KOLEHIYO NG PANTUKAN

JUAN A. SARENAS CAMPUS, KINGKING,

PANTUKAN, DAVAO DE ORO
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

____________________________________________________________

TERM PAPER FOR

MODULE 10- INFORMATION PROCESSING;
MODULE 11- GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
in partial fulfillment of the course
EDUC 5- FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

Submitted by:

GISELLE C. MELENDRES
BSED English 3-1

Submitted to:

DR. LYNARD BOBBY ASIRIT

Instructor
 MODULE 10
INFORMATION PROCESSING

Information Processing Theory

Information Processing Theory is a cognitive theory that focuses on how information is encoded into
our memory. The theory describes how our brains filter information, from what we’re paying attention to in the
present moment, to what gets stored in our short-term or working memory and ultimately into our long-term
memory. The premise of Information Processing Theory is that creating a long-term memory is something that
happens in stages; first we perceive something through our sensory memory, which is everything we can see,
hear, feel or taste in a given moment; our short-term memory is what we use to remember things for very short
periods, like a phone number; and long-term memory is stored permanently in our brains. Information
Processing Theory uses a computer model to describe human learning. Information comes in, it gets
processed, and then it gets stored and retrieved. Of course, this is an oversimplification of human learning, but
it gives us a good overview and simile by using the computer model.

Developed by American psychologists including George Miller in the 1950s, Information Processing
Theory has in recent years compared the human brain to a computer. The ‘input’ is the information we give to
the computer – or to our brains – while the CPU is likened to our short-term memory, and the hard-drive is our
long-term memory. Our cognitive processes filter information, deciding what is important enough to ‘save’ from
our sensory memory to our short-term memory, and ultimately to encode into our long-term memory. Our
cognitive processes include thinking, perception, remembering, recognition, logical reasoning, imagining,
problem-solving, our sense of judgment, and planning. In a corporate training environment, it’s crucial that
participants retain the material in the long-term; this post will offer some insight into how to deliver memorable
courses.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned. They
consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorist
thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a
person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise
what is called the information processing theory. IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli)
from the environment though the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information
will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and the long-term memory.
Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or “remembered” when the
learner needs it.

Types of Knowledge

In Information Processing Theory (IPT), we first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may
receive. There are several types of knowledge. The first type is General vs. Specific. This involves whether
the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one. This involves deductive or inductive reasoning or
learning. The next type is Declarative, this refers to factual knowledge. When we say factual knowledge, it
may be described as the basic information about a particular subject or discipline that students must be
acquainted with. This may include the terminology and the specific details or elements of a subject (Anderson
and Krathwohl) in A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing. They may be in form of a word or an
image. Some examples of this are your names, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the
face of your crush. The next type of knowledge is Procedural. This includes knowledge on how to do things.
Procedural knowledge, also known as imperative knowledge, is the type of knowledge exercised in the
performance of a task. It's basically “how” you know to do something. The classic example of procedural
knowledge is riding a bicycle. And some other examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or
getting the least common denominator. The fourth type of knowledge is Episodic. The mental representations
of the specific events in a person's life. This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
It can also be your first kiss, first day of school, a friend's birthday party, and your brother's graduation are all
examples of episodic memories. In addition to your overall recall of the event itself, the episodic memory
includes the locations and times of the events. The last type of knowledge is Conditional. Conditional
knowledge is an understanding of when and how to use something we already know, for example, using
different strategies in different situations (Larkin, 2009). Yore and Treagust (2006) state that conditional
knowledge is the awareness of how, when, and where to use certain strategies. This is about “knowing when
and why” to apply declarative or procedural strategies.

These types of knowledge are evident or is innate in one’s cognitive ability. Knowledge is not only
cumulative, it grows exponentially. Those with a rich base of factual knowledge find it easier to learn more —
the rich get richer. In addition, factual knowledge enhances cognitive processes like problem solving and
reasoning.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term memory and
the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information
becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, menta
model, etc.). The three primary stages in IPT are encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding is when the information is sensed, perceived and attended to. We get information into our
brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once we
receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it. We organize the information with
other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts. Encoding information occurs through
both automatic processing and effortful processing. For example, if someone asks you what you ate for lunch
today, more than likely you could recall this information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing, or
the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually
done without any conscious awareness. Recalling the last time you studied for a test is another example of
automatic processing. But what about the actual test material you studied? It probably required a lot of work
and attention on your part to encode that information; this is known as effortful processing. When you first learn
new skills, such as driving a car, you have to put forth effort and attention to encode information about how to
start a car, how to brake, how to handle a turn, and so on. Once you know how to drive, you can encode
additional information about this skill automatically.

Storage (Retaining information in memory). The information is stored for either a brief or extended
period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding. Once the information has been encoded, we
have to retain it. Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. Storage is the creation of a
permanent record of information. In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to
pass through three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory.
These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson (1968). Their model of human memory, called Atkinson-
Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes
information.

Figure 1. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, information passes through three distinct stages
in order for it to be stored in long-term memory. (Image by Educ320 is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 (image
modified by Ian Joslin from COCOER)
Retrieval when the information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a
current task, the true measure of effective memory. So you have worked hard to encode via effortful
processing (a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information) and store some
important information for your upcoming final exam. How do you get that information back out of storage when
you need it? The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness is
known as retrieval. This would be similar to finding and opening a paper you had previously saved on your
computer’s hard drive. Now it’s back on your desktop, and you can work with it again. Our ability to retrieve
information from long-term memory is vital to our everyday functioning. You must be able to retrieve
information from memory in order to do everything from knowing how to brush your hair and teeth, to driving to
work, to knowing how to perform your job once you get there.
What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like
model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the memory system, and
brought back (recalled when needed). Most theories of information processing revolve around three main
stages in the memory process.
Three Main Stages in the memory process
Sensory Register

The sensory register is the memory store where information first comes in through the senses. There
are separate sensory registers for each sense: the iconic store codes visual information and the echoic store
codes auditory information. Information only lasts for a brief moment unless attention is directed to that
register, which then transfers the information to STM. In the sensory register process, the brain obtains
information from the environment. This activity is short, lasting at most a few seconds. During sensory register,
the brain gathers information passively through visual and auditory cues, known respectively as “iconic” and
“echoic” memory. Sensory memory can be divided into subsystems called the sensory registers: such as
iconic, echoic, haptic, olfactory, and gustatory.
The first step in the Information processing model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.
These includes capacity and duration. Capacity refers to the maximum amount that something can contain.
Thus, our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our minds can hold or perceive.
Duration is the time during which something continues. The sensory register only holds the information for an
extremely brief period- in order of 1 to 3 seconds. There is difference in duration based on modality: auditory
memory is more persistent than visual.
The Role of Attention
Attention plays a critical role in almost every area of life including school, work, and relationships. It
allows people to focus on information in order to create memories. It also allows people to avoid distractions so
that they can focus on and complete specific tasks. The first step in getting information into memory is to pay
attention to it. Attention involves focusing awareness on narrowed range of stimuli or events. Usually, attention
is likened to a filter in an information-processing model of memory the filter screens out most stimuli, while
allowing a select few to get by. Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information. This
means that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical membership of
the information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is
perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have
no means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.
Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

Figure 2. STM or Working Memory Model

Short-term memory is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory;
sometimes it is called working memory. Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and
sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts
about 20 seconds. Think of short-term memory as the information you have displayed on your computer
screen—a document, a spreadsheet, or a web page. Information in short-term memory either goes to long-
term memory (when you save it to your hard drive) or it is discarded (when you delete a document or close a
web browser). George Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that most people can
retain about seven items in short-term memory. Some remember five, some nine, so he called the capacity of
short-term memory the range of seven items plus or minus two.
The capacity of STM can only hold 5 to 9 chunks of information, sometimes described as 7+/-2. It is
called working memory because it is where new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally
processed. STM maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to process
the information, or until the information is forgotten. Its duration is around 18 seconds or less. To reduce the
loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the
information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number just given over and over.
STM is where the world meets what is already known, and where thinking is done. You perceive and
attend to stimuli; that information is then actively processed based on information stored in LTM. The use
strategies such as rehearsal (repeating information verbally) (acoustic encoding) and chunking (categorizing
information together in one memory slot) can expand the capacity of short-term memory (McLeod, 2009). In
terms of the characteristics of this memory stage, the representation is echoic. It is limited to 5-9 items, and it
lasts between 15-30 seconds. At the STM stage, interference is the principal cause of forgetting. STM can hold
about 7 (the magic number) items (Miller, 1956). A common example of this is calling information for a phone
number. After the operator gives you the number, you begin repeating it to keep it in STM. This repetition is
termed rehearsal. Rehearsal can also be used to get information into LTM, but it is very inefficient. Rehearsal
primarily serves a maintenance function; it can be used to keep information in STM. In the phone number
example, if someone interrupts you to ask you a question while you are rehearsing the number, responding
interferes with rehearsal, and the phone number is lost. You must call the information again.
Long Term Memory (LTM)
Long-term memory is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the storage
capacity of long-term memory has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened
more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and
years ago. In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your long-term memory would be like the
information you have saved on the hard drive. It isn’t there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you
can pull up this information when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories are strong
memories. Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For example, you might easily recall a fact
— “What is the capital of the United States?”—or a procedure— “How do you ride a bike?”—but you might
struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner at when you were on vacation in France last
summer. A prompt, such as that the restaurant was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your
shared interest in soccer, may help you recall (retrieve) the name of the restaurant.
The final stage in the IP model is long-term memory (LTM), which involves the storage and recall of
information over extended periods of time, such as hours, days, weeks, or years (Merriam-Webster, 2017).
LTM is everything we know and know how to do. For most cognitive psychologists, the world of LTM can be
categorized as one of three types of memory: declarative, procedural or episodic. Declarative knowledge can
be defined as knowledge needed to complete this sentence "Knowing that…" By contrast, procedural
knowledge is "Knowing how…" These two types of knowledge account for most of what is learned in school
and at work. The remaining type of knowledge is episodic which might also be called anecdotal. This is
memory for specific events in one's life: a memory of your first kiss or of your graduation. The personal stories
in our lives comprise episodic memory. While this makes for a neat tautology, some have suggested that it is
incomplete.

Figure 3. The Inspiration web illustrates that most cognitive psychologists categorized that Long-Term Memory
consists of declarative knowledge ("I know that… even numbers end with the digits 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8!"),
procedural knowledge ("I know how… to pronounce and comprehend new vocabulary!"), and episodic
knowledge ("I remember when… I graduated from high school!").
By Tiffany Davis, Meghann Hummel, and Kay Sauers (2006).

Pavio (1986) has asserted that memory for images differs from memory for words. He offers a dual
coding hypothesis asserting that when we see an image, both the image and a label for that image are stored
in memory. He has extended the hypothesis, suggesting that dual codes may exist for the other senses as
well. For example, the smell of an orange is stored along with its label "orange." Others have suggested that
there are mechanisms that control thinking and learning. These control processes are called metacognition.
Metacognition often takes the form of strategies. For example, learners attempting to master a complex topic
might choose to use a strategy such as drawing pictures to help them understand the complex inter-
relationships of the various components of the topic. Strategic readers might stop and mentally summarize
what they have just read in order to ensure comprehension.
The 1970s saw great expansion of understanding of human learning. It became clear that there was no
one method of teaching that ensured successful learning. Many researchers, especially in the field of second
language (L2) acquisition, recognizing this fact, turned their attention to learners, attempting to answer the
question "Why is it that some learners succeed in learning regardless of the methods used to teach them?"
and Stern (1975) formulated lists of the characteristics and strategies that "good" language learners use in
their study. Thompson (1982) offered guidance to foreign language students on how to make themselves
better learners. Extensive study of this notion of learning strategies in the 1980s led O'Malley to formulate a list
of 24 strategies used by English as a Second Language (ESL) students in their study. Most importantly, the
strategies were classified into three categories: Metacognitive Strategies: is a term borrowed from IP theory.
These strategies, according to O'Malley, "indicate an 'executive ' function…that involve planning for learning,
thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring…and evaluating learning…" (Brown, 1987,
p. 94). Metacognitive strategies might include using advance organizers, self-planning, self-monitoring, and
self-evaluation; Cognitive Strategies: are more task-specific, and often refer to "direct manipulation of the
learning material itself” (Brown, 2000, p. 124). Examples of cognitive strategies are note-taking, repetition,
guessing meaning from context, or using mnemonic devices; Socio-affective Strategies: refer to strategies that
use association with or input from teachers or peers Kupper (1985) have gone on to suggest that these
strategies can be overtly taught to learners, facilitating one of the most important goals of learning, learner
autonomy.
Finally, there is another viewpoint that offers the notion of concepts. For example, there exists a
concept called "bird," which can be reduced to declarative statements such as: "It has feathers," "It has wings
and flies," "It lays eggs," and the like. The concept of "bird" can also include our episodic experiences with
birds-the parakeet I had when I was a child, the sparrow I found dead by the fence one morning, etc. It can
also include the hundreds of images that we have seen of birds, as well as all instances of real birds we have
seen. All of this collectively is what we know of as "bird." It is the concept of bird, the tightly woven collection of
knowledge that we have for birds. In the end, there are five types of knowledge in LTM-declarative, procedural,
episodic, imagery, and strategic knowledge; there also exists one collective type called conceptual knowledge.
For the LTM stage, the representation is semantic (based on meaning). Capacity and duration are considered
unlimited in LTM, and the cause of forgetting is failure to retrieve.
How information gets into the LTM? In order to keep information in the working, it needs to be
rehearsed (rote memorization). Rote memorization is not an effective way to move information to the long-term
memory. However, by using the correct methods, information can be moved from the short-term memory into
the long-term memory where it can be kept for long periods of time. Information that is stored in the long-term
memory does not need to be rehearsed. To retrieve information from the long-term memory, short-term
memory must be used. Usually if someone "forgets" something that is stored in the long-term memory, they
have simply forgotten how to retrieve it or where it is stored.
In order for information to move from short-term (working) memory to long term memory, it must be
attended within 5 to 20 seconds of entering. Information must be linked to prior knowledge and encoded in
order to be permanently stored in long term memory. It is generally believed that encoding for short-term
memory storage in the brain relies primarily on acoustic encoding, while encoding for long-term storage is
more reliant on semantic encoding (The Human Memory). Some encoding methods include chunking, imagery,
and elaboration. For examples, when I think about teaching learners, I need to know what they already know
so that they can relate the new information to their existing knowledge. This is elaboration. While teachers can
do some of that for learners, elaboration is an active process. The learner must be actively engaged with the
material that is to be learned. This does not necessarily mean that the learner must be physically active; rather,
it implies that they should be actively relating this new piece of information to other ideas that they already
know. LTM is often regarded as a network of ideas. In order to remember something, ideas are linked, one to
another until the sought-after information is found. Failure to remember information does not mean that it has
been forgotten; it is merely the procedure for retrieval has been forgotten. With more elaboration, more
pathways to that piece of information are created. More pathways make retrieval of the information more likely.
If it is found, it is not forgotten.
Executive Control Processes
Executive control refers to the ability of the human brain—mostly associated with prefrontal cortex
activity—to regulate the execution of novel or complex goal-directed tasks. Previous studies and models of
human cognition have assumed that executive control necessarily requires conscious processing of
information. The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to as
metacognitive skills. Executive functions or self-regulation serves as the foundation for life-long functioning in
such areas as critical thinking and problem-solving, planning, decision making and executing tasks. Executive
functions or self-regulatory capacities are the building blocks for a range of important skills. Executive functions
involve regions of the brain associated with information processing, (including such functions as attention and
working memory), regulating emotions and behavior (including such functions as impulse control and
suppressing inappropriate responses), and even creativity and some aspects of personality. (Diamond, 2013;
Zelazo et al, 2016). Individuals who have problems with executive functions in childhood or adulthood may
have difficulty with social appropriateness, planning projects, working independently, remembering details,
paying attention, or starting and completing tasks.
Forgetting
It refers to the inability to retrieve or access information when needed. According to retrieval-failure
theory, forgetting occurs when information is available in LTM but is not accessible. Accessibility depends in
large part on retrieval cues. Forgetting is greatest when context and state are very different at encoding and
retrieval. There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs: decay is when information is not attended
to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very prevalent in working memory. Interference is when new and old
information ‘blocks’ access to the information in question.
As we just learned, your brain must do some work (effortful processing) to encode information and
move it into short-term, and ultimately long-term memory. This has strong implications for a student, as it can
impact their learning – if one doesn’t work to encode and store information, it will likely be forgotten. Research
indicates that people forget 80 percent of what they learn only a day later. This statistic may not sound very
encouraging, given all that you’re expected to learn and remember as a college student. Really, though, it
points to the importance of a study strategy other than waiting until the night before a final exam to review a
semester’s worth of readings and notes. When you learn something new, the goal is to “lock it in” sooner rather
than later, and move it from short-term memory to long-term memory, where it can be accessed when you
need it (like at the end of the semester for your final exam or maybe years from now).
Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information
There are several ways or methods to increase the retrieval of information in our memory. This includes
rehearsal, meaningful learning, organization, elaboration, visual imagery, generation, context and
personalization.
Other ways based on my research are:
Think about concepts rather than facts: Most of the time instructors are concerned about you learning about
the key concepts in a subject or course rather than specific facts.
Take cues from your instructor: Pay attention to what your instructor writes on the board, mentions
repeatedly in class, or includes in study guides and handouts, they are likely core concepts that you’ll want to
focus on.
Look for key terms: Textbooks will often put key terms in bold or italics.
Use summaries: Read end of chapter summaries, or write your own, to check your understanding of the main
elements of the reading.
Transferring Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory
In the previous discussion of how memory works, the importance of making intentional efforts to transfer
information from short-term to long-term memory was noted. Below are some strategies to facilitate this
process:
Start reviewing new material immediately: Remember that people typically forget a significant amount of
new information within 24 hours of learning it.
Study frequently for shorter periods of time: If you want to improve the odds of recalling course material by
the time of an exam or in future class, try reviewing it a little bit every day.
Below are some strategies that can aid memory:
Rehearsal: One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered (Craik &
Watkins, 1973). Academic learning comes with time and practice, and at some point, the skills become second
nature.
Incorporate visuals: Visual aids like note cards, concept maps, and highlighted text are ways of making
information stand out. These aids make the information to be memorized seem more manageable and less
daunting.
Create mnemonics: Memory devices known as mnemonics can help you retain information while only
needing to remember a unique phrase or letter pattern that stands out. They are especially useful when we
want to recall larger bits of information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system (Bellezza, 1981).
There are different types of mnemonic devices:
Acronym: An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember. Such as
HOMES for the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior)
Acrostic: In an acrostic, you make a phrase of all the first letters of the words. For example, if you need to
remember the order of mathematical operations, recalling the sentence “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally”
will help you, because the order of mathematical operations is Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication,
Division, Addition, Subtraction.
Jingles: Rhyming tunes that contain key words related to the concept, such as “i before e, except after c” are
jingles.
Visual: Using a visual to help you remember is also useful. Such as the knuckle mnemonic shown in the
image below to help you remember the number of days in each month. Months with 31 days are represented
by the protruding knuckles and shorter months fall in the spots between knuckles.
Other memory methods also include serial position effect (recency and primacy); part learning; distributed
practice and mnemonic aids.
Information Processing Theory views humans as information processing systems with memory systems
sometimes referred to as cognitive architecture (Miller, 2011). A computer metaphor is often applied to human
cognitive systems, wherein information (a stimulus) is inputted (sensed) and the brain then performs processes
such as comparing the information to previously stored information (schemas), transforming information
(encoding), or storing information in long-term memory. This theory views humans as machines, actively
inputting, retrieving, processing and storing information. Context, social content, and social influences on
processing are generally ignored in favor of a focus on internal systemic processes. Nature provides the
hardware, or the neurological processing system likely predisposed to economical and efficient processing, as
well as being pre-tuned to attend to specific stimuli. The “Nurture” component presents as the environment
which provides the stimuli to be inputted and processed by the system.
Information Processing Theory is currently being utilized in the study of computer or ‍artificial‍‍
intelligence. This‍‍ theory‍‍ has also been applied to systems beyond the individual, including families and
business organizations. For example, Ariel (1987) applied Information Processing Theory to family systems,
with sensing, attending, and encoding stimuli occurring either within individuals within the system or as the
family system itself. Unlike traditional systems theory, where the family system tends to maintain stasis and
resists incoming stimuli which would violate the system's rules, the Information Processing family develops
individual and mutual schemas which influence what and ‍how ‍information is attended to and processed.
Dysfunctions can occur both on the individual level as well as within the family system itself, creating more
targets for therapeutic change. Rogers, Miller, and Judge (1999) utilized Information Processing Theory to
describe business organizational behavior, as well as to present a model describing how effective and
ineffective business strategies are developed. In their study, components of organizations that "sense" market
information are identified as well as how organizations attend to this information, which gatekeepers determine
what information is relevant/important for the organization, how this is organized into the existing culture
(organizational schemas), and whether or not the organization has effective or ineffective processes for their
long-term strategy.
When children are faced with information that is unfamiliar to them, they are left with the task of
developing strategies to encode the information so as to store it and accurately and easily access it at a later
time (Miller, 2011). Depending on the age of the child, the method of storing information into memory differs.
As children develop, increased cognitive abilities, increased memory capacity, and other social/cultural factors
serve as major contributors to their development. Older children are more likely to develop memory strategies
on their own, are better at discerning what memory strategies are appropriate for particular situations and
tasks, and are better able to selectively attend to important information and filter out extraneous information.
The strategies children use to encode and remember information are of interest to Information
Processing researchers (e.g., task analysis research). For example, “young children are capable of using
rehearsal to aid memory if they are told to rehearse, but they are deficient at spontaneously producing a
strategy” (production deficiency) (Miller, 2011, ‍p. 283‍‍). Therefore, young children are unable to ascertain the
appropriate time to use particular strategies. On children’s encoding strategy development characteristics,
Miller (2011) pointed out the following:
As children develop they become more capable of developing appropriate strategies to acquire and
remember units of knowledge when necessary; A child’s ability to selectively ‍choose‍‍ which information they
attend to is another developmental milestone; A child may choose a strategy that does not produce a desired
outcome (utilization deficiency); Children may use several strategies on the same task; They may frequently
change their strategies used or strategies develop as a result of increased knowledge, development, etc.;
Children develop strategies over the course of their development; Children may employ strategies at an early
age that prove ineffective later in development; and Children may develop new strategies that they find
effective and useful later in life.

Information processing theory combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative development.
Qualitative development occurs through the emergence of new strategies for information storage and retrieval,
developing representational abilities (such as the utilization of language to represent concepts), or obtaining
problem-solving rules (Miller, 2011). Increases in the knowledge base or the ability to remember more items in
short-term (working) memory are examples of quantitative changes, as well as increases in the strength of
connected cognitive associations (Miller, 2011). The qualitative and quantitative components often interact
together to develop new and more efficient strategies within the processing system.
Information Processing Theory views memory and knowledge formation as working together, and not
as separate and mutually exclusive concepts. Humans are better able to remember things they have
knowledge of, which increases the recall of stored information. Increased knowledge allows the person to more
readily access information because it has been categorized and the bits of information relate to one another.
As children develop, they also gain an understanding of their own memory and how it works, which is called
metamemory. Also, children also gain information about how human cognitive functioning, which is called
metacognition. These are other important developmental milestones, which indicate the child is able to process
much more complex and less concrete information. This is important in our overall functioning, because it
shows an understanding of our own functioning related to specific tasks and how to best adapt our learning
and memory strategies.
Younger children have less memory capacity. A child’s level of comprehension is integrally connected
with their memory (Miller, 2011). As the child develops, they are able to process information at a faster speed,
and they have an increased capacity of how much information they can take in at a time. Increased memory
capacity allows the child to process and store more bits of information (Miller, 2011). Thus, older children are
able to take in more information at a faster rate, therefore allowing better efficiency of information processing.
Increased knowledge enables the child to more readily access information from their long-term storage and
utilize it in appropriate situations‍‍. The more associations one is able to make and the more complex their
network of associations, the better their information recall. A developmental milestone examined in children is
their ability to take information and expound upon it. Younger children are more likely to purely recall the
information they process. However, as children develop and gain knowledge, they are better able to gather
information, make inferences, judgments, and go beyond pure recall.
One's culture greatly influences how one remembers bits of information by how the culture emphasizes
various elements, emotions, or even events. As the text discusses, children can manage and handle more
information at once due to increased capacity, and “because new information can be packaged into preexisting
categories and structures” (Miller, 2011, p. 290). The knowledge gained, however, is not obtained without
interaction with the child’s external environment. Attitudes and beliefs about gender, race, sex roles, etc.
greatly influence how a child processes and recalls information. Beck (1975) suggests that as we develop we
learn how to process external stimuli, and these messages are processed, interpreted and incorporated into
one’s internal schemas. For example, children in a school setting who are taught that men and women occupy
certain gender-stereotypic jobs are thus more likely to process information through such a “filter”. The text
points out that children may even reconstruct images later to fit with their schema of a particular occupation.
This relates to the construction of scripts, which are assumptions or expectations about what is supposed to
happen in a particular situation. They can greatly influence how a child remembers events and may potentially
lead to assumptions about people, events, etc. While scripts are helpful in making the information processing
system more efficient, they can hinder the recall of specific information and enhance the generalizations made
about people, events, etc. Language is an integral part of one's culture that can greatly influence the
information processing system. Language, the nature of a task's instruction, and the type of task can all greatly
impact the processing of information (Shaki & Gravers, 2011). Furthermore, individualistic versus collectivistic
cultures can have different outlooks on human development as well as the proper formation and development
of an individual, which therefore influences motivations and actions toward goals.
 Models based upon Information Processing Theory take a somewhat simplistic view of cognitive
processing, with information processing being viewed largely as a linear process. This IP model does not take
into account simultaneous or parallel processing. For example, with the linear model, which suggests rehearsal
is required to encode information in long-term memory, is likely faulty in cases of trauma, where information
can be encoded automatically and without rehearsal due to a single exposure to traumatic stimuli. ‍The
metaphor of the computer is off-putting to many, who dislike comparing human beings to machines. Moreover,
no current computer program can truly simulate the full range of human cognition. Computer constructed
models that are based upon this theory are highly complex and again cannot take into account all the nuances
of human thought despite their complexity. Information Processing Theory does not account for fundamental
developmental changes, or changes to the "hardware" of the brain. For example, how do humans gain the
ability to utilize representational thought utilizing language? How do people develop "formal operations"
thinking, such as abstract logical or social thinking when previously their thoughts were in "concrete" t‍erms?‍‍
There is an excessive focus on internal cognitive processes, with little attention being paid to environmental
influences or the nature of the external stimuli the individual is exposed to. Lastly, the impact of emotions or
behaviors on cognitive processing or interpretation is not sufficiently included in this model. For example, the
Information Processing model does not consider how an individual can process a stimulus differently if they are
angry versus if they are in a calm state. The Information Processing model is described as being universal,
with little attention being paid to individual differences or cultural differences.
In K-12 classrooms, most teachers hand out worksheets to help students practice (or rehearse) their
new information. To improve students' encoding, teachers should look for ways to incorporate more senses.
For example, when learning new vocabulary (such as in a foreign language) teachers could have the students
act out the words. In higher education classrooms, the more modes of information an instructor can provide to
students the better. If the classroom or course doesn't condone itself to a lab-like lesson or environment to
allow students to actually experience the concept on their own, instructors could point the students in the
direction of a good video tutorial on that day's lesson. The instructor could even make their own videos.
Making learning multi-modal. The more modes the teacher or the instructor have working at one time,
the more likely learners are going to remember (e.g., the more senses used, the better). Humans, like
computers, need to do something with new information so to store it in our brains so that we can recall it again
later when needed. We need to create a similar pathway so we make sure our brain knows not to discard the
newly learned information. This process is called encoding. A good example of encoding we are all familiar
with is ROY G BIV. This acronym was created as a way to remember the colors on the color spectrum: Red,
Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet. Additionally, the more times we practice pulling the
information out, the easier and easier it becomes when needed. During encoding, a learner may watch, listen,
repeat, recall, etc., it is very important to keep cognitive load in mind when trying to learn, recall, and remember
new information. Cognitive load is a term concerning the manner in which cognitive resources are focused and
used during learning and problem-solving. It is argued that cognitive load can be reduced for learners via
instructional design. When designing and presenting information, teachers and the instructors are encouraged
to consider learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. Overloading a learner with information and
stimuli can have negative effects on task completion and comprehension.

Figure 4. The Information Processing Model

Photo credits to: Google- LearnUpon.com
 Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a very brief amount of
time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and if given attention and is perceived
and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive
processes applied to the information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.

MODULE 11
GAGNE’S CONDITION OF LEARNING
Gagne’s Theory
This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of
these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five
major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and
attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for
cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to
learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagne
suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity:
stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept
formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify
prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing
a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of
instruction.
Gagne’s work (1985) focuses on intentional or purposeful learning, which is the type of learning that
occurs in school or specific training programs. He believed that events in the environment influence the
learning process. His theory identifies the general types of human capabilities that are learned. These
capabilities are the behavioral changes (learning outcomes) in a learner that a learning theory must explain.
Once the learning outcomes are identified, an analysis of the conditions that govern learning and remembering
can occur (Gagne, 1985, p. 15). For example, a learner who is participating in a situation where the right
conditions for learning are invoked, then he or she will experience the five categories of learning outcomes that
include the human capabilities of intellectual skills, verbal information, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and
attitudes. Gagne also relates learning outcomes to the events of instruction. He provides systematic
statements of theory to describe the ways that instructional events are designed for each of the learning
outcomes or capabilities.
While Benjamin Bloom (1956) developed his taxonomy of cognitive outcomes based on increasingly
complex levels, Gagne (1985) developed his five categories of learning outcomes based on the characteristics
of the content that a learner must learn. His outcomes do not consist of any particular order or complexity of
levels, other than the sub-categories within the Intellectual Skills category. Gagne separated Bloom’s
knowledge class into a category he named verbal information, and he added another category of learning
outcomes he named cognitive strategies. He believed cognitive strategies were learning strategies that
learners adopted and applied in the process of learning, and that they are not subject specific.
The core of the conditions of learning theory is distinguishing the classes of learned human capabilities
that have similar characteristics and are observed through performance. The five categories of outcomes
provide the framework for how learning conditions can be applied to each classification. The first category
involves intellectual skills, which are defined as symbolic forms, such as language and numbers, used to relate
to the surrounding. Since it requires the capacity to do actions, a student who has acquired intellectual skills
can demonstrate how they can be applied to particular instances of the topic learned. The category is further
divided into sub-groups based on the skill complexity and relationship with each other. More complex expertise
needs prior teaching and mastery of more straightforward abilities before completing the learning process.
 The foundations of Gagne’s Condition of learning lie in the theories of behaviorism. He also mentioned
that learning a specific skill depends on previous learning skills in a logical and sequential manner that
contributes to building a learning experience. It is important to group learning goals according to their learning
outcomes. Learning outcomes are dependent on planning what is meant to be learned and what is required at
the end of the learning session. In his theory, Gagne describes five categories of human performance
established by learning (learning outcomes): intellectual skills, verbal information, cognitive strategies, motor
skills, and attitudes. They are comprehensive and do not follow any specific order. Any learned capability will
have the characteristics of one or another of these categories. Gagne proposed a series of critical conditions of
learning which he then regarded as important in the learning of different outcomes. These outcomes are
distinct in terms of internal organization in long-term memory and required mental processing:
Verbal information includes declarative knowledge that is stored in distributed forms. It should be
related to previous information that draws attention to other features by including variations in speech or print,
and provides meaningful content for effective encoding and cues for effective recall and generalization.
Another category of learning outcomes is verbal information. This refers to the organized bodies of knowledge
that we acquire. They may be classified as names, facts, principles, and generalizations. Verbal information is
referred to as declarative knowledge, or knowing that. The performance or learning outcome achieved through
verbal information is the ability of being able to state in a meaningful sentence what was learned. Some
examples of acquired verbal information are the ability to define Piaget’s stages of cognitive development; or,
stating the rules for scoring in a tennis match.

Intellectual skills include procedural knowledge such as steps of a process or hierarchies with higher
and lower order skills. There is a need for prior knowledge here, it calls attention to distinctive features and
stimulates the recall of previously learned components' skills. The sub-divisions of intellectual skills include
discriminations, concrete concepts, defined concepts, rules, and, lastly, higher-order practices. He give the
following as the sub-groups of this category: recognition of stimulus, generation of a response, following the
procedure, terminology use, discrimination, formation of concepts, application of rules, and solving problems.
Intellectual skills’ learning tasks are organized hierarchically based on their complexity. The central significance
of the aforementioned order is to establish prerequisites that need to be completed to conduct learning at every
level. The requirements are identified by carrying out a task analysis of the training or knowledge acquisition
process. Learning hierarchies provide a foundation for instruction sequencing and organization. Intellectual
skills involve the use of symbols such as numbers and language to interact with the environment. They involve
knowing how to do something rather than knowing that about something. Intellectual skills require an ability to
carry out actions. Often, they require the interactions with the environment through symbols such as letters,
numbers, words, or diagrams. When a learner has learned an intellectual skill, he or she will be able to
demonstrate its application to at least one particular instance of the subject matter learned.
Out of the five categories, intellectual skill is the only category that is divided into sub-categories. The
division is according to the complexity of the skill level, and how they relate to each other. The more complex
skills require the prior learning or mastery of the simpler skills before the learning process is complete. The
links below will take you to a brief summary of the five sub-categories of intellectual skills.
Discriminations: Discriminations is the first skill to master in intellectual skills. It is the ability to
distinguish one feature of an object or symbol from another such as textures, letters, numbers, shapes, and
sounds. The human performance or learning outcome achieved by discrimination is the ability to tell the
difference among various stimuli. It is the prerequisite to further learning.
Concrete Concepts: Concept learning occurs after discriminations learning is complete. Concrete
concepts are the simplest of the two concept types and consist of classes of object features, objects, and
events. Some are relational such as up, down, far, near, higher, lower. The performance or learning outcome
achieved from mastery of concrete concepts is the ability to identify a class of objects, object qualities, or
relations by pointing out one or more examples or instances of the class.
Defined Concepts: Concepts not only require identification, but also definition. Defined concepts
require a learner to define both general and relational concepts by providing instances of a concept to show its
definition. For example, if a learner were to explain the concept alliteration, he or she must define alliteration,
and then be able to identify the components of alliteration, such as consonant sound, beginning, sentence,
etc., and then be able to provide specific examples of alliteration.
Rules: Once concepts are learned, the next sub-category of intellectual skills is rules. A rule is a
learned capability of the learner, by making it possible for the learner to do something rather than just stating
something. For example, when a learner learns the rule for forming an adverb to modify an adjective, he or she
knows that ly must be added to the modifier. Because a learner knows the rule to add ly, he or she can apply it
to an entire class of words instead of learning an adverbial form for every adjective in the language, enabling
the learner to respond correctly to words he or she has never seen before. Rules make it possible to respond
to a class of things with a class of performances.
Higher-Order Rules: Higher-order rules are the process of combining rules by learning into more
complex rules used in problem solving. When attempting to solve a problem, a learner may put two or more
rules together from different content in order to form a higher-order rule that solves the problem. A higher-order
rule differs in complexity from the basic rules that compose it.
Problem solving using higher-order rules occurs in writing paragraphs, speaking a foreign language,
using scientific principles, and applying laws to situations of social or economic conflict.
Cognitive strategies are skills that influence the skills and activation of other systems by breaking the
problem into parts. It uses less prior knowledge and more practical examples and experiences backed by
feedback on the strategy or outcome. Cognitive strategies refer to the process that learners guide their
learning, remembering, and thinking. Where intellectual skills are oriented toward aspects of the environment
by dealing with numbers, words, and symbols that are external, cognitive strategies govern our processes of
dealing with the environment by influencing internal processes. A learner uses cognitive strategies in thinking
about what was learned and in solving problems. They are the ways a learner manages the processes of
learning, remembering, and thinking.

The performance or learning outcome achieved through cognitive strategies is having the ability to
create something new such as creating an efficient system for cataloging computer discs.
Attitudes are mental states that influence an individual’s actions and require a human to observe and
learn from those who also provide feedback. Another distinct category of learning outcomes is attitudes, the
internal state that influences the choices of personal actions made by an individual towards some class of
things, persons, or events. Choices of action (behaviors) made by individuals are influenced significantly by
attitudes. For example, an attitude towards the disposal of trash will influence how a person disposes of pop
cans, food containers, organics, etc. An attitude towards music will influence the choice of music an individual
will listen to.
General classes of attitudes include attitudes that affect social interactions, attitudes that consist of
positive preferences towards certain activities, and attitudes that pertain to citizenship, such as a love of
country or showing concern for social needs and goals. The performance or learning outcome achieved
through attitudes is evident in an individual’s choice of actions. For example, choosing swimming over running
as a preferred exercise, or choosing not to participate in group events reflects how attitude motivates choices.
Motor skills deal with skills where error-less performance is expected. It encourages mental practice.
Prior learning of the process and practice enhances the overall process. Motor skills are the precise, smooth,
and accurately timed execution of movements involving the use of muscles. They are a distinct type of learning
outcome and necessary to the understanding of the range of possible human performances. Learning
situations that involve motor skills are learning to write, playing a musical instrument, playing sports, and
driving a car. The timing and smoothness of executing motor skills indicates that these performances have a
high degree of internal organization.
Gagne gives two conditions that exist in a learning situation: external and internal. The external
environment includes the various stimulus found outside a student, such as a teacher and the surrounding.
Therefore, this means that every new instruction situation starts from a different viewpoint from past
experiences. Moreover, it consists of different external cases, depending on the learning environment and the
student. On the other hand, the internal learning condition includes existing capabilities in a learner before any
new form of instruction occurs. The aforementioned knowledge is transformed through the learning process.
Different external and internal environments are required for every learning type. For instance, to learn
cognitive strategies, an opportunity to practice how to develop new solutions to problems should be there.
Moreover, to study attitudes, the student should be familiar with persuasive arguments or a credible role
model.
Gagne also bases his philosophy on association learning in which there are three basic prototypes that
depict the features of associative learning: verbal association, operant conditioning, and classical conditioning.
The theorist adds chaining to this list and describes it as an approach in which the learner links individual
relationships in a sequence. For instance, the student can recite the alphabet or verbal series that consists of
lists of words. In classical conditioning, the pupil associates available responses with new signals or stimuli. On
the other hand, operant conditions involve an instrumental response in a learner that results in subsequence
reinforcement. Lastly, the verbal association is where the student verbally responds to stimuli that are single or
pairs of words. According to Gagne, the prototypes mentioned above form the basic learning methods and are
components of acquired human capabilities.
 Apart from these special conditions of learning, there are nine levels of instruction that are used as a
starting point for all types of learning and instructional design. These points help educators and trainers to
maintain a checklist for all their teaching or training activities. Each step highlights a form of communication
and when one step is completed, learners tend to retain and apply the skills taught in a better and effective
way. The theory includes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes.
Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception)
Start the learning process by gaining the attention of your audience. It starts the learning process when
the learner is being receptive to the information received. This may be achieved by calling names of learners
during the discussion to completely focus attention on learners. The first event of instruction is to gain the
attention of students so they are alert for the reception of stimuli. An instructor can achieve this by introducing
a rapid stimulus change either by gesturing or by suddenly changing the tone or volume of their voice. Another
way of stimulating alertness is by visual or auditory stimuli related to the subject matter. The stimulus chosen
for gaining attention will work equally well for all categories of learning outcomes.
Level 2: Informing learners of the objective (Expectancy)
Next, learners must know what they are about to learn and why. At the start of the lecture, they should
be aware of what they will have learned by the end of the session, its benefit to them and the organization. For
instance, explaining to learners why they will learn what they will learn and how to apply the concept to your
practice. This makes them more receptive to learning. The second event of instruction is to inform the learner
of the purpose and expected outcomes of the learning material. This will provide them with an expectancy that
will persist during the time learning is taking place. Feedback at the end of the lesson will provide the learner
with confirmation of learning. An important part of this event of instruction is to provide learners with motivation
if learner motivation is not apparent. An instructor can achieve learner motivation by relating an interesting
career field to the learning material. Instructional techniques that will inform the learner of objectives for all five
categories of learning outcomes are described below.
Intellectual Skills: Instructors can demonstrate the activity to which the concept, rule, or procedure applies.
Cognitive Strategy: Instructor describes or demonstrates the strategy
Verbal Information: Instructor describes what the learner will be expected to state.
Attitude: The learner encounters attitude later in the process. (This occurs through instructor demonstration or
modeling during instructional event five, providing learning guidance.
Motor Skills: Instructor demonstrates the expected performance.
Level 3: Stimulating recall of prior learning (Retrieval)
Matching the concept with what learners have learned previously. Prior experiences can be used to solve new
problems and resolve matters easily. This may also take the form of a simple Q/A session to establish a link
between specific material knowledge. The third event of instruction asks the instructor to recall skills or
knowledge learners have previously learned. The best kind of recall should naturally relate to the subject
matter being learned. The instructional technique for stimulating recall will be different for the different learning
outcomes as described below.
Intellectual Skills: Instructor recalls prerequisite rules and concepts
Cognitive Strategy: Instructor recalls simple prerequisite rules and concepts
Verbal Information: Instructor recalls well organized bodies of knowledge
Attitude: Instructor recalls a situation and action involved in personal choice. He or she reminds learner of the
human model and model’s characteristics.
Motor Skills: Instructor recalls the “executive subroutine” (the procedure that constitutes the active framework
within which the motor skill is executed, practiced, and refined), and part-skills (the different parts of the
procedure), if appropriate.
Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception)
Presenting new information in an effective manner using more examples, use of timelines, diagrams, concept
maps and student discussions. Try using different media and styles such as visual cues and verbal instructions
to suit people with different learning styles. The fourth event of instruction is presenting a stimulus that is
related to the subject matter. The content of the stimulus should be specific to the learning outcome. For
example, if the stimulus is verbal information, printed prose such as a chapter in a textbook or an audio tape
will achieve the learning objective. If the stimulus is an intellectual skill, the instructor can display the object
and/or symbols that require a concept or rule; or, he or she can present the problem learners need to solve.
The instructor must present the stimulus as an initial phase of learning, so clear indication of stimulus
features such as underlining, bold print, highlighting, pointing, or using a change in tone of voice to emphasize
major themes is helpful. The instructional techniques for presenting the stimulus to different learning outcomes
are as follows:
Intellectual Skills: Instructor delineates features or the objects and symbols that require defining as a concept
or a rule
Cognitive Strategies: Instructor describes the problem and shows what the strategy accomplishes
Verbal Information: Instructor displays text or audio statements, showing or highlighting the distinctive features
Motor Skills: instructor displays the situation at the initiation of the skilled performance, and then demonstrates
the procedure
Attitude: Instructor presents a human model that describes the general nature of the choice that learners will
be required to make.
Level 5: Providing learning guidance (Semantic Encoding)
Helping your team learn and retain most of the information by providing alternative approaches to
illustrate the information you are trying to convey to the learner. Examples include; case studies and graphics.
Giving time for discussion and answering queries with relevant additional materials.
The fifth event of instruction, providing learning guidance requires the instructor to make the stimulus as
meaningful as possible. There are several ways to achieve this, depending upon the learning outcome
expected. An instructor can enhance meaningfulness by using concrete examples of abstract terms and
concepts, and elaborating ideas by relating them to others already in memory. The instructional techniques for
providing learning guidance to different learning outcomes are as follows:
Intellectual Skills: Instructor provides varied concrete examples of the concept or rule
Cognitive Strategies: Instructor provides a verbal description of the strategy, followed by an example
Verbal Information: Instructor elaborates content by relating to larger bodies of knowledge; uses images
and/or mnemonics
Attitude: Instructor uses the human model and describes or demonstrates an action choice, followed by
observation of reinforcement of model’s behavior
Motor Skill: Continue practicing procedure, focusing on precision and accurately timed execution of
movements
Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding)
Now is the time to see if learners can demonstrate their knowledge with what was taught to them. Give
them a brief test after each task/ unit to see if they can apply it to their learning before moving forward. The
sixth instructional event eliciting performance asks a learner to demonstrate the newly learned capability. This
may be verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategy, attitude, or motor skill. The learner of verbal
information will have the ability to “tell it.” The learner of a new concept or rule (intellectual skills) will have the
ability to demonstrate its applicability to a new situation not previously encountered during learning. The
learner of a cognitive strategy of problem solving will solve an unfamiliar problem whose solution may use the
strategy. The learner of a motor skill demonstrates the learned performance. The learner demonstrates the
new attitude in the choices the learner makes.
Level 7: Providing feedback (Reinforcement)
After a clear demonstration of knowledge from the learners’ end, it's time to give feedback to them and
guide them on the points they missed. Your feedback and tips will help them improve. Discuss their results, be
professional with comments and give them guidelines to work on. This is a healthy exercise if conducted
properly. The seventh instructional event, providing feedback, asks the instructor to reinforce the newly
acquired learning. An instructor can accomplish this through informative feedback where the instructor informs
the learner of the degree of correctness or incorrectness of the performance. This feedback may be verbal or
written.
Level 8: Assessing performance (Retrieval)
 When learners have had a good opportunity to practice and refine their learning it is time to assess their
learning with a test at the end of the course or any other measurement tool such as a case study or seminar to
show learners have learned the material or skill effectively. This test shall be completed without any assistance
or coaching. The eighth instructional event, assessing performance, consists of assessments to verify that
learning has occurred. In order to assure that learning is stable, an instructor will require additional instances of
the performance. The instructor assesses performance through testing the learner. The purpose of testing is to
establish that the learned capacity is stable, and to provide additional practice to assist in consolidating the
learned material.
Level 9: Enhancing retention and transfer (Generalization)
At this stage, learners show the transfer of knowledge through the application of skills and knowledge.
They should then be provided with real-life examples to apply the acquired knowledge. The ninth instructional
event, enhancing retention and transfer, refers to retaining the learned capability over a long period of time and
transferring it into new situations outside of the learning environment. Practice ensures retention, especially
with verbal information, intellectual skills, and motor skills. Instructors can enhance retention and transfer by
conducting spaced reviews. This means conducting recalls of information learned at various intervals of a day
or more after the initial learning. However, the recall is further enhanced when additional examples are spaced
in time over days and weeks following the initial learning, and when including a variety of different situations.
Gagne’s conditions of learning have its own pros and cons. People who have learning issues may
respond better to this regime that is clearly very systematic where learners are provided with resources and a
blueprint for learning. It can also be adjusted to suit their needs. However, it also requires a great deal of
assistance overall where critical thinking and instructions can’t be avoided. This practice may restrict learners’
imagination and exploration instinct. But overall, these 9 steps are nine events of instruction, systematically
designed as foundation blocks of learning in modern classrooms.

Gagne’s nine events of instruction are a valuable framework that can be used to deliver knowledge to
learners at the different levels of education in the Philippines. Ideally, the teacher should organize learning
objectives and course goals before fitting them into the structure to situate the ideas in the proper context
appropriately (Spector, 2020). Subsequently, the theory can be applied by modifying it to serve both the
students’ level of knowledge and the content being taught. For example, at lower education levels, a teacher
can utilize the nine events to help pupils identify an equilateral triangle. First, the instructor can gain the
student’s attention by showing them several computer-generated triangles with no identities. The tutor can then
set the objective of the class by posing a question, such as “what is an equilateral triangle?” Reviewing
definitions of various triangles is one way of recalling previous learning.
The subsequent event is presenting learners with a stimulus, which might be providing them with the
definition of an equilateral triangle. The teacher then guides the instruction by demonstrating how an
equilateral triangle can be created and elicits performance by asking pupils to construct different examples of
the three-way relationship and fulfill all the necessary conditions as stipulated in the previous events (Barclay
et al., 2018). The following instruction provides feedback, which can be done by checking if all the examples
created are correct. The performance of students should be assessed by giving them scores and remediation
where necessary. At the end of the class, the teacher should enhance retention and transfer of knowledge by
asking students to identify equilaterals from various forms.
The conditions of learning theory can also be applied to technology-supported learning environments.
In an online class, the tutor can get the student’s attention by sending email invitations to each member,
sending attracting video clips and audio with the invites, introducing the topic of study and faculty at the
beginning of the class, and giving learners a space to introduce themselves. Secondly, the instructor can
inform others about the objective of the course by providing an overview, background information, and a
description of the goals of the module. Thirdly, the teacher can relate the new content to the material used in
the previous class and incorporate pre-tests and reviews. The subsequent step is presenting the required
texts, which should be accurate, precise, and up-to-date. Working links to online resources and paper-based
support sources should also be provided.
Gagne's Theory of Instruction
As previously explained Gagne's theory of instruction is commonly broken into three areas. The first of
these areas that I will discuss is the taxonomy of learning outcomes. Gagne's taxonomy of learning outcomes
is somewhat similar to Bloom's taxonomies of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor outcomes (some of these
taxonomies were proposed by Bloom, but actually completed by others). Both Bloom and Gagne believed that
it was important to break down humans' learned capabilities into categories or domains. Gagne's taxonomy
consists of five categories of learning outcomes - verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies,
attitudes, and motor skills. Gagne, Briggs, and Wager (1992) explain that each of the categories leads to a
different class of human performance.
Essential to Gagne's ideas of instruction are what he calls "conditions of learning." He breaks these
down into internal and external conditions. The internal conditions deal with previously learned capabilities of
the learner. Or in other words, what the learner knows prior to the instruction. The external conditions deal with
the stimuli (a purely behaviorist term) that is presented externally to the learner. For example, what instruction
is provided to the learner. To tie Gagne's theory of instruction together, he formulated nine events of
instruction. When followed, these events are intended to promote the transfer of knowledge or information from
perception through the stages of memory. Gagne bases his events of instruction on the cognitive information
processing learning theory.
The way Gagne's theory is put into practice is as follows. First of all, the instructor determines the
objectives of the instruction. These objectives must then be categorized into one of the five domains of learning
outcomes. Each of the objectives must be stated in performance terms using one of the standard verbs (i.e.
states, discriminates, classifies, etc.) associated with the particular learning outcome. The instructor then uses
the conditions of learning for the particular learning outcome to determine the conditions necessary for
learning. And finally, the events of instruction necessary to promote the internal process of learning are chosen
and put into the lesson plan. The events in essence become the framework for the lesson plan or steps of
instruction.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Theory and it's Assumptions
As a teacher educator who has employed Gagne's theory into real life, I have some unique insights into
the strengths and weaknesses of the theory and its assumptions. I will again structure my comments following
the three areas of the theory as described by Driscoll (1994). I will first examine the domains of learning
outcomes. As a teacher the domains of learning have helped me to better organize my thoughts and the
objectives of the instructional lesson. This proved to be very beneficial to me as a teacher, because I was
always looking for a good way to put more structure into the objectives of my lesson plans. Additionally, the
domains of learning helped me to better understand what types of learning I was expecting to see from my
students.
One of the greatest weaknesses that I experienced with Gagne's theory was taking the goals I had for
my students, putting them into the correct learning outcome category, and then creating objectives using
Gagne's standard verbs. I would like to break this problem into two parts. First, as I began to use the theory, it
quickly became apparent that some goals were easy to classify into the learning outcome categories, but that
many were not as easy to categorize. As a teacher, I spent a great deal of time reading and studying Gagne's
categories in an attempt to better understand how certain goals fit in the different categories. This was good in
the sense that it forced me to really understand what I wanted my students to do. But, on the other hand, it
always caused me a great deal of uneasiness about whether or not I was fouling up the whole process by
putting the goal into the wrong learning outcome category.
The second half of this weakness has to do with creating objectives using Gagne's standard verbs.
After the experience with categorizing the goal into the proper learning outcome, I was faced with changing my
goal into a performance objective using one of the standard verbs. This always bothered me as a teacher
because I felt like I couldn't always force my objectives into the form that the theory needed. I do believe that
writing down objectives is very important, but the standard verbs made the process so rigid that I felt like I was
filling in the blanks. I always felt like I had no creativity in writing the objectives - I felt pigeonholed. Along with
this feeling came the fact that all objectives had to be written in performance terms. This also made me feel a
little uneasy because I felt that some of the overriding objectives, I had for my students could not be expressed
in performance terms. These objectives were more process oriented than product oriented. It was always very
difficult to put these processes into performance terms using the standard verbs.
As a future teacher educator, I found that the conditions of learning proposed by Gagne were very
beneficial. I saw them as guidelines to follow. I didn't take them to be algorithmic in nature but more heuristic.
They seemed to make logical sense and in fact I think they helped me better structure my lesson plans and my
teaching. Once again however, even though I viewed the conditions as heuristics, I did feel that I was
somewhat of a robot carrying out commands. I always felt as though I was being driven by the conditions.
This leads directly to a discussion of the events of instruction. I felt that the events of instruction really
helped me the most as a teacher. The events gave me the skeleton on which I could hang my lesson. The
events not only provided me with a road map to follow, but also a way to look at my lesson plans in a more
holistic nature. I was able to see how the parts of the lesson fit together to achieve the ultimate goal.
This part of Gagne's theory seemed to be the least rigid to me because you did not have to follow it as
rigorously as other parts of the theory. For example, Gagne explains that most lessons should follow the
sequence of the events of instruction, but that the order is not absolute. While I appreciated the fact that this
was less rigid than other parts of the theory, I always had one important question. If the events of instruction
follow the cognitive learning process, then why would it be advisable to change the sequence of the events or
to leave events out? Wouldn't this have a great impact of the learning process? Would learning still take place?
This leads me to the learning theory upon which Gagne bases his instructional theory. As a teacher
early in my career who was very enamored with computers, cognitive information processing theory seemed
like a great explanation of the learning process (I am not sure I still feel the same way). However, those who do
not understand or agree with cognitive information processing theory might not feel the same. For those
people, I believe that Gagne's theory might not work very well for them.
In conclusion, I would like to summarize the points I have tried to cover in this paper. First of all,
Gagne's theory does provide a great deal of valuable information to teachers like myself. I believe it is mostly
appealing to those teachers who may be early in their teaching careers and are in need of structure for their
lesson plans and a holistic view of their teaching. The theory is very systematic and rigid at most points. It is
almost like a cookbook recipe to ensure successful teaching and ultimately learning by the students. However,
the systematic nature of the theory may be a turn-off for many teachers, particularly those who like to be
creative, don't like rigidity, and who don't believe in a cookbook approach to ensure learning.
An additional point to cover is that the theory is not always easy to implement. I am sure I am not alone
in my feeling that many times it is difficult to take the goals I had for my students, put them into the correct
learning outcome category, and then create objectives using Gagne's standard verbs. The final point I would
like to cover deals with the learning theory upon which Gagne bases his theory. First of all, if the events of
instruction really match up with the learning process, then I do not believe it would be advisable to change the
sequence of the events or to leave certain events out of the sequence altogether. Second, cognitive
information processing is not acceptable to all teachers. Many teachers would not agree with this idea of how
learning takes place. For those who disagree with cognitive information processing, Gagne's theory of
instruction would not fit their needs.
To conclude, Robert Gagne’s conditions of learning theory holds that different learning or tutoring is
required to obtain different educational outcomes. Moreover, the events of instruction act on the student in
ways that institute the conditions of knowledge acquisition. Gagne initially designed the learning events to
produce output later used as input for the following step in the sequence. However, he was welcoming to the
works of other educational theorists, which made him argue that these events should only be regarded as one
instructional strategy form. Furthermore, Gagne noted that the order of these human capabilities could be
altered, and not all of them should be present in every topic or lesson. As illustrated in this essay, the specific
operations that make up instructional events vary depending on the type of expected learning outcome. Lastly,
learning hierarchies are essential in intellectual skills because they define the specific capabilities to be
acquired and subsequently provide instruction to instill these talents.
In addition to creating these instructional events, Gagne applies each of these to his categories of
learning, showing how each event should be tailored to the content type. The prescriptions for each of the
categories are different depending on the desired outcome. This instructional theory is explicitly linked to
learning theory, which gives it credibility. However, I would call this theory “old school,” meaning it keeps a
focus on basic kinds of learning. Indeed, even as I read this book, I found myself thinking that the kinds of
learning he is prescribing seems to be somewhat contrived, perhaps less-meaningful learning. Current theories
call for problem-centered instruction that uses real-world ill-structured problems and tasks with the goal to
enable students to solve problems and work on real-world tasks, even as a group. There is an emphasis on the
construction of useful, meaningful knowledge, as opposed to the acquisition of prescribed and
compartmentalized knowledge. This is certainly a reflection of what has been called the “new paradigm of
instruction,” and appears to be influenced by constructivism.
I find myself quite influenced by the notion of Constructivist learning, specifically those theories
concerned with teaching students to solve real-world tasks and problems. After graduating with my bachelor’s
degree, the process of moving from life as a student to life as an employee was extremely painful, mainly
because I was not sufficiently prepared as to solve real, ill-structured, difficult, complex problems. I believe this
is because much of the instruction I received was Gagne-like in nature. I believe that there are some benefits
associated with instruction that provides knowledge that can be efficiently acquired and assimilated-
specifically, instruction that is more based on CIP that Constructivism, but that knowledge must be effectively
based within a context or activity that makes it both useful and accessible in the real world, which means it
must be combined with constructivist principles to be effective.
In all, this book was very insightful and seemed to represent the lifetime work of an influential
researcher who synthesized massive amounts of knowledge into a systematic review and description of
learning theory, a categorization of types of learning, and steps for creating effective instruction. I highly
recommend this book, not only to look at the history of instructional technology, but to understand some of the
influential theories and principles in instructional technology. In addition, anyone who wishes to gain a sound
understanding of instructional design should be exposed to Nine Events of Instruction, which can sever as a
good foundation for understanding instructional design and theory.

References
Module 10
Corpuz B., Lucas MR. (2020). Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching 5th Edition, Module 10 pg. 115-120
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Module 11
Corpuz B., Lucas MR. (2020). Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching 5th Edition, Module 11 pg. 125-131
Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory
https://eiclsresearch.wordpress.com/types-of-styles/learning-styles/gagne-robert/gagnes-conditions-of-
learning-theory/
Gagné, Robert M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction (4th Edition). New York: CBS
College Publishing.
Driscoll, M. P. (1994). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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