Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy—the study of structure

Physiology—the study of how a structure functions or works

Structure determines what functions are possible

Six (6) Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical level

- simplest level of the structural ladder

Microscopic cells

- Smallest units of all living things.

Tissue level

- Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that have a common function.

Organ level

- extremely complex functions become possible.

Organ system n

- group of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose.

Organismal level.

- is the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive.

Eight functions that humans must perform to maintain life:

1. Maintaining Boundaries
2. Movement
3. Responsiveness (irritability)
4. Digestion
5. Metabolism
6. Excretion
7. Reproduction
8. Growth

Homeostasis
• Negative feedback systems act to reduce or stop the initial stimulus
• Positive feedback systems act to increase the initial stimulus
Terminologies and Body Planes
Directional terms often occur in pairs

• Superior (toward the head): inferior (toward the tail)

• Anterior (toward the front of the body): posterior (toward the rear or back of the body)

• Medial (toward the midline of the body): lateral (away from the midline of the body)

• Proximal (closer to the trunk): distal (farther from the trunk)

• Superficial (at or close to the body surface): deep (below or away from the body surface

Body planes and sections

• A sagittal section separates the body into right and left parts

∘ A midsagittal section separates the body into equal right and left parts

• A frontal section separates the body into anterior and posterior parts

• A transverse section separates the body into superior and inferior parts

Body cavities
• Dorsal body cavity: well protected by bone; includes cranial cavity (brain) and spinal cavity (spinal
cord)

• Ventral body cavity: protected only by trunk muscles; includes thoracic cavity (heart and lungs) and
abdominopelvic cavity (digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs)
The Epithelium or Epithelial Tissue
Covers, lines; glandular tissue protects, absorbs, and secretes

Hallmarks of epithelium
• The membranes always have one free (unattached) surface or edge. This apical surface is
exposed to the body’s exterior or to the cavity of an internal organ

• The anchored (basal) surface of epithelium rests on a basement membrane, a structureless

material secreted by both the epithelial cells and the connective tissue cells deep to the
epithelium. Think of the basement membrane as the “glue” holding the epithelium in place.

• Epithelial tissues are avascular, meaning they have no blood supply of their own and depend
on diffusion from the capillaries in the underly

Classification of Epithelia
The simple epithelia - are most concerned with absorption, secretion, and filtration. Because simple
epithelia are usually very thin, protection is not one of their specialties.

Stratified Epithelia - Stratified epithelia consist of two or more cell layers. Being considerably more
durable than the simple epithelia, these epithelia function primarily in protection.
Classification of Body Membranes
Epithelial membranes—simple organs with epithelial and connective tissue components
• Cutaneous membranes (the skin): superficial epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium) and
deep dermis (dense connective tissue); protects body surface
• Mucous membranes: epithelial sheet connected to a lamina propria (areolar connective
tissue); lines body cavities open to the exterior
• Serous membranes: simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin connective tissue layer;
occurs in pairs of parietal and visceral layers separated by serous fluid; lines the ventral body
cavity (closed to the exterior)
Connective tissue: synovial membranes line joint cavities

The Integumentary System

• Skin: protect deeper tissue from chemicals, bacteria, bumps, and drying; regulating
body temperature through radiation and sweating; synthesizing defensive proteins and
vitamin D
• Sensory receptors found in the skin
Skin structure includes the epidermis and dermis

• Epidermis is the superficial part of the skin

• Epidermis is stratified squamous keratinized epithelium and is avascular

Layers from superficial to deep: stratum corneum, stratum lucidum (in thick skin only), stratum
granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale
• Dermis is dense connective tissue and contains blood vessels, nerves, and epidermal
appendages
∘ Papillary layer has ridges, which push outward on the epidermis to produce fingerprints
● The papillary layer is the superficial dermal region. It is uneven and has peg like projections
from its superior surface, called dermal papillae which indent the epidermis above.
∘ Reticular layer is dense irregular connective tissue; houses deep pressure receptors, sweat
and oil glands, and hair follicles
● The reticular layer is the deepest skin layer. It contains dense irregular connective tissue, as
well as blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors called lamellar
corpuscles.
The dermis is your “hide.” It is a strong, stretchy envelope that helps to bind the body together.
When you purchase leather goods (bags, belts, shoes, and the like), you are buying the treated
dermis of animals.
● The connective tissue making up the dermis consists of two major regions—the papillary and
the reticular areas, which are composed of areolar and dense irregular connective tissue,
respectively.
● Like the epidermis, the dermis varies in thickness. For example, it is particularly thick on the
palms of the hands and soles of the feet but is quite thin on the eyelids.
Skin color Skin appendages
Skin color is influenced by melanin, hemoglobin, and carotene

Sweat glands (sudoriferous glands)—produce sweat and release it at the epithelial surface; help
regulate body temperature

● Sweat Glands: also called sudoriferous glands, are widely distributed in the skin.

● Their number is staggering—more than 2.5 million per person.

There are two types of sweat glands:

1. eccrine

2. apocrine

Sebaceous glands— The sebaceous glands, or oil glands, are found all over the skin, except on the palms
of the hands and the soles of the feet. The product of the sebaceous glands, sebum is a mixture of oily
substances and fragmented cells. Sebum is a lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist and prevents
the hair from becoming brittle. Sebum also contains chemicals that kill bacteria, so it is important in
preventing bacterial infection of the skin.

● The sebaceous glands become very active when androgens (male sex hormones) are produced in
increased amounts (in both sexes) during adolescence. Thus, the skin tends to become oilier during this
period of life.

Emotions also influence skin color, and many alterations in skin color signal certain disease states:

• Redness, or erythema Reddened skin may indicate embarrassment (blushing), fever, hypertension,
inflammation, or allergy.

● Pallor, or blanching. Under certain types of emotional stress (fear, anger, and others), some people
become pale. Pale skin may also signify anemia, low blood pressure, or impaired blood flow into the
area.

● Jaundice or a yellow cast. An abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies a liver disorder in which
excess bile pigments accumulate in the blood, circulate throughout the body, and become deposited in
body tissues.

● Bruises. The black-and-blue marks of bruising reveal sites where blood has escaped from the
circulation and has clotted in the tissue spaces. Such clotted blood masses are called hematomas. An
unusual tendency to bruise may signify a deficiency of vitamin C in the diet or hemophilia (bleeder’s
disease).

Burns and Cancers

Burns are classified according to their severity (depth) as first-degree (superficial), second-degree
(superficial partial-thickness burns), third degree (full-thickness burns), or fourth-degree (full-
thickness burns with deep-tissue involvement).
BCC (basal cell carcinoma)

-least malignant and most common skin cancer.

-Basal cell carcinoma is relatively slow-growing, and metastasis seldom occurs before the lesion
is noticed.
Malignant Melanoma
-Malignant melanoma is a cancer of melanocytes.
-It accounts for only about 5 percent of skin cancers, but it is often deadly.

ABCDE
(A) Asymmetry. Any two sides of the pigmented spot or mole do not match.
(B) Border irregularity. The borders of the lesion are not smooth but exhibit
indentations.
(C) Color. The pigmented spot contains areas of different colors (black, brown,
tan, and sometimes blue or red).
(D) Diameter. The lesion is larger than 6 millimeters (mm) in diameter (the
size of a pencil eraser).
(E) Evolution.
● The volume of fluid lost can be estimated indirectly by determining how much of the body
surface is burned (extent of burns), using the rule of nines. This method divides the body into
11 areas, each accounting for 9 percent of the total body surface area, plus an additional area
surrounding the genitals (the perineum) representing 1 percent of body surface area.

UVA, UVB, UVC

Robbins & Cotrans’ Pathology:
● Wavelengths:
○ 320-400 nm: UVA
○ 280-320 nm: UVB (responsible for cutaneous Ca inductions).
○ 200-280 nm: UVC (potent mutagen, but not considered significant because it is
filtered out by the ozone layer).

Devleopmental aspects of skin and body membranes.

● During the fifth and sixth months of development, a fetus is

covered with a downy type of hair called lanugo (lah-noo’go).
● By the time the infant is born, it has usually shed this hairy cloak, and instead its
skin is covered with an oily coating called the vernix caseosa. This white, cheesy-
looking substance, produced by the sebaceous glands, protects the baby’s skin
while it is floating in its water-filled sac inside the mother. The newborn’s skin is
very thin, and blood vessels are easily seen through it.
● Milia- small white spots on the baby’s nose and forehead. These normally
disappear by the third week after. As the baby grows, its skin becomes thicker,
and more subcutaneous fat is deposited.
●During adolescence, the skin and hair become oilier as sebaceous glands are
activated, and acne may appear. Acne usually subsides in early adulthood, and
the skin reaches its optimal appearance when we are in our twenties and thirties.
● Hair loses its luster as we age, and by age 50 the number of hair follicles has
dropped by one-third and continues to decline, resulting in hair thinning and
some degree of baldness, or alopecia in most people. Many men become bald as
they age, a phenomenon called male pattern baldness. A bald man is not really
hairless he does have hairs in the bald area. But, because those hair follicles have
begun to degenlating erate, the vellus hairs are colorless and very tiny (and may
not even emerge from the follicle).
 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
● The bones of the skeleton are part of the skeletal system, which also includes joints, cartilages,
and ligaments (fibrous cords that bind the bones together at joints).

a. Bone – axial and appendicular.

● The skeleton is divided into two parts: the axial skeleton, the bones that form the longitudinal
axis of the body, and the appendicular skeleton, the bones of the limbs and girdles that attach them
to the axial skeleton. Joints give these parts of the skeleton flexibility and allow movement to occur.

FUNCTION

Support
Protection
Allow movement.
Storage
Blood cell formation.

b. Classification of bones.

• The adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones. There are two basic types of osseous, or bone, tissue:
Compact bone is dense and looks smooth and homogeneous, whereas spongy bone has a spiky, open
appearance like a sponge.

• Bones are classified according to shape into four groups: long, short, flat, and irregular.

• Long bones are typically longer than they are wide. As a rule, they have a shaft with enlarged ends. Long
bones are mostly compact bone but also contain spongy bone at the ends. All the bones of the limbs,
except the patella (kneecap) and the wrist and ankle bones, are long bones.

• Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. They have two thin layers of compact bone
sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them. Most bones of the skull, the ribs, and the sternum
(breastbone) are flat bones.

Short bones are generally cube-shaped and contain mostly spongy bone with an outer layer of compact bone.
The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones. Sesamoid (ses′ah-moyd) bones, which form within tendons, are
a special type of short bone. The best-known example is the patella.

Bones that do not fit one of the preceding categories are called irregular bones. The vertebrae, which make up
the spinal column, fall into this group. Like short bones, they are mainly spongy bone with an outer layer of
compact bone.
c. Diaphysis and epiphyses.
• In a long bone, the diaphysis or shaft, makes up most of the bone’s length and is composed of compact
bone. The diaphysis is covered and protected by a fibrous connective tissue membrane, the periosteum
Hundreds of connective tissue fibers, called perforating fibers, or Sharpey’s fibers, secure the periosteum
to the underlying bone.

• The epiphyses are the ends of long bones. Each epiphysis consists of a thin layer of compact bone
enclosing an area filled with spongy bone. Instead of a periosteum, articular cartilage covers its external
surface. Because the articular cartilage is glassy hyaline cartilage, it provides a smooth surface that
decreases friction at the joint when covered by lubricating fluid.

A long bone has a shaft (diaphysis) with two ends (epiphyses)

• The shaft is compact bone; its cavity contains yellow marrow

• The epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage; they contain spongy bone (with red marrow)

• The organic extracellular matrix makes bone flexible; calcium salts deposited in the matrix make bone
hard

• Bone markings—anatomical landmarks that reveal where muscles attach and where blood vessels and
nerves pass

• Osteon (Haversian system)—the building block of compact bone; contains a central canal (Haversian
canal), perpendicular perforating canals (Volkmann’s canals), rings of matrix called lamellae with
lacunae between the rings containing osteocytes; lacunae are linked by canaliculi

d. Osteoblasts vs osteoclasts.
Osteoblasts build new bone matrix;

Osteoclasts release calcium from the matrix

Bone formation or ossification, involves two major phases. First, the hyaline cartilage model is completely covered
with bone matrix (a bone “collar”) by bone-building cells called osteoblasts.

Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone matrix to the outside of the diaphysis as cells called osteoclasts

e. Fractures and classifications.

A fracture is a break in a bone. Common types include simple, compound, compression, comminuted,
depressed, impacted, spiral, and greenstick; bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE: Fractures

● A fracture in which the bone breaks cleanly but does not penetrate the skin is a closed (or simple)
fracture.

● When the broken bone ends penetrate through the skin, the fracture is open (or compound).

● A fracture is treated by reduction, which is the realignment of the broken bone ends, followed by
immobilization.

● The healing time for a simple fracture is 6 to 8 weeks but is much longer for large bones and for the bones of
people (because of their poorer circulation).

f. Skull
The skull is made up of cranial and facial bones

1.The cranium encloses and protects the fragile brain tissue.

2.The facial bones form a cradle for the eyes that is open to the anterior and allow the facial
muscles to show our feelings through smiles or frowns.

• The boxlike cranium is composed of eight large flat bones. Except for two sets of paired
bones (the parietal and temporal), they are all single bones.
● The external acoustic meatus is a canal that leads to the eardrum and the middle ear. It is
the route by which sound enters the ear.
● The styloid process, a sharp, needlelike projection, is just inferior to the external auditory
meatus. Many neck muscles use the styloid process as an attachment point.
● The zygomatic process is a thin bridge of bone that joins with the cheekbone (zygomatic
bone) anteriorly.
● The mastoid process, which is full of air cavities (the mastoid sinuses), is a rough projection
posterior and inferior to the external acoustic meatus. It provides an attachment site for some
muscles of the neck.
• Occipital Bone : the most posterior bone of the cranium. It forms the base and back wall of
the skull.
• Sphenoid Bone: The butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width of the skull and forms
part of the floor of the cranial cavity.
• Ethmoid Bone: very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the sphenoid. It forms the roof of
the nasal cavity and part of the medial walls of the orbits. Projecting from its superior surface
is the crista galli literally “cock’s comb”

Facial Bones
Fourteen bones make up the face. Twelve are paired; only the mandible and vomer are single.
Palatine Bones: The paired palatine bones lie posterior to the palatine processes of the
maxillae.
Zygomatic Bones: are commonly referred to as the cheekbones. They also form a good-sized
portion of the lateral walls of the orbits.
Lacrimal Bones: are fingernail-sized bones forming part of the medial wall of each orbit. Each
lacrimal bone has a groove that serves as a passageway for tears (lacrima = tear).
• Nasal Bones: The small rectangular bones forming the bridge of the nose are the nasal bones.
(The lower part of the skeleton of the nose is made up of hyaline cartilage.)
• Vomer Bone: The single bone in the median line of the nasal cavity is the vomer. (Vomer
mean “plow,” which refers to the bone’s shape.) The vomer forms the inferior part of the bony
nasal septum, which separates the two nostrils.
• Inferior Nasal Conchae: are thin, curved bones projecting medially from the lateral walls of
the nasal cavity.
• Mandible: or lower jaw, is the largest and strongest bone of the face. It joins the temporal
bones on each side of the face, forming the only freely movable joints in the skull.
g. Vertebral column
• Serving as the axial support of the body, the vertebral column, or spine, extends from the
skull, which it supports, to the pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the body to the lower
limbs.
The vertebral column contains 24 vertebrae, the sacrum, and the coccyx

• The individual vertebrae are separated by pads of flexible fibrocartilage—intervertebral

discs— that cushion the vertebrae and absorb shock while allowing the spine flexibility.
• these allow the vertebral column to be flexible

Features of the vertebrae:

1. Body or centrum: disclike, weight-bearing part of the vertebra facing anteriorly in the
vertebral column.
2. Vertebral arch: arch formed from the joining of all posterior extesions, the laminae &
pedicales, from the vertebral body.
3. Vertebral foramen: canal through which the spinal cord passes.
4. Transverse processes: two lateral projections from the vertebral arch.
5. Spinous process: single projection arising from the posterior aspect of the vertebral arch
(actually the fused laminae).
6. Superior articular process and inferior articular process: paired projections lateral to the
vertebral foramen, allowing a vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebrae.

Sacrum
• The sacrum is formed by the fusion of five vertebrae. Superiorly it articulates with L5, and
inferiorly it connects with the coccyx. forms the posterior wall of the pelvis.

Coccyx
• The coccyx is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny, irregularly shaped vertebrae.
• It is the human “tailbone,” a remnant of the tail that other vertebrate animals have.
• Vertebral column—C-shaped at birth, primary curvatures (thoracic and sacral) are present

∘ Secondary curvatures (cervical and lumbar) form when the baby begins to lift its head and walk

∘ After infancy, the vertebral column is S-shaped to allow for upright posture
h. Joints and classification
• Joints (articulations) hold bones together and allow movement of the skeleton

• Functional joint categories: synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), and

diarthroses (freely movable)

• Structural joint categories: fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial joints, depending on the substance
separating the articulating bones.

Most fibrous joints are synarthrotic; fibrous joints occur mainly in the axial skeleton.

Most cartilaginous joints are amphiarthrotic; cartilaginous joints occur mainly in the axial skeleton. All
joints in the limbs are synovial joints; all synovial joints are diarthroses

• Articulating bone surfaces are covered with articular cartilage, enclosed within the joint cavity by a
fibrous capsule lined with a synovial membrane; the synovial membrane secretes lubricating synovial
fluid.
i. Developmental aspects of Skeleton.
 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
a. Types of Muscle

• Skeletal muscle—forms muscles attached to the skeleton, which move the limbs and other body parts

- largest muscle fibers

∘ Skeletal muscle fibers (cells) are long and multinucleate; skeletal muscle also known as striated
muscle and voluntary muscle

∘ Connective tissue coverings (endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium) enclose and protect the
muscle fibers and increase the strength of skeletal muscles

• Smooth muscle—uninucleate, spindle-shaped, arranged in opposing layers in the walls of hollow

organs

∘ Move substances (food, urine, a baby) along internal pathways, under involuntary control

• Cardiac muscle—striated, branching cells that fit closely together and are arranged in spiral bundles
in the heart wall

∘ Contraction pumps blood through the blood vessels; control is involuntary

b. Muscle Function

1. Produce movement.

2. Maintain posture & body position.

3. Stabilize joint.

4. Generate heat.

5. Additional functions: valves, dilation & constriction of pupils, arrector pili muscles.

c. The Skeletal Muscle (activity)

Skeletal muscle—forms muscles attached to the skeleton, which move the limbs and other body parts

• Irritability (responsiveness): the ability to receive and respond to a stimulus.

• Contractility: the ability to forcibly shorten when adequately stimulated. This property sets
muscle apart from all other tissue types.

• Extensibility: the ability of muscle fibers to stretch.

• Elasticity: the ability to recoil and resume their resting length after being stretched.

d. Contraction of Muscle as a Whole (Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction)

ATP is the only energy source that can be used directly to power muscle activity, ATP must be
regenerated continuously if contraction is to continue.

Working muscles use three pathways to regenerate ATP:

1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate

The unique high-energy molecule creatine phosphate (CP) is found in muscle fibers but not
other cell types. As ATP is depleted, interactions between CP and ADP result in transfers of a
high-energy phosphate group from CP to ADP, thus regenerating more ATP in a fraction of a
second. Although muscle fibers store perhaps five times as much CP as ATP, the CP supplies
are also soon exhausted (in less than 15 seconds).
 2. Aerobic pathway
95 percent of the ATP used for muscle activity comes from aerobic respiration. Aerobic
respiration occurs in the mitochondria and involves a series of metabolic pathways that use
oxygen. These pathways are collectively referred to as oxidative phosphorylation. During
aerobic respiration, glucose is broken down completely to carbon dioxide and water, and
some of the energy released as the bonds are broken is captured in the bonds of ATP
molecules. it is fairly slow and requires continuous delivery of oxygen and nutrient fuels to
the muscle to keep it going.

3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation. The initial steps of glucose breakdown occur via a
pathway called glycolysis, does not use oxygen (literally “without oxygen”). During glycolysis, which
occurs in the cytosol, glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid, and small amounts of energy are captured
in ATP bonds (2 ATP per 1 glucose molecule), the pyruvic acid generated during glycolysis is converted to
lactic acid, and the overall process is referred to as anaerobic glycolysis.

b. Types of Muscle Contraction

c. Steps to Produce Muscle Contraction

• In order for a skeletal muscle to contract, its fibers must first be stimulated by a motor
neuron.

• Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) = the site where a motor nerve fiber and a skeletal
muscle fiber meet BUT DO NOT TOUCH; (also called a synapse).

• Motor Unit = one motor neuron and many skeletal muscle.

• Motor End-Plate = the specific part of a skeletal muscle fiber's sarcolemma directly
beneath the NMJ.

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The Sliding Filament Theory

• "Sliding Filament Theory“ is the theory of muscle contraction.

1. most popular theory concerning muscle contraction;
2. states that muscle contraction involves the sliding movement of the thin filaments (actin)
past the thick filaments (myosin);
3. Sliding continues until the overlapping between the thin & thick filaments is complete.

• Changes in muscle cell during contraction:

1. The distance between the Z-lines of the sarcomeres decreases;
2. The I-Bands (light bands) shorten;
3. The A-Bands move closer together, but do not diminish in length.

• Tropomyosin blocks or inhibits the myosin binding sites on actin.

5. Muscle Movements, Types and Name

Muscles attach to bones at two or more points

• The origin—immovable (or less movable) attachment

• The insertion—movable bony attachment

• The insertion moves toward the origin during contraction

Flexion : a movement, generally in the sagittal plane, that decreases the angle of the joint and brings
two bones closer together

Extension : the opposite of flexion, so it is a movement that increases the angle, or distance, between
two bones or parts of the body (straightening the knee or elbow) .

Hypertension : Extension that is greater than 180 ⁰. tip your head so that your chin points toward the
ceiling

Rotation: movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis

Abduction: moving a limb away (generally on the frontal plane) from the midline, or median plane, of
the body.

Adduction: the opposite of abduction, so it is the movement of a limb toward the body midline.

Circumduction: a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction commonly seen in ball-
and-socket joints, such as the shoulder.

Special Movements

1. Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion – pointing your toe toward your head) is dorsiflexion, whereas
pointing the toes away from your head is plantar flexion

2. Inversion and eversion - To invert the foot, turn the sole medially, as if you were looking at the
bottom of your foot. To evert the foot, turn the sole laterally.

3. Supination and pronation - The terms supination “turning back - ward” is laterally) and pronation
“turning forward” medially) refer to movements of the radius around the ulna

4. Opposition - This is the action by which you move your thumb to touch the tips of the other fingers
on the same hand.
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Organization of the Nervous System

- The nervous system is the master control and communication system of the body.
- It communicates with body cells using electrical impulses, which are rapid and specific
and cause almost immediate responses.
- Stimuli: changes occurring both inside and outside the body.

a. Structural Classification and their Functions

Structural classifications include the central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord; and
peripheral nervous system (PNS): nerves and ganglia

(PNS): nerves and ganglia

• Spinal nerves: carry impulses to and from the spinal cord.

• Cranial nerves: carry impulses to and from the brain.

Sensory Fibers delivering impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called somatic
(soma = body) sensory (afferent) fibers, whereas those transmitting impulses from the visceral
organs are called visceral sensory (afferent) fibers.

· Sensory (afferent) division - Nerve fibers carry information to the central nervous system from
sensory receptors.

· Motor (efferent) division - Nerve fibers carry impulses away from the CNS to the effector organs,
muscles, & glands.

Motor (efferent) division -Two subdivisions

· Somatic nervous system = voluntary;

· Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

· 1. Sympathetic NS

· 2. Parasympathetic NS

Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord

• Nerve fibers carry information to the central nervous system from sensory receptors.
Nerve physiology.
Interneurons (association neurons)
· Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system. Connect sensory and motor
neurons.
· Interneurons – are only found in the CNS. Process info from PNS to decide response.
· Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward the CNS.
· Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from the CNS
AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING
Parasympathetic – housekeeping activities, Conserves energy
Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight” Response to unusual stimulus

2. Nervous Tissue
Two principal types of cells: supporting cells & neurons.
· Neuroglia – supporting cells in the CNS. The function of neuroglia: support, insulate, and
protect the delicate neurons.
Schwann cells - form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the PNS.

Satellite cells - act as protective, cushioning cells for peripheral neuron cell bodies.

Neuron
Neurons = nerve cells
· Cells specialized to transmit messages. Major regions of neurons
· Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
· Dendrites and axon– fibers that extend from the cell body.
· Dendrites = neuron processes that convey incoming messages (electrical signals)
toward the cell body.
c. Nerve Impulse Transmission and Action Potential
Axons end in axon terminals.
· Axon terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters.
· Axon terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap.
· Synapse – the gap between adjacent neurons. junction between nerves.
3. Protection of the Central Nervous System
a. Cerebrospinal Fluid

· Similar to blood plasma composition.

· Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain.

· Less protein and more Vitamin C.

b. Blood brain barrier

· is composed of relatively impermeable capillaries.

· Excludes many potentially harmful substances

c. Meninges

Dura mater

Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain.

· Folds inward in several areas.

Arachnoid layer

· Middle layer

· Web-like.

Pia mater

· Internal layer

· Clings to the surface of the brain.

4. Brain dysfunctions – Head trauma, CVAs, AD, HD

 SPECIAL SENSES

The Eye and Vision

a. External structure

b. Internal structure
 Physiology of Vision The Ear: Hearing and Balance

a. Anatomy of the Ear

b. Hearing c. equilibrium

c. Hearing and equilibrium deficits

Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste

A. Olfactory Receptors

B. Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste

Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. The Endocrine System and Hormone Function

a. The Chemistry of Hormones

b. Mechanism of Hormone Action

c. Control of Hormone Release