NOTES IN HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Topic: Cells and Tissues

DIRECTIONS
Superior
- Refers to a structure being closer to
the head or higher than another
structure in the body

Inferior
- Refers to a structure being closer to
the feet or lower than another
structure in the body

Medial
- Refers to a structure being closer to
the midline or median plane of the
body than another structure of the
body

Lateral
-Refers to a structure being farther
away from the midline than another
structure of the body

Distal
-Refers to a structure being
further away from the root of the
limb than another structure in the
limb

Proximal
-Refers to a structure being closer
to the root of the limb than
another structure in that limb

Anterior (Ventral)
-Refers to a structure being
more in front than another
structure in the body

Posterior (Dorsal)
-Refers to a structure being
more in back than another
structure in the body
Superficial
-Refers to a structure being
closer to the surface of the
body than another structure

Deep
- Refers to a structure being
closer to the core of the
body than another structure

POSITIONS

Supine
- Lying face up

Prone
- Lying face down

Right lateral recumbent

- right side oriented down

Left lateral recumbent

- left side oriented down

Other common positions

- Trendelenburg’s position
- Fowler’s or sitting position
Positions

ANATOMICAL PLANE
• Fixed lines of reference along
which the body is often divided
or sectioned to facilitate viewing
of its structures

• There are three basic planes in

zoological anatomy: sagittal,
coronal, and transverse. A
human in the anatomical
position, can be described using

a coordinate system with the Z-

axis going from front to back,

the X-axis going from left to

right, and the Y-axis going from
up to down.
Sagittal plane
• The plane dividing the body
into right and left portions

Frontal plane
• The plane dividing the body
into front and back portions

Transverse plane
• The horizontal plane dividing
the body into upper and lower
portions

BODY CAVITIES

The dorsal cavity contains the

brain in the cranial cavity and the
spinal cord in the spinal cavity
(canal).

Pelvic cavity, which together

make up the abdominopelvic
cavity. The large membrane
that lines the abdominopelvic
cavity and covers the organs
within it is the peritoneum

MOVEMENTS

Flexion
• Bending a joint or decreasing the angle
between two bones

Extension
• Straightening a joint or increasing the angle
between two bones

Hyperextension
• Excessive extension of the parts at a joint
beyond anatomical position.

Adduction
• Moving a body part towards the
midline of the body
Abduction
• Moving a body part away from
the midline of the body

Pronation
• Turning the arm or foot
downward

Supination
• Turning the arm or foot upward

Retraction
• Moving a part backward

Protraction
• Moving a part forward

Elevation
• Raising a part

Depression
• Lowering a part

Rotation
• Turning on a single axis

Circumduction
• Tri-planar, circular motion at the hip
or shoulder

External rotation
• Rotation of the hip or shoulder
away from the midline

Internal rotation
• Rotation of the hip or shoulder
toward the midline

Lateral Flexion

• Side-bending left or right

Inversion
• Turning the sole of the foot inward

Eversion
• Turning the sole of the foot
outward

Dorsiflexion
• Ankle movement bringing the foot
towards the shin

Plantarflexion
• Ankle movement pointing the foot
downward

Radial Deviation
• Movement of the wrist towards
the radius or lateral side.

Ulnar Deviation
• Movement of the wrist towards
the ulna or medial side.

Opposition
• Movement of the thumb across
the palm of the hand.
Cells
- basic unit of living organisms

-carry out metabolism sum of all

the body's physical and chemical
activities.

Tissues

Four basic types of tissues:

- Epithelial tissue covers and protects
body structures and lines organs, vessels, and cavities.

- Connective tissue supports and binds body structures.

- Muscle tissue (root my/o) contracts to produce

movement.

- Nervous tissue (root neur/o) makes up the brain,

spinal cord, and nerves. It coordinates and controls
body responses by the transmission of electrical
impulses.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Functions of the Integumentary System

Skin
-protects against bacterial
invasion
-reservoir for food and
water
-sensory receptor
-synthesis of vitamin D
-regulate body temperature
and water
-prevents dehydration

Epidermis
-outermost layer
-epithelium
-strata or layers
-keratin (a fibrous protein)
-no blood vessels or nerve supply
in epidermis
-Stratified squamous epithelium
-Cornified or keratinized
(hardened by keratin) to prevent
water loss
-Avascular
-Most cells are keratinocytes

LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS

Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)

Stratum spinosum
Stratum granulosum (Granular layer)
Stratum lucidum (Clear layer)
Stratum corneum (Horny layer)
CELLS IN THE EPIDERMIS

Keratinocytes
-Produce keratin, fibrous
protein that helps
-give the epidermis its
protective properties
-Arise in the deepest part
of the epidermis, stratum
basale

LIFE HISTORY OF KERATINOCYTES

-New keratinocytes push older ones toward the

surface
-Over time, keratinocytes flatten, produce more
keratin and membrane-coating vesicles
-In 30 to 40 days a keratinocyte makes its way to the
skin surface and flakes off (exfoliates) as dander
-Slower in old age
-Faster in injured or stressed skin
vCalluses or corns
-thick accumulations of dead keratinocytes on hands
or feet

Four important events occur in stratum granulosum

1. Keratohyalin granules release filaggrin

a protein that binds keratin into tough bundles
2. Cells produce tough envelope proteins beneath their
membranes
3. Membrane-coating vesicles release lipid mixture that
spreads out over cell surface and waterproofs it
4. Keratinocytes’ organelles degenerate and the cells
Melanocytes
-Spider-shaped
epithelial cells
-Synthesize melanin
pigment
-Found in the deepest
part of the epidermis

Tactile (Merkel) Cells

-Present at the
epidermal-dermal
junction
-Functions as sensory
receptor for touch

Dermis or Corium
-living tissue
-capillaries
-lymphatics
-nerve endings

LAYERS OF DERMIS

Papillary layer (upper dermal

region)
-Areolar connective tissue
-Collagen and elastic fibers
form a loosely woven mats

Reticular layer
-80% of the thickness
of the dermis
-Dense fibrous
connective tissue
-Cleavage (tension
lines) – important to surgeon
-Flexure lines –
dermal folds that
occur at or near joints
SKIN COLOR

Normal Skin Color Determinants

A. Melanin
-Polymer made of tyrosine amino acids
-Yellow, brown, or black pigments

B. Carotene
-Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
-Accumulates in the stratum corneum and in fatty tissue of
the hypodermis

C. Hemoglobin
-Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries
Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring

Alterations in Skin Color

Redness (erythema)
-due to increased blood flow to skin
-embarrassment
-inflammation
-hypertension
-fever
-allergy

Pallor (blanching)
-paleness due to decreased blood flow to skin
-emotional stress
-fear
-anemia
-low blood pressure
-impaired blood flow to an area
Jaundice (yellowing)
-yellowing due to bilirubin in blood
-liver disorder

Bronzing
-Addison’s disease

Bruises
-clotted blood under skin
-Hematomas

Albinism
-milky white skin and blue-gray eyes due to genetic lack of
melanin synthesizing enzyme

Evolution of Skin Color

-Variations in skin color result from multiple

evolutionary selection pressures, especially
differences in exposure to UV light
-UV light has both harmful and beneficial effects
-Adversely: it causes skin cancer, breaks down
folic acid
-Beneficially: it stimulates vitamin D synthesis
-Populations that evolved in the tropics have well melanized
skin
to protect against excessive UV.
-Populations that evolved in far northern and southern latitudes
(weak sun) have light skin to allow adequate UV
-Populations that evolved at high altitudes or dry climates
(less
UV filtering) also are darker skinned
-Importance of vitamin D for calcium (crucial for pregnancy,
lactation) might explain why women are lighter skinned than men

Skin Markings

A. Friction ridges
-markings on the fingertips that leave oily fingerprints
on surfaces we touch
B. Flexion lines (flexion creases)
-lines on the flexor surfaces of the digits, palms, wrists,
elbows

C. Freckles and moles

-tan to black aggregations of melanocytes

D. Hemangiomas (birthmarks)
-patches of discolored skin caused by benign
tumors of dermal capillaries

Skin Appendages

-Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands

-Sebaceous glands
-Sweat glands
-Hair
-Hair follicles
-Nails

Sebaceous glands (Oil)

-Produce oil (sebum),
accumulated lipids and cell
fragments

Whitehead
-accumulated sebum blocks a sebaceous gland duct

Blackhead
-material oxidizes and dries

Acne
-an active inflammation of sebaceous glands accompanied
by pimples

Seborrhea
-overactive sebaceous gland, in infants it is known as “cradle
cap”

Sudoriferous glands (Sweat)

-Produce sweat
-Widely distributed in skin
except nipples and parts of
external genitalia

Types of Sudoriferous glands

A. Eccrine (Merocrine)
sweat glands
-Numerous and
abundant in the
palms, soles of the
feet and forehead
-Open viaduct to
pore on skin surface
-Produce sweat
(clear)

B. Apocrine sweat glands

-Approximately 2,000 are largely
confined to the axillary and anogenital
areas
-Ducts empty into hair follicles
-Begin to function at puberty
-Release sweat that also contains fatty
-acids and proteins (milky/yellowish color)
-Ceruminous glands
-Modified apocrine glands found in
the lining of the external ear canal
-Secretion mixes with sebum to
produce cerumen or ear wax.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
-body’s framework
-supports and protects the body as an internal framework
-provides a system of levers with which the skeletal muscles
work to move the body.
-consisting of bones with joints, or articulations, that connect
them
-composed of 206 bones

Skeletal System Functions

Support
-The skeleton serves as the
structural framework for the body
by supporting soft tissues and
providing attachment points for
the tendons of most skeletal
muscles.

Assistance in movement
-Most skeletal muscles attach to bones;
when they contract, they pull on bones
to produce movement.

Protection
-the skeleton protects the
most important internal
organs from injury.

Blood cell formation

- a connective tissue called red
bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelets, a process called
hematopoiesis.

Storage
-bones store minerals, such as calcium and
phosphorus, for use by the body.
Triglyceride storage
- yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose
cells, which store triglycerides

Parts of the Skeletal System

BONES (SKELETONE)
Two subdivisions of the
skeleton
1. axial skeleton
- those that lie around the
body’s center of gravity
2. appendicular skeleton
- bones of the limbs or
appendages

Cartilage
-Cartilage is a strong flexible tissue
-as an infant, most of your
skeleton is cartilage
-over time the cartilage is
replaced by solid bone, usually
complete by the time you stop
growing
-not all cartilage is replaced in
adults, many joints contain
cartilage, protecting the ends of
bones (ears and the end of the
nose is also cartilage)

Joints
-Joints are articulations
-occur where two or more bones meet
-the joints of the skeletal system contribute to
homeostasis by holding bones together in ways that
allow for movement and flexibility.
Types of Bone Cells

-Osteogenic cell or osteoprogenitor cells, are mitotically

active stem cells found in the membranous periosteum and
endosteum
-Osteocytes- mature bone cells; monitor and maintain the
bone matrix
-Osteoblasts- bone forming cells
-Osteoclasts- giant bone destroying cells
-Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts
and osteoclasts

Two basic kinds of osseous bone tissue

that differ in their Texture:
1. Compact bone
-dense and smooth
-homogenous
2. Spongy bone
-cancellous
-small needle-like
pieces of bone
-many open spaces

Bone markings
-reveal where bones form joints with other bones, where
muscles, tendons, and ligaments were attached, and where
blood vessels and nerves passed.

Three general classes of bone markings:

1. articulations
2. projections
3. Holes

Axial Skeleton
-forms the longitudinal axis of the body
Skull
Two sets of bones form the skull
1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
2. Facial bones

8 cranial bones protect the brain

1-frontal bone
2-occipital bone
3-ethmoid bone
4-sphenoid bone
5,6-parietal bones (pair)
7,8-temporal bones (pair)

14 facial bones
1,2-maxillae (pair)
3,4-palatine bones (pair)
5,6-lacrimal bones (pair)
7,8-zygomatic bones (pair)
9,10-nasal bones (pair)
11-vomer bone
12,13-inferior nasal conchae (pair)
14-mandible

Development Aspects of the Skeleton

Fetal skull
-Fontanels are fibrous membranes
connecting the cranial bones
-Growth of cranium after birth is related
to brain growth
-Size of cranium in relationship to body

Skeletal changes
-at birth, the head and trunk are
proportionately much longer than the lower limbs

Vertebral Column (Spine)

-Vertebral column provides axial support
Thoracic Cage
-Bony thorax or thoracic cage

Appendicular Skeleton
-composed of 128
bones

Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

-Also called pectoral girdle

Bones of the Upper Limbs

-Humerus
-Proximal end articulation
-Distal end articulation
-Ulna
-Proximal end articulation
-Coronoid process and
olecranon
-Radius

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

Female’s pelvis
-inlet is larger and more circular
-shallower, on the whole and
the bones are lighter and
thinner
-ilia flare more laterally
-sacrum is shorter and less
curved
-ischial spines are shorter and
farther apart; thus, the outlet is
larger
-public arch is more rounded
because the angle of the pubic
arch is greater

Bones of the Lower Limbs

-Femur
-Tibia
-fibula