CELL BIOLOGY

CELL INTRODUCTION

Cell
Theory
P R I N C I P L E S O F T H E C E L L T H E O R Y

The cell states that :

theory
I. All
living things are composed of cells for cell products)

The cell is the smallest unit

2.
of life

Cells only
3. arise from pre existing
-
C A V E A T S T O T H E C E L L T H E O R Y

Certain
types of cells Itissues do not conform to a standard notion of what constitutes a cell 8

e.
STRIATED MUSCLE FIBRES :
muscle cells fuse to form fibres that
may be very long 17300mm)
-

have multiple nuclei despite being surrounded by a single ,

continuous plasma membrane

* idea that cells

challenges the always function as AUTONOMOUS UNITS

e.
A SEPTATE FUNGAL HYPHAE :
FUNGI
may have filamentous structures called hyphae
-

↳ separated internal walls

into cells
by
-

some
fungi are not partitioned by septa hence have a -
continuous cytoplasm along the
length of the hyphae Septa

* idea that
challenges the living structures are composed of DISCRETE CELLS

GIANTcertain
ALGAE :
a.

very LARGE
to
species of unicellular algae may grow sizes
↳ E. 68 acetabulation exceed 7cm
may
in
length
*
challenges idea that
the
larger organisms are always made of
many microscopic cells

Functions of life
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS -

the smallest
organisms capable of independent life
composed of single cell
-

a
↳ must be able to
All living things carry out 7 basic functions integral to survival 8
carry out all the
life functions
METABOLISM undertake essential chemical reactions
living things
e. -

REPRODUCTION
living things produce offspring
*o
either sexually asexually
-

,
or
I

SENSITIVITY
living things responsive to internal and external
o.•
stimuli
-

are

HOMEOSTASIS
living things
*o
maintain stable , internal environment
-

EXCRETION
living things exhibit the removal
o.O
waste products
-

of

a. NUTRITION -

living things exchange materials and

gases w/ the environment

GROWTH
living things change shape
a.
and size
-

can move or
mnemonic → MR. SHENG
1. PARAMECIUM (heterotroph)
e.

paramecia are surrounded

by small hairs called cilia which allow it to move (responsiveness)

paramecia engulf food via a specialized membranous

*•

feeding groove called a cytostome (nutrition)

enclosed within small vacuoles that contain
e.

food particles are

enzymes for digestion (metabolism)

a.
solid wastes are removed iaap ,
white liquid
wastes are
pumped out viaaaoue (
excretion)

essential gases enter leg G) and exit leg CO2) the cell viadiffus.to ( homeostasis)
e.

paramecia divide
asexually (fission) although horizontal
gene transfer conjugation
e.
can occur via

(reproduction)
2. SCENE DESMUS (autotroph)
scene desmus
exchange gases and other essential materials via
a.

diffusion ( nutrition / excretion)

chlorophyll pigments organic molecules

to be produced via
a.
allow

photosynthesis (metabolism)
daughter cells the internal
a.
motile auto via
form as non
spores
-

asexual division of the parent cell (reproduction)

scene desmus exist uni cells or colonies for protection (responsiveness)
e.

may as
form

SA Vol Ratio

*
Cells need to produce chemical
energy (via metabolism) to survive and this requires the exchange of
materials with the environment

a.
the rate of metabolism of a cell is a
function of its mass / volume ( larger cells need

MERE energy to sustain essential functions)

a.
the rate of material exchange is a function of its surface area (large membrane surface

equates to more material movement)

*
(units) leading
'
As a cell
grows ,
volume ( units ) increases faster than surface area ,
to a decreased
SA Vol ratio
:

if metabolic rate exceeds the rate of vital materials and wastes flow Vol
a.

exchange of SA :

)
ratio the cell will eventually die
,

hence
a.
Vol ratio
growing cells tend to divide and remain small in order to maintain a
high SA :

suitable for survival

5 U R F A C E A R E A T O V O L U M E R A T I 0

I N C R E A S I N G S A i V O L R A T I 0

Cells and tissues that are specialized for gas or material exchanges
will increase their surface area to optimise material transfer

intestinal tissue
of the digestive tract may form
a.

a ruffled structure
WILL 1) to increase surface area

e.
alveoli within the lungs have membranous extensions called micro villi ,

which function to INCREASE the totalmembranesurf

magnification
C A L C U L A T I O N O F M A G N I F I C A T I O N

e.
To calculate the linear magnification drawing the should be used :
of a or
image , following equation

image size ( w/ ruler)

magnification
=

actual size (according to scale bar)

C A L C U L A T I O N O F A C T U A L 5 I 2 E

To calculate the actual the

simply rearranged :
a.
size of a
magnified specimen , equation is

actual size =
image size (w/ ruler)

magnifications
Light microscopes use visible
light and a combination of lenses to magnify images of mounted specimens

When attempting to draw structures the conventions should be

microscopic , following followed :

•
TITLE to the specimen (e.g : cell)
identify organism tissue
-

name of ,
or

°
MAGNIFICATION ISCALE -

to indicate relative size

°
identifiable structures should be clearly labelled (drawings only reflect what is seen , NOT idealised )
versions
5 U M M A R Y O F V I 5 1 13 L E C E L L F E A T U R E S

U N D E R L 1 G H T M 1 C R O S C O P Y

Emergent Properties

\
"
The whole
"

than the
is
greater sum
of its parts
-

ARISTOTLE

arise when the interaction of individual component produce new functions

e.
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS are capable of completing functions that unicellular organisms could NOT
undertake

↳ due to the collective actions of individual cells combining to create new

synergistic effects

In multicellular organisms :
e.
cells be grouped together to form tissues
may

then tissues
a.

Organs are formed from the functional grouping of multiple

organs that interact may form systems capable out

body functions
e.

organ of carrying specific

systems collectively carry out the life functions of

the complete organism
e.

organ
0 R 6 A N I S A T I O N O F M U L T 1 C E L L U L A R

O R G A N I S M S
Cell Differentiation
DIFFERENTIATION -

the process during development whereby newly formed cells become mciad and
distinct from one another as
they mature

All cells of share IDENTICAL GENOME

an
organism an

each cell contains the entire set of

genetic instructions for that organism

•
The activation of different instructions (genes) within a
given cell
by chemical
signals will cause it
to differentiate
C E L L S P E C 1 A L I 5 A T I O N V 1 A

D I F F E R E N T 1 A L G E N E E X P R E S S I O N

G E N E P A C K A G I N G

Within the nucleus DNA proteins to form

of a
eukaryotic cell , is
packaged with CHROMATIN

genes are usually packaged accessible

e.
active in an expanded form called tRMATN that is
to transcriptional machinery

a.
inactive genes are
typically packaged in a more condensed form called HETEROCHROMATIN ( saves
space ,
not transcribed )

Differentiated cells will have different regions of DNA packaged as EUCHROMATIN and HETEROCHROMATIN

according to their special function

E U C H R O M A T I N V S H E T E R O C H R O M A T I N
Stem cells

7th When a cell differentiates and become specialized ,

it loses its capacity to form alternative cell
types

stem cells are un specialised cells that have TWO KEY QUALITIES 8

e.
I. SELF RENEWAL -

can
continuously divide and replicate

2. POTENCY have the capacity to differentiate into specialized cell

e.

types
-

T Y P E S O F S T E M C E L L s

There are four main

types of stem cells present at various stages of human development 8
e.
TOTI POTENT -

can form ANY cell type ,

as well as extra -

embryonic ( placental) tissue

)o•
(e.g zygote
:

ANYcelltype-le.gr embryonic
PLURIPOTENT can form stem cells)
-

MULTI POTENT differentiate into a number of closely related cell types

-

e.
can

leg haematopoeitic adult stem cells)

:

UNI POTENT not differentiate BUT are capable of self renewal leg progenitor cells
e.
can
-

:
, ,

muscle stem cells)

U S E S O F S T E M C E L L S

STEM CELL embryonic development undifferentiated cell

necessary for they are an from which
-

as source

ALLothercelttypesmaybederived-NON.SI
EM CELL -

cell types that are not capable of self renewal (e.g : a mitotic nerve tissues )
As these tissues CANNOT be stem cells have become viable therapeutic
regenerated or replaced ,
a

option when these tissues become damaged

stem cell Therapy

stem cells be used to
can replace damaged or diseased cells w/ healthy functioning
,
ones
 This process
requires :

the of biochemical solutions

to
trigger the differentiation of stem cells into the desired cell type
e.
use

surgical implantation of cells into the patient 's tissue

o•
own

o•

suppression of host immune

system to prevent rejection of cells (if stem cells are from
foreign source )

careful monitoring of cells to ensure they become

a.
new DO NOT cancerous

E X A M P L E S O F S T E M C E L L T H E R A P Y

①s t a r
g a r d t 's D i s e a s e

↳ inherited form of that

an
juvenile macular
degeneration causes
progressive vision loss to the
point of
blindness

caused
by mutation that
impairs energy transport
e.
in
genea

retinal photoreceptor cells them to REGENERATE

, causing
o•
treated by replacing dead cells in the retina w/ functioning ones
derived from stem cells

②
'
P a r k i n s o n s D i s e a s e

↳ a
degenerative disorder of the central nervous
system ( CN5) caused by the death of dopamine
-

secreting cells in the midbrain

e.
DOPAMINE -

a neurotransmitter responsible for transmitting signals involved in the production of

smooth purposeful movements

{I rspifgigwdigtfagq.no#abnfiofyement
,

tremors
a.
individuals w/ PARKINSON 'S DISEASE . . .

typically exhibit . "

treated dead cells

by replacing w/ living dopamine producing
e.
nerve -
ones
,

③ OTHER
therapeutic examples

e.
LEUKEMIA :
bone marrow transplants for cancer patients who are immunocom prised as a

result of chemotherapy
PARAPLEGIA by spinal injuries to paralysed victims to
damage
:
enable
repair caused regain
a.

movement

DIABETES replace islet cells w/ those capable of producing

functioning insulin in
e.
:
non -

type 1 diabetics

BURN VICTIMS : skin cells to replace damaged tissue

e.

graft new
E G O F T H E R A P E U T 1 C S T E M C E L L U S E

stem cells can be derived from one

of three sources 8

e.
EMBRYOS (may be specially created by therapeutic cloning)
e.
UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD or PLACENTA of a newborn baby

certain adult tissues like the BONE MARROW (cells pluripotent)

a.
are NOT

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS associated w/ the therapeutic use of stem cells will DEPEND ON THE SOURCE

Using multi potent adult tissue may be

a.

effective for certain conditions , BUT is limited in its scope of

application
stem cells derived from umbilical cord blood need to be stored and preserved at
a.
cost , raising issues of
availability and access
greatest yield pluripotent stem cells
e.

of comes from embryos ,

BUT requires the destruction of a

potential living organism

A R T I F I C 1 A L S T E M C E L L T E C H N I Q U E S

Stem cells can be artificially generated via nuclear transfer or nuclear reprogramming w/ ,
distinct benefits and

disadvantages
a.
SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER ( SCNT)

involves the creation of embryonic clones by fusing diploid nucleus w/ enudeated

-

a an
egg
cell ( therapeutic cloning)

created about the

exigencyofexcessembryoso.ae
excess embryos raising ethical
-

→ concerns

NUCLEAR REPROGRAMMING

induce in the cell in order to transform it into

change gene expression profile of
-

a a a

different cell type (transdifferentiation)

involves the retroviruses and transgene s INCREASING the risk of health

use
oncogenic
-

of ,

consequences ( i.e cancer)

:
Cell Theory History
↳ The cell theory is one of the foundational tenets of biology and explains the relationship between cells
and living things

Development of this theory occurred result of advancements the field of

e.

largely as a in
microscopy

ZACHARIAS JANSSEN MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN

Time 81590 Time 81838

invented the 1st

"

compound concluded that all living plants

-

fBEfpeM
-

"
made of cells
microscope are

ROBERT HOOKE -

credited for developing first

two tenets of cell theory
Time 81665
THEODORE SCHWANN
used
light microscope to look
-

goalless at thin slices of Time 8 1839

plant tissue
fork) *
"
concluded that all
living animals
-

"

tiny chambers and coined

BffBg
saw are made cells
-

"
of
"
the term cell
credited for developing first two
-

ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK tenets of cell

theory
(w/ Scheider)
Time 8 1673
RUDOLPH VIRCHOW
first to living microscopic
-

see

organisms (in pond water) Time 81855

termed these microorganisms

-

concluded that :
"
where a cell
"
"
animalcules exists there must have been
,
"

a pre -

existing cell

credited for developing the third

-

tenet of the cell theory

extra microscopes
MICROSCOPE -

scientific instruments that are used to visualise objects that are too small to see w/ the
naked eye

ooopticafightmirosopesandelectronmicroscopesl.IE
There are two main types of microscope

H T M I C R O S C O P E S

lenses to bend light and magnify images by factor of roughly 100 fold
o•
use a

↳ XIOO
be used to
living in natural colour
e.
can view specimens

e.
chemical dyes and fluorescent labelling may be applied to resolve specific structures

E L E C T R O N M 1 C R O S C O P E S

electromagnets to focus electrons resulting in

significantly greater magnifications resolutions
a.
use and

be used to view dead specimens in monochrome (although false rendering may be applied )
e.
can colour

transmission electron microscopes ( SEM) scatter electrons through specimen to generate a

-

cross -

section

scanning electron microscopes (SEM) scatter electrons surface to differentiate depth and
-

over a

mapin3DL
I G H T V S E L E C T R O N M 1 C R O S C O P E S

cell scale

Cells and their components are measured

according to the metric
system 8

-1
R E L A T l V E 5 I 2 E S O F B I 0 L 0 G I C A L

M A T E R 1 A L s

→
eukaryotic cell ( plant) =nI00µm

→
eukaryotic cell (animal) =
N10 -

50µm

organelle leg mitochondrion)=n I

10µm
→ : -

prokaryotic cell (bacteria)=n I -

5µm

→
virus
=
NIOONM

plasma membrane 7.5hm

→ ' n'

→
molecules (eg glucose)=
: nlnm

→
atoms =

NIOOPM
D 1 A G R A M O F R E L AT 1 V E S C A L E O F

B I 0 L 0 G I C A L M A T E R 1 A L S
 CELL STRUCTURE

cells
prokaryotic
PROKARYOTES baryon
'

whose cells lack ( pro nucleus)

' '

nucleus before
organisms
-
=
a =
,

↳
they belong to the
kingdom Monera and have been further classified into TWO distinct
domains
:
e.
ARCHAE BACTERIA -

found in extreme environments like HIGH

temperatures ,

salt concentrations or pH ( i.e :

)
extremophiles

o.o.EUBACTERIA -

traditional bacteria including most known

pathogenic forms
(e.g : E. coli 5. aureus , etc )
,
.

P R O K A R Y O T I C F E A T U R E s

cytoplasm internal fluid component of the

a.
cell
-

nudeoid the
cytoplasm where the DNA
*••

region of
-

is located ( DNA strand is circular and

called a
genophore)
a.
plasmids -

autonomous circular DNA molecules

that be transferred between

may
bacteria (horizontal gene transfer)
 ribosomes complexes of RNA and protein that responsible
polypeptidesynthesislprokaryote
e.
are for
-

ribosome =
70s)

e.
cell membrane semipermeable and selective barrier the cell
surrounding
-

cell wall prevents bursting llysis)

rigid
a.
outer and
covering made of
peptidoglycan maintains shape
-
-

slime capsule thick polysaccharide layer protection against dedication (drying out)
e.
a used for
-

and phagocytosis

flagella long slender projections containing

e.
motor protein that enables movement
-

a
,

singular -

flagellum

pili hair like extensions that enable adherence to surfaces ( attachment pili) mediate bacterial
e.
or
-

conjugation Isex pili)

BINARY FISSION form of asexual reproduction

a used by prokaryotic cells
-

In the
process of binary fission . . .

circular DNA is copied in

response to a replication signal
-

the tops attach to the membrane

membrane
elongates and pinches off (cytokinesis) forming two cells
-

Eukaryotic cells

(
' '

EUKARYOTES '
good 1 true baryon nucleus)
'
-

organisms whose cells contain a nucleus en =

,
=

[ a more

compartmentalised by
complex structure AND

membrane
are

-
believed to have evolved from

bound structures
prokaryotic cells (via

(organelles) that perform specific roles

endo
symbiosis)

Eukaryotes can be divided into FOUR distinct kingdoms :

e.
PROTISTA -

unicellular organisms OR multicellular organisms w/o specialised tissue

FUNGI have cell wall made chitin AND obtain nutrition via
heterotrophic absorption
a. -

a
of

a.
PLANTA E -

have a cell wall made of cellulose AND obtain nutrition autotrophically (via
photosynthesis)
•
'
ANIMAL IA -

NO cell wall AND obtain nutrition via heterotrophic ingestion

T Y P I C A L S T R V C T U R E O F A N A N I M A L

C E L L

T Y P I C A L S T R U C T U R E O F A P L A N T C E L L

organelles
ORGANELLE -

specialised sub -
structures within a cell that serve a specific function

Prokaryotic cells do NOT typically possess any membrane -

bound organelles ,

whereas
eukaryotic cells possess several

U N l V E R S A L O R G A N E L L E S
E U K A R Y O T 1 C O R G A N E L L E S

P L A N T C E L L S O N L Y
A N I M A L C E L L S O N L Y

Electron microscopy
↳ electron beams focused to resolve microscopic
Use
by electromagnets magnify and specimens

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPES ITEM) -

generate HIGH resolution cross-sections

of obje

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPES (SEM) -

display enhanced depth to map the surface of objects in 3D

Electron microscopes have TWO light microscopes 8

key advantages when compared to

higher range magnification ( can detect smaller structures)

e.

of

higher resolution ( can provide clearer and detailed)

e.
more

DISADVANTAGED CANNOT display living specimens in natural colours

cell micrograms
MICRO GRAPH -

a photo or
digital image taken through a
microscope to show a
magnified image of
a specimen

While organelles have identifying structures , specific shapes may vary depending on the location

of cross -
sections
P R O KA RY OT I C CELL FEATURES

nuc I e o i d ce 1 I wa 1 I

i t f 1 I 1
age
i a
p

EUKARYOTIC CELL FEATURES

nucleus ER
 i t c h o n d r i a I i
m o
g o
g

c h I o r o
p t a s t c e 1 I w a 1 I

v a c u o I e

O R G A N E L L E S

Attempts can be made to deduce cell function based on the relative abundance of various

° "" "" "

-

MITOCHONDRIA → cells w/ many mitochondria typically undertake energy -

consuming
muscle cells )
processes (e.g neurons
:
,

ER →
cells w/ extensive ER networks undertake secretory activities (e.g plasma
:

cells exocrine
, gland cells)

LYSOSOMES →
cells rich in
lysosomes tend to
undertake digestive processes
(eg phagocytes)
:

CHLOROPLASTS →
cells w/ chloroplasts undergo
photosynthesis (e.g plant leaf
:

tissue but NOT root tissue )

Prokaryotic structure

P R O K A R Y O T I C C E L L

KEY FEATURES :

e.
PILI -
shown as
single lines

e.
FLAGELLA -

shown as thicker and lines than

the pili significantly longer
a.
RIBOSOMES -

labelled as 70s

e.
CELL WALL -

labelled as being composed of peptidoglycan ,

thicker than cell membrane

SHAPE
leg
e.

appropriate bacteria chosen E. Coli is

rod-shaped bacillus)
-

for
:
a

SIZE ( eg length of cell twice the width)

e.

appropriate dimensions
-

Eukaryote structure

A N I M A L C E L L

KEY FEATURES :

o•
NUCLEUS -

shown as double membrane

structure w/ pores

a.
RIBOSOMES -

labelled as 80S

e.
CYTOSOL -

internal fluid labelled as

cytosol
'

( cytoplasm
'
is all internal contents
minus the nucleus)

e.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM -

interconnected membranes shown as bare (smooth ER) and studded

trough ER)
a.
MITOCHONDRIA -

double membrane w/ inner one folded into cristaei no larger than half the
nucleus in size

e.
60161 APPARATUS -

shown as a series of enclosed sacs (cistern ae) w/ vesicles

 P L A N T C E L L

KEY FEATURES :

e.
VACUOLE -

large and
occupying majority of
central space (surrounded
by tonoplast)
e.
CELL WALL -

labelled as
being composed of
cellulose thicker than cell
,

membrane

e.
SHAPE -

brick like
-

shape w/ rounded corners

e.
CHLOROPLASTS -

double membrane w/ internal stacks

of membrane discs (only present in

photosynthetic tissue )
extra
light microscopy
Optical microscopes use lenses to bend
light and
magnify images (extent of magnification determined
by
lenses)

a.
most light microscopes include both an ocular lens Into x) and objective lens In I0K 4OX ,
100 x )

/ / /"
FOCUS MECHANISM " " """ "

"" ⇐ REVOLVING NOSE PIECE

-

| |
STAGE CLIPS

µ, IRIS DIAPHRAGM
F U N C T I O N O F M I C R O S C O P E C O M P O N E N T S

EYEPIECE the point which the ocular lens)

through (contains
e.
is observed
magnified image
-

FOCUS MECHANISM
responsible for resolving the
image (may include both fine and
a.
coarse focus
-

adjustments)

REVOLVING NOSE PIECE device that allows for selection of

rotating objective lens
a. -

OBJECTIVE LENS
magnifies image of specimen (in conjunction w/ ocular lens)
a. -

STAGE
platform is
positioned (specimen slide)
a.
which specimen to
on is usually affixed glass
-

STAGE CLIPS holds specimen in place (some mechanical stages be moved to reposition slide
e.
can
-

while viewing)

IRIS DIAPHRAGM that is

regulates the intensity of light projected onto the slide
e. -

e.
LIGHT SOURCE -

either external ( redirected by mirrors) or internal ( lightbulb within the

microscope
base )

Types of cells

All living organisms can be classified into one

of 3 domains for 5
kingdoms) based on
specific cell
characteristics

Prokaryotes belong to of two demain 's Archaea & Eubacteria which collectively
e.
one
-
-

form the
kingdom Monera

Eukaryotes third domain and be divided into FOUR kingdoms Protista ,

e.

comprise a can -

Planta , Fungae and Animation

C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F K I N G D O M S
O R G A N I 5 A T I O N O F D O M A 1 N S A N D

K I N G D O M S

Types of bacteria
All bacteria share features common to every prokaryotic cells

a.
lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
e.
have circular DNA that is naked (not bound to protein)

e.
smaller ribosomes ( 70s)

However different types of bacteria can be distinguished according to a number

of characteristics
:

SHAPE round (coccus) rod like ( bacillus) shaped (vibrio) or spiral Ispirillal
e.
comma
-
- -

, ,

spirochaete)

CELL WALL COMPOSITION gram positive (thick peptidoglycan layer) gram-negative

e. -

-
or

( lipopolysaccharide layer)

e.
GASEOUS REQUIREMENTS -

anaerobic ( obligate OR facultative) or aerobic

e.
NUTRITIONAL PATTERNS -

autotrophic ( photosynthetic OR chemo synthetic) or

heterotrophic
B A C T E R 1 A L S U B -
C L A S S I F I C A T I O N S
Prokaryotic vs
Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells differ in a number of key features including :
,

e.
DNA composition and structure

Organelles types present and relative sizes

a.

e.
Reproduction mode differs according to chromosome structure

e.

Average size exceptions may exist

P R O K A R Y O T 1 C V S E U K A R Y O T I C F E A T U R E s

mnemonic 8 DORA

Animal us plant cells

Animal cells and plant cells both types of eukaryotic cells and hence share
are many common

features including :
,

DNA stored within nucleus

-

larger ribosomes 1805 in size )

-

a variety of membrane-bound
organelles (eg : mitochondria , ER , golgi apparatus)
-

However there are also a number

of key differences that separate the TWO
types of cells , including :
absence of specific sub cellular structures
-

presence or -

composition of the plasma membrane

-
C O M P A R I S O N O F P L A N T & A N I M A L C E L L S