HIGH VOLTAGE

Breakdown phenomena
Assistant Professor Suna BOLAT KRÖGER

Eastern Mediterranean University

Department of Electric & Electronic Engineering
Determination of Townsend’s coefficients
, 
Townsend’s second ionization coefficient, 

is the number of ion pairs made by one positive ion per unit drift
(1 cm) in the direction of the field.

Positive ions removes electron from the cathode when they

strike to cathode.
Townsend’s ionization coefficient is about that phenomena, not
about ionization by collision.
Townsend’s 2nd ionization coefficient, 
: is the number of electrons
removed from the cathode by
one positive ion striking to
cathode.

1 1
𝛾: ,…,
50 5000

If  =1/50, one electron can be

removed from the cathode
E when 50 positive ions strike to
x=0 x x=d
it.
 = 0.02  0.00002

 depends on the material of the cathode and the type os

gaseous insulator.
Material Gas
of
cathode Air Neon

Al 0.035 0.1
Cu 0.025 0.065
Fe 0.02 0.06
At a distance x = d,

𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 positive ions are produced by collison

𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 electrons are produced

Number of
electrons
removed from
the cathode by
one positive ion
Townsend’s criteria for spark breakdown

𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 = 1

If this condition is fulfilled, at least one electron is removed from

the cathode and discharge can continue.

This is also called as; condition of self-sustainability of

discharge.
Breakdown voltage in uniform fields by
Townsend’s theory
Self sustaining discharge: 𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 = 1

1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑 −1=
𝛾

1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑 =1+
𝛾

1
𝛼𝑑 = ln(1 + )
𝛾
 −𝐵.𝑝
• 𝛼 = 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑒 𝐸 : Townsend’s 1st ionization coefficient

• For breakdown: 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑏
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏
−𝐵.𝑝
𝑈 −𝐵.𝑝.𝑑
( 𝑏 𝑑) 𝑈𝑏
𝛼 = 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑒 = 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑒

−𝐵.𝑝.𝑑
𝑈𝑏
1
𝛼𝑑 = 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑. 𝑒 = ln(1 + )
𝛾
 1
−𝐵.𝑝.𝑑 ln(1 + )
𝑈𝑏 𝛾
𝑒 =
𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑

𝐵.𝑝.𝑑
𝑈𝑏
𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
𝑒 =
1
ln(1 + )
𝛾

𝐵. 𝑝. 𝑑 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
= ln
𝑈𝑏 1
ln(1 + )
𝛾
Equation for breakdown voltage
in uniform fields by Townsend’s theory
(Paschen Equation)
𝐵. 𝑝. 𝑑
𝑈𝑏 =
𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
ln 1
ln(1 + )
𝛾
𝑈𝑏 = f(p. d)
Breakdown voltage depends on multiplication of pressure and
electrode gap
Breakdown voltage curve (Paschen Curve)

Torr: mm.Hg
Critical (p.d) value that makes the breakdown
voltage minimum
𝑑𝑈𝑏
• = 0 → (𝑝. 𝑑)𝑐𝑟 = ? → 𝑈𝑏 (𝑝. 𝑑)𝑐𝑟
𝑑(𝑝.𝑑)
𝐴
1
𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑 ln(1 + 𝛾)
𝐵. ln 1 − 𝐵. 𝑝. 𝑑. 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
ln(1 + 𝛾)
1
𝑑𝑈𝑏 ln(1 + )
𝛾
= 2 =0
𝑑(𝑝. 𝑑) 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
ln 1
ln(1 + )
𝛾
 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
𝐵. ln −𝐵 =0
1
ln(1 + )
𝛾

𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
ln −1=0
1
ln(1 + )
𝛾

𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑 𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
ln = 1 = ln 𝑒 → = 𝑒 = 2.718
1 1
ln(1 + ) ln(1 + )
𝛾 𝛾
 1
𝑒. ln(1 + )
𝛾
(𝑝. 𝑑)𝑐𝑟 =
𝐴
Minimum breakdown voltage
𝐵. (𝑝. 𝑑)𝑐𝑟
𝑈𝑏 (𝑝. 𝑑)𝑐𝑟 = 𝑈𝑏,𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐴. (𝑝. 𝑑)𝑐𝑟
ln 1
ln(1 + )
𝛾

1
𝑒. ln(1 + ) 1
𝛾 𝑒. ln(1 + )
𝐵. 𝛾
𝑈𝑏,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 = 𝐵.
1 𝐴
𝑒. ln(1 + )
𝛾
𝐴.
ln 𝐴
1 (𝑝. 𝑑)𝑐𝑟
ln(1 + )
𝛾
Minimum breakdown voltage

𝑈𝑏,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐵. (𝑝. 𝑑)𝑐𝑟

Breakdown strength

𝐸=𝑈 𝑑
𝑈
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑑

𝐵. 𝑝
𝐸𝑏 =
𝐴. 𝑝. 𝑑
ln 1
ln(1 + )
𝛾
Generalized Paschen Equation
𝑇
𝐴 → 𝐴. 𝑇 𝐵. . 𝑝. 𝑑
𝑇0 𝑇0
𝐵 → 𝐵. 𝑇 𝑇 𝑈𝑏 =
𝑇
0

𝐴. . 𝑝. 𝑑
𝑇0
ln 1
ln(1 + )
𝛾
• 𝑇0 = 273 + 20℃ = 293°𝐾
• 𝑇 = 273 + 𝜃℃: gas temperature in °𝐾
• 𝑝: gas pressure in mmHg
• A, B: gas constants
• 𝛾: number of electrons removed from the cathode by positive ions
Streamer Theory

• This theory explains electrical discharges in big gaps and high

pressure

• 𝑝. 𝑑 > 500 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔. 𝑐𝑚

• The Streamer theory predicts the development of a spark

discharge directly from a single avalanche
1. Streamer Theory for
uniform electric field
U

the electrons advance rapidly,

+
-
+
the positive ions are left behind
- E
-- - -- - +
in a relatively slow-moving tail
- + +
+ + + --- -- - + +----- -
++ - - - ++- -- -- + Electric field between the
- -- -- - -
avalanche and the anode is big
+

- +
+
E

Positive ions
electrons
Streamer process
• The space charge produced in the avalanche causes sufficient distortion of
the electric field that those free electrons move towards the avalanche
head, and in so doing generate further avalanches in a process that rapidly
becomes cumulative.
• As the electrons advance rapidly, the positive ions are left behind in a
relatively slow-moving tail
• The field will be enhanced in front of the head. Just behind the head the
field between the electrons and the positive ions is in the opposite
direction to the applied field and hence the resultant field strength is less.
• Again between the tail and the cathode the field is enhanced.
• Due to the enhanced field between the head and the anode, the space
charge increases, causing a further enhancement of the field around the
anode.
• The process is very fast and the positive space charge extends to the
cathode very rapidly resulting in the formation of a streamer.
  e x V
E r  5.27 10  7
x cm
p

Breakdown voltage by streamer theory

𝛼. 𝑑. 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝑈𝑏 = 5.27 × 10−7
𝑑
cm
V 𝑝 cm
1/cm
mmHg

d: electrode gap [cm]

𝑈𝑏 𝛼. 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
(electrode seperation) 𝐸𝑏 = = 5.27 × 10−7
p: gas pressure [mmHg] 𝑑 𝑑
: ionization coefficient of 𝑝
the eletron [1/cm]
Ub: breakdown voltage [V]
2. Streamer Theory for
non-uniform electric field
r: curvature radius
d: electrode gap
U

Non-uniform field:
r 𝑑
> 40 → 𝑑 > 40 𝑟
𝑟
d
 Different non-uniform electric field cases

U U U
(+) (-) (-)

- +
+ +----- -
+ ++----------

+
+ --

E1 E1
+---- --

E E E
+ -

(+) U
(+)
Electrode gap – breakdown voltage

Ub

- +

- +

d
Discharge time

𝑡𝑏 = 𝑡𝜎 + 𝑡𝑝

creepage
Discharge time
time progress
time

Creepage time: time required for an electron to appear after the

moment which voltage applied
Progress time: time required for such an electron appeared in
the gap to lead a breakdown after the moment it appeared