EE413

Sensors and Transducers

Module I
Lecture 3
2 Sensor/Transducer
 Mechanical sensors: Input is a mechanical quantity (motion, speed, displacement,
force, acceleration, torque, pressure, flow, level), output may be electrical,
magnetic, optical, thermal, etc.

 Electromechanical sensors: Output is converted to an electrical signal for ease of

processing.

 Motion of tip of a bimetallic strip (thermal sensor) resulting from temperature

variation. Temperature is primary input. Tip motion is angular or rotational.

 Diaphragm actuated by pressure has a linear displacement in its central part.

 Multiple stages of transduction

 These rotational/translational displacements can be directly measured by pointers attached

to a moving end – Leads to poor accuracy due to small resolution.

 Secondary transduction used: Resistive potentiometers, LVDTs, capacitive sensors, etc.

3 Resistive sensors
 Suitable for both alternating and direct current and voltages

𝜌𝐿
 Resistance of a metal conductor, 𝑅 =
𝐴

 Changing either of ρ, L or A can be the basis of designing a resistive transducer

 Translational and rotational potentiometer: R change by changing length

 Strain gauge: R change when strained (elongation or compression), measure

displacement, force, pressure

 Other transducers: RTDs, thermistor, wire anemometer, piezoresistor, etc.

4 Resistive potentiometers
 Type of variable resistance transducer

 Resistive potentiometer (POT) consists of a resistance element (n-turn winding over an

insulating material) with a sliding contact (wiper)

 Wiper can touch (i) only one wire or (ii) two turns at a time during movement

 Motion of sliding contact – Translational, rotational or combination (Helipot)

 Translational POT: Straight resistive device with a stroke ranging from 2 mm – 0.5 m

 Rotational POT: Circular in shape for measurement of angular displacement, range

of 10 – 60 full turns

 Both a.c. and d.c. excitation

5 Resistive potentiometers
(i) Wiper touching only one wire

 Resolution: 𝚫𝑽 = 𝑽/𝒏 [V = Supply voltage]

 Solid line stairs of the output voltage steps of value V/n

(ii) During movement of wiper, two adjacent wires will be

shorted

𝟏 𝟏
 Voltage Pulse resolution: ∆𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽 −
𝒏−𝟏 𝒏

where p-th and (p+1)-th wires are shorted.

 As p (overlap of wiper with consecutive wire turns)

increases → minor pulse magnitude also increases → loss in
resolution due to shorting of leads

𝑽 𝟏 𝟏
 Actual resolution: ∆𝑽 − ∆𝑽𝒎 = − 𝑽 −
𝒏 𝒏−𝟏 𝒏
6 Resistive potentiometers: Design
considerations
 To reduce ∆𝑉𝑚 , the jockey shape or ratio of jockey radius to wire radius,
geometry of wire winding should be taken into consideration.

 Jockey radius small → With use, the round surface get worn out, becomes
flat and may tear off

 Jockey small, wire radius large and close winding → More than two wires
might be shorted during jockey movement → precision of measurement is
affected

𝑟𝑗𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑦
 Circular wire and circular jockey → ≈ 10
𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
7 Resistive potentiometers: Design
considerations
 Material of the wire important from the wear and tear point of view and
noise perspective

 Pressure at the contact of the jockey with the wire is provided by giving
adequate flexibility to the arm in relation to the mass

 Pressure required depends on the materials, jockey to wire radius ratio,

proposed lifespan of the potentiometer.

 Commonly applied pressure: 10 – 50 mN

8 Resistive potentiometers: Design
considerations
Noise contribution

 Irregularities in resolution (random type of noise)

 Thermal motion of molecules that come in equilibrium with random motions of

electrons giving rise to white/Johnson noise

 Contact non-uniformity produced due to changing contact area and contact

resistance (aggravated by presence of contaminants in the area of contact)

 Rubbing action between jockey and wire (~100 – 300 μV)

 Thermoelectric action at high temperatures and DC operations

9 Resistive potentiometers: Sensitivity
 Sensitivity under ideal unloaded condition is the output voltage per unit travel of the
jockey

 Irregularities occur (i) at the potentiometer ends and (ii) due to power dissipation and
corresponding rise in resistance of the potentiometer

 Can be minimized by proper choice of material with safety limit extended in terms of
current carrying capacity

 ei : Input voltage, V

 eO : Output voltage, V

 Rp : Total resistance of potentiometer, Ω

 xt: Total length of translational pot, m

 xi : Displacement of slider from 0 position, m

 Assumption: Distribution of resistance w.r.t. translational movement is linear → Resistance

per unit length = Rp/xt
10 Resistive potentiometers: Sensitivity
 Output voltage under ideal conditions, e0 = (Resistance at output
terminal/resistance at input terminal) × input voltage

𝑹𝒑 𝒙𝒊 𝒙𝒊
𝒆𝟎 = 𝒙𝒕 × 𝒆𝒊 = 𝒆 = 𝑲𝒆𝒊
𝑹𝒑 𝒙𝒕 𝒊

 Output is a linearly related to the input

𝒆 𝒆
 Sensitivity = Output/input = 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒙𝒊
𝒊 𝒕

 Ideal conditions: Sensitivity is constant, output is faithfully reproduced and has a

linear relationship to the input.

𝜽𝒊
 For rotational pot: 𝒆𝟎 = × 𝒆𝒊
𝜽𝒕
11 Resistive potentiometers: Linearity
 Linearity affected by

 Irregularities in winding pitch

 Mechanical uncertainties in jockey movement

 Tolerance/variation in wire and former dimensions and diameter

 Input impedance of the measurement device connected to the

potentiometer
12 Resistive potentiometers: Loading
 Main assumption earlier: Distribution of resistance with respect to the linear or
angular displacement is uniform and the resistance of the voltage measuring
device is infinite.

 Output of potentiometer is connected to a device of finite impedance (acts as

load)

 Output voltage limited by the internal resistance of the load, and is less than
ideal value → loading effect → Linearity is affected
13 Resistive potentiometers: Loading
𝑹𝒑 𝒙𝒊
 Eth = Open circuit voltage across the load = 𝒙𝒕 × 𝒆𝒊 = 𝑲𝒆𝒊
𝑹𝒑

 RTh = Resistance seen by the load with voltage source shorted = 𝑹𝒑𝑲 ||𝑹𝒑 (𝟏 − 𝑲) = 𝑹𝒑𝑲(𝟏 − 𝑲)

𝑬𝑻𝒉
 Current through the load, 𝑰 =
𝑹𝑻𝒉 +𝑹𝒎

𝑲𝒆𝒊𝑹𝒎 𝑲 𝒆𝒊
 Voltage across load, Rm is 𝒆𝟎 = 𝑰𝑹𝒎 = = 𝑹𝒑
𝑹𝒑𝑲 𝟏−𝑲 +𝑹𝒎 𝑲 𝟏−𝑲 + 𝟏
𝑹𝒎

𝒆𝟎 𝑲
=
𝒆𝒊 𝑹𝒑
𝑲 𝟏−𝑲 + 𝟏
𝑹𝒎

 Relationship between output voltage and input displacement is non-linear and extent of non-
linearity depends on the value of Rm/Rp.
14 Resistive potentiometers: Loading
Methods to improve non-linearity of output

 Use a potentiometer with non-linear characteristics

 Design the insulating former on which the winding is made to have a non-linear
profile as the jockey moves

 Non-linear profile is such that resistance ratio Ri/Rp vs. jockey movement is
complementary to that of eo/ei

 Use a variable resistance RS in series with the load

 Double jockey system – one for Rp and other for RS with equal lengths to move should
be used
15 Resistive potentiometers
Power rating: Directly related to head dissipating capacity of the potentiometer

𝑷 = 𝒆𝟐𝒊 /𝑹𝒑 𝒆𝒊 (𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝑷𝑹𝒑

 Single turn, 50 mm diameter, range 100Ω – 10kΩ in steps of 100Ω, 5W at 21°C

Linearity: For good linearity, 𝑅𝑝 should be as low as possible

Sensitivity

 For high sensitivity, eo should be high → ei should be high

 ei limited by the power rating

 Low power dissipation → ei should be low → 𝑹𝒑 should be high

 Trade-off between linearity and sensitivity needed

 Typical sensitivity: 200mV/degree (rotational), 200mV/mm (translational)

16 Resistive potentiometers
 Materials: Nickel-chromium, nickel-copper resistive elements

 Wire wound potentiometers carry larger currents at high temperature, low

temperature co-efficient, relatively expensive, suitable till 5Hz

 Helipot - Multi-turn potentiometer

Wire Jockey

1 Cu-Ni alloys (a) Au, Au-Ag

E.g., Constantan (Cu 55-Ni 45) (b) Ni 40-Ag 60, 10% graphite in Cu or 2-5%
graphite in Ag

2 Ni-Cr alloys (b) Ni 40-Ag 60, 10% graphite in Cu or 2-5%

E.g., Nichrome (Ni 80-Cr 20) graphite in Ag
(c) Rh or Rh-plated metals
(d) Au-Ag

3 Ag-Pd alloys (e) Pt-Iridium, Au 10-Cu 13-Ag 30-Pd 47

4 Pt-Iridium (f) Pt-Iridium

17 Resistive potentiometers
Non-wire wound potentiometers

 Provides improved resolution and life, wiper moves along smooth surface, wear,
bounce and resulting failure due to movement from one turn to another is not
present

 Cermet – Precious metal particles fused into ceramic base. Large power ratings at
high temperature, low cost, moderate temperature coefficient, useful for AC
applications

 Hot moulded carbon – Moulding together a mixture of carbon and thermosetting

plastic binder, used for AC applications

 Carbon film – Thin film of carbon deposited on a non-conductive base, low cost

 Thin metal film – Very thin film of metal vapor deposited on glass or ceramic base,
moderate cost, used for AC applications
18 Resistive potentiometers
Advantages of resistance potentiometer:

 Inexpensive

 Simple to operate

 Measurement of large amplitudes of displacement

 Resolution infinite for cermet and metal film potentiometers

Disadvantages of resistance potentiometer:

 Large force required to move sliding contact

 Wipers can get contaminated, wear out, get misaligned leading to noise