Transistors

A Transistor is a semiconductor device that is used to either amplify signals or as a switch. It is a three
terminal device in which a small current/voltage at one terminal controls a large flow of current
between the other two terminals. The three terminals of a transistor are;

(a) Emitter
(b) Base
(c) Collector

Transistors are small in size, requires low energy for operation and has low power dissipation. The
most commonly used semiconductor materials for manufacturing transistors are Silicon, Germanium
and Gallium-Arsenide (GaAs).

The Transistor is one of the important active components which produce an output signal of higher
power than that in the input signal. It is an essential component in almost every electronic circuit
which includes amplifiers, switching, oscillators, voltage regulators, power supplies and most
importantly, the digital logic ICs.

Types of Transistors

Transistors are classified into different types depending either on their construction or operation. Two
basic families of transistors are;

(a) Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

Junction Transistors are generally called Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). The term ‘Bipolar’ means
both electrons and holes are required for conducting current and the term ‘Junction’ means it contain
PN Junction (two junctions). Bipolar Transistors are "CURRENT" Amplifying or current regulating
devices that control the amount of current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of
biasing current applied to their base terminal.

There are two types of bipolar (BJTs) transistors; NPN and PNP, which basically describes the
physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.

(i) NPN: In this transistor, the base is at a higher voltage than the emitter, current flows from collector
to emitter. A small amount of current also flows from base to emitter. NPN Voltage at base controls
amount of current flow through transistor (collector to emitter).

(ii) PNP transistors: In PNP, the base is at a lower voltage than the emitter, current flows from emitter
to collector. A small amount of current also flows from emitter to base. Voltage at base controls
amount of current flow through transistor (emitter to collector). The arrow represents the direction of
current flow.
 The principle of operation of the two transistor types; NPN and PNP is exactly the same, the only
difference is in the biasing (base current) and the polarity of the power supply for each type. The
direction of the arrow in the symbol shows current flow between the base and emitter terminal,
pointing from the positive P type region to the negative N-type region, exactly the same as for the
standard diode symbol.

For normal operation, the emitter-base junction is forward-biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased.

(b) Unipolar or Field Effect Transistors (FET)

Field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses an electric field to control the shape and electrical
conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor material. FETs are also
known as unipolar transistors as they involve single carrier-type operation.

The FET has several forms, but all have high input impedance. While the conductivity of a non-FET
transistor is regulated by the input current (the emitter to base current) and so has a low input
impedance, a FET's conductivity is regulated by a voltage applied to a terminal (the gate) which is
insulated from the device. The applied gate voltage induces an electric field into the device, which in
turn attracts or repels charge carriers to or from the region between a source terminal and a drain
terminal. The density of charge characters in turn influences the conductivity between the source and
drain.

The FET’s have three terminals like BJTs. The three terminals are; Gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S).

(a) Source (S): The Source terminal in a Field Effect Transistor is the one through which the carriers
enter the channel. This is similar to the emitter terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor. The Source
terminal can be designated as S.

Conventionally, current entering the channel at Source is designated or indicated by IS.

(b) Drain (D): The Drain terminal in a Field Effect Transistor is the one through which the carriers
leave the channel. This is analogous to the collector terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.

The Drain terminal can be designated as D. The Drain to Source voltage is designated as VDS. The
current leaving the channel at Drain terminal is indicated as ID.

(c) Gate (G): The Gate terminal in a Field Effect Transistor plays a key role in the function of FET by
controlling the current through the channel. By applying an external voltage at Gate terminal, the
current through it can be controlled. Gate is a combination of two terminals connected internally that
are heavily doped. The channel conductivity is said to be modulated by the Gate terminal. This is
analogous to the base terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
The Gate terminal is designated as G. The current entering the channel at the Gate terminal is
indicated as IG.

Classification of FET Transistors

The Field Effect Transistor (FET) transistors are classified into Junction Field Effect transistors (JFET)
and Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistors (IG-FET) or Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistors (MOSFET).

(a) Junction-Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

The Junction-Field-Effect transistor (JFET) is an earliest and simple type of Field Effect Transistor. This
transistor is a voltage-controlled device. It doesn’t need any biasing current. The voltage applied
between gate and source controls the flow of electric current between source and drain of the
transistor. The JFETs are used as switches, amplifiers and resistors.

Junction FET transistors are further classified into N–Channel JFET and P–Channel JFET depending
on their construction.

(i) N–Channel JFET

The JFET in which electrons are primarily composed as the charge carrier is termed as N-channel
JFET. Hence, if the transistor is turned on, then we can say that the current flow is primarily because
of the movement of electrons. Thus, in N–Channel JFET, the current flow is due to the electrons.
When voltage is applied between gate and source, a channel is formed between source and drain for
current flow. This channel is called N–Channel. Nowadays, N–Channel JFETs are preferable type than
P–Channel JFET. The symbol for N-channel JFET transistor is given below.

(ii) P–Channel JFET

A P-Channel JFET is a JFET whose channel is composed primarily of holes as the charge carrier. This
means that when the transistor is turned on, it is primarily the movement of holes which constitutes
the current flow. This is in contrast to N-Channel JFETs, whose channel is composed primarily of
electrons, which constitute the current flow. A P-Channel JFET is composed of a gate, a source and a
drain terminal.

(b) Metal oxide semiconductor (MOSFETs)

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used and
popular type among all transistors. The name ‘Metal Oxide’ indicates that the Gate region and the
channel are separated by a thin layer of metal oxide (usually, SiO2). Hence, MOSFET is also known as
Insulated Gate FET as the Gate region is completely insulated from the Source-Drain region.

There is an extra terminal known as Substrate or Body, which is the main Semiconductor (Silicon) in
which the FET is fabricated. So, the MOSFET has four terminals drain, source, gate and body or
substrate.

MOSFET has many advantages over BJT and JFET, mainly it offers high input impedance and low
output impedance. It is used in switching and power circuits and it is a main component on
Integrated Circuit designing technologies.

The MOSFETs are classified into Depletion and Enhancement modes. Depletion and enhancement
mode transistors are further classified into respective N–Channel and P–Channel types.

N-Channel MOSFET

The MOSFET having N-channel region between source and drain is called N-channel MOSFET. Here,
the source and gate terminals are heavily doped with n-type materials situated in a heavily doped
p-type semiconductor material (substrate). The current flow between source and drain is because of
electrons. The gate voltage controls the current flow in the circuit. N–Channel MOSFET is most
commonly used than P–Channel MOSFET because the mobility of electrons is high than mobility of
holes.

The symbols and structures for N–Channel MOSFET transistors are given below (both Enhancement
and Depletion mode).
Symbols and structures for N–Channel MOSFET transistors (Enhancement and Depletion mode

P–Channel MOSFET

The MOSFET having P–Channel region between source and drain is called as P–Channel MOSFET.
Here, the source and drain terminals are heavily doped with P-type material and the substrate is
doped with N-type material. The current flow between source and drain is because of holes
concentration. The applied voltage at gate will controls the flow of current through channel region.

The symbols and structures for P–Channel MOSFET transistors are given below (both Enhancement
and Depletion mode)

Symbols and structures for N–Channel MOSFET transistors (Enhancement and Depletion mode

Difference between BJT and FETs

The basic operation of bipolar and FETs are the same. FETs are more popular, waste less power, and
are cheaper than bipolar. However, FETs can be easily damaged by static electricity, so this explains
why bipolar types are used for teaching and training students.

Physically and structurally, the difference between BJT and FET is that in BJT both majority and
minority charge carriers are required to operate, whereas in FETs, only majority charge carriers are
required. The current condition in unipolar transistor is due to only one type of charge carriers,
majority carriers. Based on their properties and characteristics, some transistors are primarily used
for switching purpose (MOSFETs) and on the other hand, some are transistors are used for
amplification purpose (BJTs). Some transistors are designed for both amplification and switching
purposes.

Questions
(a) What is the difference between MOSFET and BJT transistors?
The difference between BJT and FET is that in BJT both majority and minority charge carriers are required
to operate, whereas in FETs, only majority charge carriers are required.
(b) What is meant by bipolar as used in transistors? The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and
electrons as current carriers in the transistor structure.

Bipolar junction transistor (BJTs)

The BJTs have three terminals;

(i) Emitter (E),

(ii) Base (B) and

(iii) Collector (C).

BJTs are essentially current-controlled devices. A small amount of current flows through the base of a
BJT transistor, which then causes a flow of large current from emitter to collector.

In bipolar transistor the current condition is due to both types of charge carriers, holes and electrons.
So it is called bipolar. These two kinds of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of doped
semiconductor material; electrons are majority charge carriers in n-type semiconductors, whereas
holes are majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductors. In contrast, unipolar transistors that is
the field-effect transistors have only one kind of charge carrier.

Classification of BJT transistors

The BJT transistors are classified in to NPN and PNP transistors depending on the construction.

(a) NPN Transistor

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor
(the "base") between two N-doped layers. It consists of two n-type semiconductor materials,
separated by a thin layer of p-type semiconductor. Here, the majority charge carriers are electrons
while holes are the minority charge carriers.

The symbols and structure for NPN transistors are given below.

The flow of electrons from emitter to collector is controlled by the current flow in the base terminal. A
small amount of current at base terminal causes a large amount current to flow from emitter to
collector. The most commonly used bipolar transistor is NPN transistor, because the mobility of electrons is
greater than mobility of holes. The standard equation for the currents flowing in the transistor is;

(b) PNP Transistor

The PNP transistors contain two p-type semiconductor materials, separated by a thin layer of n-type
semiconductor. It comprises of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped
material. The majority charge carriers in the PNP transistors are holes while electrons are minority
charge carriers. The symbol and structure for PNP transistor is shown below.

The arrow in the emitter terminal of transistor indicates the flow of conventional current. In PNP
transistor, the current flows from Emitter to Collector.

Bipolar Transistor construction

Transistor Structure

The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions
separated by two p-n junctions. If a p-region is sandwiched between two n-regions like shown in
figure (b), then its n-p-n transistor. If a n-region is sandwiched between two p-regions like shown in
figure (c), then its p-n-p transistor. The three regions are called emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C).

Physical representations of the two types of BJTs are shown below. One type consists of two n regions
separated by a p region (npn), and the other type consists of two p regions separated by n region
(pnp).

Basic BJT construction

The p-n junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the base-emitter junction.
The p-n junction joining the base region and the collector region is called the base-collector junction,
as indicated in figure (b) above. A wire lead connects to each of the three regions, as shown. These
leads are labeled E, B, and C for emitter, base, and collector, respectively.

Parts of transistors
1. Base- It is the middle region of the transistor. It is lightly doped and it is very thin compared to the
heavily doped emitter and the moderately doped collector regions.

2. Emitter and Collector: These are the other two regions of transistors. They are heavily doped.
Emitter’s doping level is slightly greater than that of collector.

Basic Transistor Operation

Transistor is operated in three configurations;

(a) Common base,

(b) Common emitter

(c) Common collector.

Transistor is used for voltage and current amplification according to particular configuration. At base
input signal of small amplitude is given and magnified output signal is collected at collector. Thus
transistors help in achieving amplification of signal.

The figure below show the proper bias arrangement for both npn and pnp transistors for active
operation as amplifier. Notice that in both cases, the base-emitter (BE) junction is forwarded-biased
and the base-collector (BC) junction is reverse-biased.
 Forward and reverse bias of a BJT

Transistor Currents

The directions and schematic symbol of the currents in an npn transistor and those for a pnp
transistor are shown below. Notice that the arrow on the emitter of the transistor symbols points in
the direction of convention current. These diagrams show that the emitter current (IE) is the sum of
the collector current (IC) and the base current (IB), expressed as IE = IC + IB

Transistor connected in a circuit

When the transistor is connected to dc bias voltage, as shown in Figure (a) below for NPN and
Figure(b) for PNP types, VBB forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and VCC reverse-biases the
base-collector junction.

Transistor DC bias circuit

Transistor Parameters

(a) DC Beta (βDC) parameter

The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is the dc beta (βDC) which is the dc
current gain of a transistor.

Current gain,
 is usually designated as an equivalent hybrid (h) parameter, hFE, on transistor data sheets.
Therefore,

(b) DC Alpha ( ) parameter

The ratio of the dc collector (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha ( ). The alpha is a
less-used parameter than beta in transistor circuits.

or

Example 1: Determine the dc current gain and the emitter current IE for a transistor where the
base current IB = 50 μA and I C = 3.65 mA.

Solution

or

But by definition,

Example 2: In a Common Emitter transistor circuit if β = 100 and IB = 50μA, compute the values of α,
IE and IC.
From ,

We have;

From

We have;

or 5.05 mA.

Current and Voltage Analysis

Consider the basic transistor bias circuit configuration shown in figure below. Three transistor dc
currents and three dc voltages can be identified.

(i) IB: dc base current

(ii) IE: dc emitter current
(iii) IC: dc collector current
(iv) VBE: dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
(v) VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to base
(vi) VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter

VBB forward-biases the base-emitter junction and VCC reverse-biases the base-collector junction. When
the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, it is like a forward-biased diode and has a nominal
forward voltage drop of VBE=0.7 V. Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the
voltage across RB is

Also, by Ohm’s law,

Substituting for yields,

Solving for ,

The voltage is

Since the drop across RC is

The voltage at the collector with respect to the emitter can be written as

Where the voltage across the reverse-biased collector-base junction is

Example 3: Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit. Assume β DC = 150.

Solution:

For forward bias silicon npn transistor

 But

Thus,

Example 4: Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit. Assume β DC = 150.

Solution:

For forward bias silicon n-p-n transistor

LOOP ON THE LEFT based on base-bias voltage (V BB)

But

Substituting for and in the equation gives;

LOOP ON THE RIGHT based on collector-collector voltage (V CC)

Example 5: The diagram below show a possible voltage amplifier. Given that for the transistor

while in operation, , , , , current gain β=200. Calculate

, and .

Solution

Transistor Configurations
There are three possible configurations when a transistor is connected in a circuit:
 (a) Common emitter:
(b) Common base
(c) Common collector
(a) Common Emitter Transistor Characteristics

In a common emitter configuration, emitter is common to both input and output. The N-P-N
transistor in CE configuration is shown below;

The behavior of a transistor can be represented by d.c. current-voltage (I-V) curves, called the static
characteristic curves of the device. These characteristics give information about various transistor
parameters, e.g. input and out dynamic resistance, current amplification factors. The three
important characteristics of a transistor are:

(i) Input characteristics.

(ii) Output characteristics.
(iii) Transfer Characteristics.

(i) Input Characteristics

The Input Characteristics curve describe the changes in the values of input current (IB) with respect
to the values of input voltage (VBE) keeping the output voltage (VCE) constant. Thus, the variation of
the base current IB with the base-emitter voltage VBE keeping the collector-emitter voltage VCE fixed,
gives the input characteristic in common emitter mode.

Input characteristics for common emitter configuration

Input Dynamic Resistance (ri): This is defined as the ratio of change in base emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to
the resulting change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE). This is dynamic
and it can be seen from the input characteristic, its value varies with the operating current in the
transistor:
The value of ri can be anything from a few hundreds to a few thousand ohms.

(ii) Output Characteristics:

The variation of the collector current IC with the collector emitter voltage VCE is called the output
characteristic. The curve is obtained by plotting the output current against output voltage keeping the
input current constant. It gives the variation of output current with the change in output voltage. The
plot of IC versus VCE for different fixed values of IB gives one output characteristic. Since the collector
current changes with the base current, there will be different output characteristics corresponding to
different values of IB.

In a common emitter transistor collector current is output current and collector-to emitter voltage is
the output voltage.

Output Dynamic Resistance (ro): This is defined as the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage
(ΔVCE) to the change in collector current (ΔIC) at a constant base current IB.

The high magnitude of the output resistance (of the order of 100 kW) is due to the reverse-biased state
of this diode.

Collector Characteristics Curves

Using a circuit like the one shown in figure below, a set of collector characteristic curves that explain
how IC varies with VCE, for specific values of IB is generated. Notice in the circuit diagram that both
VBB and VCC are variable source of voltage.
 BJT circuit with variable voltage sources

Collector characteristics curves: From the figure above, assume that VBB is set to produce a certain
value of IB and VCC is zero. For this condition, both the base-emitter junction and the base-collector
junction are forward-biased because the base is at approximately 0.7 V (for Si) while the emitter and
the collector are at 0 V. Here, the base current is through the base-emitter junction because the low
impedance path to ground, and IC is zero. When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is in
the saturation region of its operation.

As VCC is increased, VCE increases gradually as the collector current increases. When VCE exceeds VK
(0.7 V for Si), the base-collector junction becomes reverse-biased and the transistor goes into the
active or linear region of its operation. Once the base-collector junction is reverse-biased, IC remains
essentially constant for a given value of IB as VCE continues to increase. For this region of the
characteristic curve, the value of IC is determined only by the relationship expressed as IC =βDCIB.

When VCE reaches a sufficiency high voltage, the reverse-biased base-collector junction goes into
breakdown; and the collector current increases rapidly. A transistor should never be operated in this
breakdown region.

A family of collector characteristics curves is produced when IC versus VCE is plotted for several
values of IB, as shown in Figure below. When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region although
there is a very small collector leakage current.

A family of collector characteristics curves.

Example 5: Sketch an ideal family of collector curves for the circuit below for IB = 5 μA to 25 μA in 5
μA increments. Assume β DC = 100 and that VCE does not exceed breakdown.

Solution:

Using the relationship IC =βDCIB =100 IB, values of IC are calculated and tabulated in table below. The
resulting curves are plotted in figure below.

IB IC
5 μA 0.5 mA
10 μA 1.0 mA
15 μA 1.5 mA
20 μA 2.0 mA
25 μA 2.5 mA

(iii) Transfer Characteristics:

The transfer characteristics are plotted between the input and output currents (IB versus IC). Both IB
and IC increase proportionately. This characteristic curve describes the variation of output current in
accordance with the input current, keeping the output voltage constant

Current amplification factor (β)

This is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) when the transistor is in active state. The ratio of IC and IB we
get what is called βdc of the transistor. Hence,

This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very large. Since IC increases with IB
almost linearly, the values of both βdc and βac are nearly equal.

Transistor regions of operations

BJTs can operate in three regions. They are:

(a) Cut-off Region: Here the transistor is in ‘OFF’ state i.e., the current flowing through the
transistor is zero. In the Cut Off region the base current is almost zero. Therefore, collector current
also becomes zero even at higher output voltage. To operate a transistor in the cut off region, both of
emitter junction and collector junction should be in the reverse bias condition. In the cut off region a
transistor acts like the OFF stage of a switch.
Thus, in this region, both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse biased and the
transistor acts like an open switch. (IC = 0).
When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation. This is shown in Figure below with
the base lead open, resulting in a base current of zero. Under this condition, there is very small value
of collector leakage current, ICEO, mainly due to thermally produced charge carriers. Because, ICEO is
extremely small, it will usually be neglected in circuit analysis so that VCE = VCC.

Moreover, in cutoff mode, both the base-emitter and the base-collector junction are reverse-biased.

(b) Active Region:

This is the region on the output curve of a transistor where the output current is almost constant and
independent on output voltage. If the base resistance be greater than the maximum allowed value then the
transistor operates in Active region. Here the transistor acts as an amplifier. Thus One can use Transistor
as an Amplifier only if it operates in active region.

In this region, the base emitter junction is forward biased and the base-collector junction is reverse
biased. This region is the normal transistor operation mode for amplification, and is characterized by
the transistor current gain value, beta. This parameter is defined as the ratio between IC to IB and
typically called the factor. Similarly a factor is defined as the ratio between IC to IE. Thus;

and
 

It can be easily shown that and

As a rule of thumb, the larger the value of β, the higher the gain obtainable from the transistor, i.e. the
better the transistor. Typical values for β ranges from about 80 to 300 or higher.

(c) Saturation Region

Saturation region is the region on the output curve of transistor where the collector current increases rapidly
with the slight increase in output voltage. To operate the transistor in saturation region, the base resistance
should be smaller than the maximum allowed value. Also, for the operation in saturation region, both of
emitter junction and collector junction should be in forward bias. In saturation region, transistor acts like ON
stage of a switch.
Here the transistor is in fully ‘ON’ state and also works as a closed switch. In this region, both base
emitter and base-collector junctions are forward biased and the transistor acts like a closed switch.
(VCE = 0).

When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and the base-current is increased, the
collector current also increases and VCE decreases as a result of more drop across the collector resistor
(VCE = VCC – ICRC). This is illustrated in Figure below.

Saturation mode

When VCE reaches its saturation value, VCE(sat) , the base-collector junction becomes forward-biased
and IC can increase no further even with a continued increase in IB. And VCE(sat) is usually only 0.2 –
0.3 V for silicon transistors.
DC Load Line

A load line is a line drawn over collector curves to show every possible operating points of a transistor.
The DC load line contains possible DC values of IC and VCE for a given amplifier.

To draw a line, two points are required. The load line is drawn between these two extremes; the
saturation point and the cut-off point. There is need to find out at what point collector current is
maximum (that is the saturation point) at VCE =0. And the second point is the maximum possible
collector to emitter voltage at IC = 0 (that is the cut-off point).
Cutoff and saturation mode can be illustrated in relation to the collector characteristics curves by the
use of a load line. The Figure below shows a dc load line drawn on a family of curves connecting the
cutoff point and the saturation point. The bottom of the load line is at ideal cutoff where IC = 0 and
VCE = VCC. The top of the load line is at saturation where IC = IC (sat) and VCE = VCE(sat).

In between cutoff and saturation along the load line is the active region of the transistor’s operation.

DC load line on a family of collector characteristic curves illustrating the cutoff and saturation
conditions.

Significance of load line: it gives the valid values of IC and VCE, and hence the possible operating point
of a transistor.
Steps

1) First, determine at what point collector current is maximum (that is the saturation point).
2) And the second point is the maximum possible collector to emitter voltage (that is the cutoff
point).
Methods
The saturation and cut off point are located with the help of circuit analysis methods that is KVL and
KCL. Consider the circuit figure below. The DC equivalent of this circuit is given below. 
 DC equivalent circuit

Applying KVL to the output side gives:

-VCC + ICRC + VCE  = 0

ICRC = VCC - VCE

IC = (VCC - VCE )/RC 

IC = VCC/RC - VCE/RC …………………………………….(1)

Equation 1 is the equation for the load line. This equation is drawn over output characteristics
curves. 

Equation 1 is compared with the standard straight-line equation:

y = mx + c

Here, c = VCC/RC 

And  m = slope = -1/RC 

For y-intercept, x = 0 (that is VCE = 0)

IC = VCC/RC … Point 1

For x-intercept, y = 0 (that is IC = 0)

VCE = VCC … Point 2

Point 1: is the extreme of saturation region. It intersects the curve at the saturation region of collector
curves. Thus, it gives the maximum collector current for the circuit.

Point 2: is the extreme of the cut off region. It intersects the curve at the cut off region of collector
curves. This point gives the maximum collector-emitter voltage for the circuit. 

The load line is plotted by joining Point 1 and Point 2 over the characteristic curves. The line
intersects the curve at the Q point. It means the Q point is determined by IC and VCE. 

Plotting the Q Point: After drawing a load line, the second step is to locate a Q point. 

Example 8: Find Q-point when VBB = 1V, 2 V and 3 V. And then construct DC load line for this
transistor. Assume V CE (sat) = 0 V.
Solution

Load line and Q-point

A DC load line can be drawn onto the output characteristics curves of the transistor to show all the possible

operating points of the transistor from fully "ON" at to fully "OFF" that is . The
quiescent operating point or Q-point is a point on this load line which represents the values of IC and VCE that
exist in the circuit when no input signal is applied. Knowing VB, IC and VCE can be calculated to locate the
operating point of the circuit as follows:

When on the Y-axis

When on the X-axis

(1) When VBB = 1V, we have and thus

using gives

and

(2) When VBB = 2V, we have and thus

using gives

and

(3) When VBB = 3V, we have and thus

using gives
and

Plot values of against

0 VCC=10V
0.75 mA 9.25 V
3.25 mA 6.75 V
5.75 mA 4.25 V
10 mA 0

The Transistor as a Switch

The basic operation as a switching device is illustrated in Figure below.

Switching action of an ideal transistor.

In part (a), the transistor is in the cutoff region because the base-emitter junction is not
forward-biased. In this condition, there is, ideally, an open between collector and emitter, as indicated
by the switch equivalent.

In part (b), the transistor is in the saturation region because the base-emitter junction and the
base-collector junction are forward-biased and the base current is made large enough to cause the
collector to reach its saturation value.

In this condition, there is, ideally, a short between collector and emitter, as indicated by the switch
equivalent. Actually, a voltage drop of up to a few tenths of a volt normally occurs, which is the
saturation voltage, VCE(sat) .

Conditions in Cutoff:
As mentioned before, a transistor is in the cutoff region when the base-emitter junction is not
forward-biased. Neglecting leakage current, all of the currents are zero, and VCE is equal to VCC. Or
VCE(cutoff) = VCC

Conditions in Saturation:

When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough base current to produce a
maximum collector current, the transistor is saturated. The formula for collector saturation current is

is very small and can usually be neglected. The minimum value of base current needed to
produce saturation is

IB should be significantly greater than IB(min) to keep the transistor well into saturation.