without saying”
 Context is always available as a resource
 Meaning is contextually bound
INFERENCE
‘in the words’ and that those meanings are the
same in all situations.
■ It neglects the role of inference (hearers
figuring out what speakers meant although
they did not literally say it).
■ Physical environment
■ Participants
■ Social setting
■ Prior discourse
■ Cultural norms and expectations
■ Conveyed message is not identical with (or
goes beyond) what is literally said.
■ Hearer infer the intended meaning.
■ The message is “enriched” by the hearer
■ Relying on inference is the norm in language.

LOCUTION ‘What is said’ (What does X mean?), the literal

meaning of the words
ILLOCUTION ‘What is meant’ (What do you mean by X?), the
speaker tries to convey with the words.

DIRECT SPEECH ACT
INDIRECT SPEECH ACT
Locution (what is said) and 1. Please wash the dishes!
Illocution (what is meant) coincide: 2. I bet you five dollars
that the Hotspurs win!
3. I hereby pronounce you
man and wife!
Locution (what is said) and 1. Could you wash the
Illocution (what is meant) differ dishes?
from one another: 2. A: Want to see a movie
tonight? B: I got to
study.
3. A: How’s that Ling 200
class? B: Don’t ask!

J.L. Austin: Speech Act Theory

Six General Types of Speech Acts
Representative/s *Assertions, statements, claims,
hypotheses.
*Stating facts that are either true
or false.
Commissive/s *Commit the speaker to a course
of action.
*Promises, threats, vows, oaths
Directive/s Direct the hearer to a course of
action. Orders, requests, questions
Ex: Paris is the Capital of France.
We have no milk left.
Ex: I’ll be there in five
I’ll call you later
Do that once more and you shall
regret it for the rest of your life.
Ex: 1. One pie, please.
2. can you lend me that pen.
3. What time is the next bus ride?
Declaration/s Result in the state they name
Blessings, hirings, firings,
baptism, arrest, marriage.
Expressive/s Indicates the speaker’s attitudes
Verdictive/s Assessment and judgements
Appraisals, assessments,
convictions
Ex: you have to be a certain person
to be declaring.
You are now man and wife.
Greetings, apologies, thanks…
Ex: The accuse is charged guilty!

3 TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS

Locutionary Is the actual act of uttering
Illocutionary Is the social function of what is
said.
Perlocutionary The resulting act of what is said.
This effect is based on the
particular context in which the
speech act was mentioned.
“Please do the dishes”
“Please do the dishes,” the
speaker requests the addresses
to wash the dishes.
“Please do the dishes” would
lead to the addresses washing
the dishes.

Performatives Statements which enable the speaker to perform

something just by stating it.
In this manner, verbs that execute the speech act that
they intend to affect.

THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE ■ Speakers co-operate, even when they argue!

■ All speakers design their utterances in
accordance with certain norms of talk and can
expect everyone to do so.

H. P. GRICE’S MAXIMS
The Maxim of Quantity Say enough, but not too much. A: Do you have any pets?

B: I have two cats (I have two

and no more than to cats, no
dogs, no Ilamas, no frogs, and
no parrots, or any other pets you
might think of.)
The Maxim of Relevance Be relevant A: Do you have any pets?

B: I’m allergic. (No, I don’t

have any pets, and because I
assume that you will wonder
why, let me tell you, it is
because I am allergic, not
necessarily because I do not like
them.
The Maxim of Manner Be orderly A: How do I get to the station?
 B: When you’re outside the
university, go towards the main
road, tur left, and follow the
main road until you see the
Funambule, then either take the
Funambule or walk up the hill
until you see the station.
Getting married and having
children is better than having
children and getting married.
The Maxim of Quality Say what you believe to be true If speakers lied all the time,
communication would make
little sense.

Telling the truth as the default

makes it possible to achieve
communicative effects with
obviously untrue statements.

Flouting the Maxims It’s ok to disregard the maxim as Ex:

long as this is clear to the hearer Maxim of quantity
If it rains, it rains

Business is business

Boys will be boys

*These are tautology; you
must mean something more
than you just said.

Maxim of quality
A: I love the linguistics class!

B: Yes, and I like to be hit on

the head with blunt objects.
* The hearer of their
conversation will realize that
they say things that are
blatantly untrue, and they try
to mean something else, like
the linguistics class really
sucks.