Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 205

CHAPTER 11
QUANTUM AND ATOMIC PHYSICS
1. All theories of physics developed before the arrival of relativity and quantum mechanics,
and any work derived from them are called classical physics.
[relativity = relative theory]
2. The theories derived from the basic principles of relativity and quantum mechanics
which are two pillars of physics today, are called modern physics.
3. The word modem was chosen since the main foundations of the two pillars of physics
were laid in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
11.1 THERMIONIC EMISSION AND VACUUM DIODE
Thermionic Emission: The process by which free electrons are emitted from the surface of
a metal when external heat energy is applied is called thermionic emission.
4. Thermionic emission occurs in metals that are heated to a very high temperature.
[Temperature of thermionic emission for pure tungsten filament is 2200 C.
Temperature of thermionic emission for thoriated tungsten filament is 1700 C.]
5. Thermionic emission occurs, when a large amount of external energy in the form of heat
is supplied to the free electrons in the metals.

Vacuum Diode: Vacuum diode is the simplest form of vacuum tube. It consists of two
electrodes, a cathode and an anode or plate.
6. The cathode emits the free electrons by thermionic emission. It is an electron emitter.
7. The anode collects the electrons.
8. A vacuum diode is used as an AC (alternative current) to DC (direct current) converter.
206 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Electrons Anode
emitted (+ electrode)

Cathode voltage voltage

(- electrode)
+ +
Heater
0 0
time time
Heater  
Supply
Figure: 11.12 Vacuum Diode Fig: DC current Fig: AC current

9. Some other vacuum tubes, consisting of more than two electrodes, are used as amplifiers.

Transistor

Diode Triode Tetrode Pentode Diode

10. Nowadays, vacuum tubes are obsolete, having been replaced by transistors and
semiconductor diodes. [ob-so-lete = no longer in use]
Chapter 11: Exercise 11.1
R117: (1) Under what condition does the thermionic emission occur?
Ans: Thermionic emission occurs, when a large amount of external energy in the form of
heat is supplied to the free electrons in the metals.
R117: (2) What is vacuum diode?
Ans: See notes.
T84: (1) Why are electrons emitted from the surface of metal at high temperature?
Ans: When large amount of external energy in the form of heat is supplied to the free
electrons in the metal, electrons acquire sufficient energy to escape from the surface.
T84: (2) What is the function of the cathode of vacuum diode?
Ans: The cathode of vacuum diode emits free electrons.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 207

11.2 BLACKBODY RADIATION AND THE CONCEPT OF PHOTON

[Blackbody = A surface that absorbs all radiant energy falling on it. The term arises because
incident visible light will be absorbed rather than reflected, and therefore the surface will
appear black.]
[White body = a rough surface that reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all
directions.]
[Gray body = a body that emits radiation in constant proportion to the corresponding black-
body radiation]
[Radiation = the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles]
[Photon = the smallest discrete amount or quantum of electromagnetic radiation]
1. At the end of 19th century, scientists felt that all the laws of physics (which were known
at that time) were enough to explain all the events occur in nature.
2. It was believed that there were only two kinds of physical entities in nature, particles and
radiation.
3. All particles were assumed to obey Newton's laws of motion, and radiation was assumed
to obey Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism.
[Maxwell's equations are a set of four differential equations that form the theoretical basis
for describing classical electromagnetism.]
4. These laws are nowadays known as the laws of classical physics.
5. Fortunately, physicists had performed some experiments which led to the development
of modern concept of physics.
6. The results of these experiments (such as blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect and
Compton effect) could not be explained by the laws of classical physics.
[Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a
body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment.]
[The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons when electromagnetic radiation,
such as light, hits a material.]
[Compton effect is the effect that is observed when x-rays or gamma rays are scattered
on a material with an increase in wavelength.]
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Blackbody Radiation
Black body: A blackbody is a perfect radiator of light that absorbs and emits all radiation
incident on it.
[A blackbody is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment. There are no
net macroscopic flows of matter or of energy, either within a system or between systems.
Absorbed energy equals emitted energy.]
7. Its light output depends on its temperature. blackened interior
8. The sun and the stars emit radiation like a
blackbody.
blackbody
9. A blackbody is physically realized by a small radiation
hole in the wall of a cavity radiator.
Blackbody radiation: When a blackbody is heated,
the radiation it emits is called blackbody radiation.
Figure 11.3 A blackbody
Intensity of radiation: The intensity of the radiation represented by a small hole in
is the energy emitted from a unit area of the surface the wall of a cavity
in one second.
Blackbody spectrum: The graph drawn with the intensity of the blackbody radiation against
the wavelength at a given temperature is called the blackbody spectrum.
10. The variation of intensity with the wavelength of the radiation at a given temperature
gives a blackbody spectrum.

Figure 11.4 Intensity versus wavelength curve of the blackbody radiation at

different temperatures
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 209

11. Two distinct features which can be observed from the blackbody spectrum are given as
Wien's law and Stefan's law.
Wien's Law: The wavelength at which maximum intensity occurs (max) is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of the blackbody.
𝜆 ∝

where max = the wavelength at which maximum intensity occurs,

T = the absolute temperature of the blackbody
12. It means that the higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength max.

Stefan Boltzmann's Law: The total emissive power of a blackbody (0) is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
0 = T4,  = Stefan's constant, 0 = the total emissive power of a blackbody,
T = the absolute temperature of the blackbody
13. It means that the higher the temperature, the higher the energy radiated.
14. These experimental observations of the blackbody spectrum could not be explained by
classical physics.
Max Planck's Explanation of the Blackbody Radiation and the Concept of Photon
15. Detailed explanation of the blackbody radiation is given by Max Planck in 1900.
16. Planck proposed that the radiation resulted from a large number of identical oscillators.
17. Radiation is emitted (or absorbed) when an oscillator changes energy level.
18. The emitted radiation from the oscillator can be thought of as particles called photons
which carry energy.
19. Although they are named particles they are chargeless and massless, and travel with the
speed of light c.
20. Plank assumed that the energy of a photon was proportional to its frequency, that is,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 ∝ 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 ℎ𝑓
𝜆
where E = the energy of a photon, f = the frequency of the photon, c = velocity of light
in vacuum, h = Planck constant = 6.626 × 10-34 J s.
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21. Photons with long wavelength have low energy and photons with short wavelength have
high energy.
22. Suppose a certain amount of energy of a photon is given by hf and the number of photons
is n, then the total energy is nhf.
23. Since the number of photons must always be expressed as an integer, one can say that,
for different values of n, the energy must have come in discrete amounts. That is, the
simple quantum concept for energy of photons.
24. A quantum of energy is the energy difference between the two allowed discrete values
without ever reaching intermediate values.
25. Quantized energies are discrete but not continuous.

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4

26. Planck introduced the quantum concept as a modification of classical ideas that brought
his theory into agreement with experimental observations.

Chapter 11: Exercise 11.2

R117: Express the numerical value of the Plank constant h in terms of eV s.
Ans: ℎ 6.626 10 J𝑠 = 4.14 × 10-15 eV s
.

E01: If the wavelength of visible light is 0.5 μm, find the energy of the visible light.
Ans: = 0.5 m = 5 × 10-7 m, E =?
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 ℎ𝑓
𝜆
6.626 10 3 10 1 eV
4 10 J 4 10 J
5 10 1.6 10 J
= 2.5 eV
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 211

E02: The energy of a certain incident ray is 4.14 eV. What is the frequency of this incident ray?
Ans: E = 4.14 eV, f =?
E = hf
.
.
𝑓 = 1015 Hz
.

T86: (1) What is a Photon?

Ans: A photon is a particle in electromagnetic radiation.
T86: (2) Compare the energy of photon in light and that of photon in ultraviolet.
Ans: The energy of photon in ultraviolet is greater than that of photon in light.

Q11: What is the frequency of a photon whose energy is 66.3 eV?

Ans: E = 66.3 eV, f =?
E = hf
.
.
𝑓 = 1.6 × 1016 Hz
.

Q15: What is thermal radiation? How does it differ from other form of electromagnetic
radiation?
Ans: Thermal radiation: When a body is heated, the radiation it emits is called thermal
radiation.
Unlike other forms of electromagnetic radiation, thermal radiation is continuously
emitted by all matter whose temperature is above absolute zero.
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11.3 MODELS OF ATOM

Thomson's Model
1. The discovery of the electron in 1897 prompted J J Thomson (1856 -1940) to suggest a
model of the atom. [prompt = to cause (someone) to do something]
2. He suggested that an atom might be a spherical volume of positive charge with electrons
embedded inside it like currant in a bun or plums in a pudding. [currant = small raisin]
3. For this reason, Thomson's atomic model is called the plum pudding model of the atom.

Fig: Thomson’s atom

Rutherford's Model
4. Under the supervision of Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), Hans Geiger and Ernest
Marsden performed an important experiment in 1911. It produced results which could
not be explained by Thomson's model.
5. In this experiment, a thin metal foil was bombarded with a beam of positively charged
alpha particles.
6. Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil, but a few were deflected from
their original direction through very large angles.
7. Some particles were even deflected backward as shown in Figure 11.6.
8. The whole experiment setup is kept in the vacuum.
9. Such large deflections were completely unexpected on the basis of Thomson's model, in
which positive charges are evenly distributed throughout the atom.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 213

Figure 11.6 Rutherford's alpha scattering experiment

Figure 11.7 Rutherford's model of

the atom

10. Hence the positively charged alpha particles would never experience large enough
repulsive force to cause large-angle deflections.
11. On the basis of his observation, Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely empty
space with all of its positive charges and most of its mass concentrated in a small region.
12. This concentrated volume at the centre of the atom is called the nucleus.
13. Negatively charged electrons are moving around the tiny nucleus as shown in Figure 11. 7.
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Bohr's Model
14. ln 1913, Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a Danish Physicist, proposed a new model of the atom
by applying the quantum theory.
15. In Bohr's model, the electrons move in circular orbits around the nucleus.
16. The electric force between the positively charged proton inside the nucleus and the
negatively charged electron holds the electron in orbit.
17. However, only certain orbits are allowed in this model.
18. The electron is never found between the allowed orbits.
19. However, it can jump from one orbit to
another.
20. Bohr assumed that the atom does not emit
energy in the form of radiation when the
Figure 11.8 Bohr's model of the atom
electron is in an allowed orbit.
21. Hence the total energy of the atom remains constant and it resolved the instability of the
atom which is a difficulty of the Rutherford model.
Chapter 11: Exercise 11.3
R121: Discuss the essential differences among Thomson's model, Rutherford's model and
Bohr's model of an atom.
Ans: According to Thomson’s atomic model, an atom might be a spherical volume of
positive charge with electrons embedded inside it.
According to Rutherford’s atomic model, the atom must have large empty space with
all of its positive charge and most of its mass are concentrated in a small region. This
concentrated volume at the centre of the atom is called the nucleus. Negatively
charged electrons are moving around the tiny nucleus.
According to Bohr’s atomic model, the election moves in circular orbits around the
nucleus. The electric force between the positively charged proton inside the nucleus
and the negatively charged electron holds the electron in orbit.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 215

11.4 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1. All matter is made up of atoms.
2. Atoms are too tiny to be seen with any ordinary microscope. [1  10-10 m in diameter]
3. Atoms are composed of smaller particles called electrons, protons and neutrons.
4. There is a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.
5. Around the nucleus, electrons orbit at high speed in allowed orbits. [2.2  106 m/s]

Figure 11.9 An illustration of an atom

6. Protons have a positive charge and electrons have an equal amount of negative charge
while the neutrons are neutral.
7. An atom has the same number of electrons as protons, so its total charge (net charge) is
zero.
8. Atom as a whole is neutral.
9. Together, protons and neutrons are known as nucleons.
10. Protons and neutrons have nearly similar masses and the electrons are the lightest.
11. A proton or a neutron is 1800 times more massive than an electron, so all of an atom’s
mass is concentrated in its nucleus.
12. Electrons are held in orbit by the Coulomb attractive force of the nucleus.
13. Protons and neutron are bound tightly together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force.
Table 11.l Comparison of proton, neutron and electron of an atom in terms of charge and mass
Particle Position Charge (C) Mass (kg)
Proton in the nucleus +1.6 × 10-19 1.672621 × 10-27
Neutron in the nucleus 0 1.674927 × 10-27
Electron orbiting the nucleus -1.6 × 10-19 9.11 × 10-31
216 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Atomic Number
14. All materials are made from about 100 basic substances called elements. (118 Elements)
15. An atom is the smallest piece of an element.
Atomic number: The atomic number of an element tells us how many protons or electrons
are in an atom of that element. It is given the symbol Z.
16. The atomic number is sometimes called the proton number.
17. Each element has its own unique atomic number.
18. The chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of electrons in the
atom that is the atomic number.
Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called
the mass number or the nucleon number.
19. The mass number of an element is given the symbol A.
Symbol of the Atom
20. An atom of an element with atomic number Z and the mass number A is represented by
its chemical symbol X as X.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = Number of nucleons
Number of neutrons = Number of nucleons – Number of protons
= Mass number – Atomic number
=A–Z
Elements and Isotopes
21. Although the atomic number of an element does not change, atoms of the same element
can have different mass numbers.
22. The number of neutrons in a particular element can vary.
Isotopes: Atoms that have the same atomic number but different neutron numbers (and thus
different mass numbers) are called isotopes.
23. Isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties although their atoms have
different masses.
24. Most elements are a mixture of two or more isotopes.
25. Hydrogen has three isotopes; protium or hydrogen ( H), deuterium ( H) and tritium ( H).
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 217

Figure 11.10 The isotopes of hydrogen

Chapter 11: Exercise 11.4
R123: (1) Is it possible for the atom of an element to have one electron, one proton and no
neutron?
Ans: Yes. Hydrogen ( 𝐻 ).
R123: (2) Which force holds the electrons and nucleus of an atom to form an atom?
Ans: Coulomb attractive force
T88: (1) What is the smallest part of matter?
Ans: An atom (is the smallest part of the matter.)
T88: (2) What are the three main parts of an atom?
(3) Where are these main parts located in an atom?
Ans: (2) (The three main parts of an atom are) protons, neutrons and electrons.
(3) The nucleus made up of neutrons and protons is located at the center. Electrons
orbit around the nucleus.
T88: (4) What are the mass numbers and atomic numbers of the following elements?
(i) Pb (ii) Hg
Ans: (i) For Pb, mass number = A = 206, atomic number = Z = 82
(ii) For Hg, mass number = A = 193, atomic number = Z = 80
Q12: Which subatomic particle has a negative charge?
Ans Electron (has a negative charge.)
Q13: Which subatomic particle has a positive charge?
Ans: Proton (has a positive charge.)
Q14: Which subatomic particle is a neutral?
Ans: Neutron (is a neutral.)
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Q16: An atom contains electrons, protons, and neutrons. Which of these particles (a) are
outside the nucleus (b) are uncharged (c) have a negative charge (d) are nucleons
(e) are much lighter than the others?
Ans: (a) electrons (b) neutrons (c) electrons (d) protons and neutrons (e) electrons
Q17: An aluminium atom has an atomic number of 13 and a mass number of 27. How
many (a) protons (b) electrons ( c) neutrons does it have?
Ans: (a) Number of protons = 13
(b) Number of electrons = 13
(a) Number of neutrons = 14
Q18: Chlorine is a mixture of two isotopes, with mass numbers 35 and 37. What is the
difference between the two types of atom?
Ans: They have different numbers of neutrons.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 219

11.5 THE STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION OF THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE

1. The part of the universe which you can see is termed the visible universe.
2. The actual universe might be bigger than the visible universe.
3. The part we can see is determined by the age of the universe.
4. The universe is 1.38 × 1010 years (13.8 billion years) old as indicated by the current
available astrophysical measurements.
5. The farthest away from the earth that we can see in any direction is 1.38 × 1010 light
years, which is the distance light can travel in the time since the universe was formed.
distance = speed × time = (1 ly y-1) × (1.38 × 1010 y) = 1.38 × 1010 ly
[The radius of the visible universe = 1.38 × 1010 ly]
[The radius of the observable universe = 4.65 × 1010 ly]
[Observable universe is the universe started from cosmological expansion.]
[Visible universe is the universe started from light emission.]
6. To learn the fundamentals of the universe one needs to study astronomy, astrophysics
and cosmology which are three closely related subjects.
[astronomy = the study of objects and matter outside the earth's atmosphere and of their
physical and chemical properties]
[astrophysics = a branch of astronomy dealing especially with the behavior, physical
properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena]
[cosmology = a branch of astronomy that deals with the origin, structure, and space-time
relationships of the universe]
7. Differences come from the domains and goals of the study of the three fields.
8. Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects, which are
any natural bodies outside of the earth's atmosphere.
[celestial objects = objects relating to the sky or visible heavens]
9. Examples of celestial objects are the Moon, the Sun, the planets, the stars, the comets,
the nebulae, the star clusters and the galaxies, etc.
[nebula = any of numerous clouds of gas or dust in interstellar space]
[interstellar space is the matter and radiation in the space between the star systems.]
220 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

[star clusters = a relatively compact group of stars forming a gravitating unit]

[galaxies = any of the very large groups of stars and associated matter that are found
throughout the universe]
10. Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe,
including the physical properties of the celestial objects, as well as their interactions and
behavior. Among the objects studied are the galaxies, the stars, the planets, the
exoplanets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background.
[exoplanets = An exoplanet or extrasolar planet is a planet outside the Solar System]
[interstellar medium = the matter and radiation that exists in the space between the star
systems in a galaxy]
[cosmic microwave background = electromagnetic radiation filling the universe that is a
residual effect of the big bang 13.8 billion years ago]
11. Cosmology studies the universe as a whole and its phenomena at largest scales.
12. The difference between Astrophysics and Cosmology is the domain and scale of the study.
A Brief Outline of the Universe
13. The Earth, our planet, is part of the solar system that contains eight planets and the Sun.
[ Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto]
14. The Sun is a star and there are many others like it in the universe.
[Stephenson 2-18, VY CMa, etc are more than 2000 times larger than the sun.]
15. The closest star to our own is called Proxima Centauri, together with approximately 1011
other stars they make up the Milky Way.
16. The Milky Way is one of about 1011 galaxies in the visible universe.
[The universe contains at least 2 trillion galaxies, 2 × 1012.]
17. Therefore, the visible universe consists of roughly 1022 stars.
18. Galaxies cluster into groups; our group is labeled the Local Group and contains about
30 galaxies.
[Local Group is the group of more than 20 galaxies to which the Milky Way Galaxy belongs.]
[M81 group, group of more than 40 galaxies at 12 million light-years from the Earth.]
19. The main force holding all of these systems together is gravity.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 221

Units in Measuring Astronomical Distances

20. Astronomers have created units of measurement for astronomical distances.
21. One of these units is called an Astronomical Unit (AU), the mean distance between the
Earth and the Sun, that is, 1.496 × 108 km. [SI brochure uses astronomical unit = au]
22. The light year is another astronomical unit for measuring large distances.

23. The light year (ly) is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one year.

24. 1 ly = [365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s] × [3 × l08 m s-1] = 9.46 × 1015 m = 9.46 × l012 km

25. One parsec (pc) is the distance to a star that subtends an angle of 1 arc sec (arc second)
at an arc length of 1 au.
26. Through trigonometry, the distance SD (Figure 11.11) is calculated as follows.

Figure 11.11 An astronomical triangle

From Figure 11.11, one gets
tan 𝜃

𝑆𝐷 (for very small angle  in radians, tan   )

° .
1" 1" rad
" °

𝑆𝐷
.
1 pc . = 3.08 × 1016 m = 3.08 × 1013 km
.

Table 11.2 Comparison of measuring units for astronomical distances

astronomical unit au 1 au = 1.496 × 108 km

light year ly 1 ly = 9.46 × 1012 km

parsec pc 1 pc = 3.08 × 1013 km = 3.26 ly =206 265 au

222 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Evolution of the Universe

27. Astrophysicists and astronomers have theorized that the universe must have originated
at a single point of infinite density and finite time then began to expand. This is known
as the Big Bang theory.
28. After the initial expansion, the theory maintains that the universe cooled sufficiently to
allow the formation of subatomic particles, and later simple atoms.
29. Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars
and galaxies.
[primordial = existing at or from the beginning of time, coalesce = to unite into a whole]
30. This all began roughly 13.8 billion years ago, and is thus considered to be the age of the
universe.
31. Scientists have constructed through the testing of theoretical principles and extensive
experiments a timeline of events that began with the Big Bang up to the current state of
cosmic evolution.
32. These experiments involve astronomical studies that have observed the deep universe.
Table 11.3 Physical Data of the Visible Universe
Diameter 8.8 × 1026 m ( 28.5 Gpc or 93 Gly)

Volume 4 × 1080 m3
Mass (ordinary matter) 4.5 × 1051 kg
Density (of total energy) 9.9 × 10-27 kg m-3
(equivalent to 6 protons per cubic metre of space)
Age 1.38 × 1010 years (or) 13.799 billion years
Average temperature 2.725 48 K
Contents Ordinary matter (4.9 %), Dark matter (23 %),
Dark energy (72 %)
[Dark matter = nonluminous matter not yet directly detected by astronomers that is
hypothesized to exist to account for various observed gravitational effects. Dark matter
possibly could be brown dwarfs, "failed" stars that never ignited because they lacked the
mass needed to start burning.]
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 223

[Dark energy = a hypothetical form of energy that produces a force that opposes gravity and
is thought to be the cause of the accelerating expansion of the universe. Dark energy acts
in opposition to gravity and is responsible for accelerating the expansion of the universe.]
Chapter 11: Exercise 11.5
R121: What is the light year?
Ans: The light year (ly) is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one year.

1 ly = [365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s] × [3 × l08 m s-1] = 9.46 × 1015 m = 9.46 × l012 km

T89: Calculate the length of 1 light year in term of metre.

Ans: 1 ly = [365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s] × [3 × l08 m s-1] = 9.46 × 1015 m = 9.46 × l012 km

Q01: The main force responsible for the formation of the universe is:
A. gravity B. frictional force C. magnetic force D. electrical force
Ans: A
Q02: The approximate age of the universe is:
A. 1 billion years old and 14 days B. 14 billion years old
C. 140 billion years old D. 13.7 billion years old
Ans: D.
Q03: The first objects to form in the solar system were
A. atoms B. stars C. comets D. planets
Ans: A
Q04: Which of the following correctly lists the structures in space from smallest to largest?
A. Stars, Galaxy, Universe, solar system
B. Stars, solar system, Galaxy, Universe
C. Stars, solar system, Universe, Galaxy
D. Stars, Universe, Solar system, Galaxy
Ans: B.
Q05: Our galaxy, the Milky Way, has a pinwheel shape, what type of galaxy is it?
A. elliptical B. fun C. irregular D. spiral
Ans: D.
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Q06: Which of the following is the best estimate of the number of stars in a typical galaxy?
A. hundreds B. thousands C. millions D. billions
Ans: D
Q07: Which of the following is the best estimate of the number of galaxies in the universe?
A. hundreds B. thousands C. millions D. billions
Ans: D
Q08: A light year measures
A. the distance it takes light to travel in one year B. the distance between stars
C. the speed of light D. the wavelength of visible light
Ans: A
Q09: Which of the following is the smallest?
A. the earth B. the universe C. a galaxy D. the sun
Ans: A
Q10: Which of the following is the largest?
A. the earth B. the universe C. a galaxy D. the sun
Ans: B

Figure: spiral galaxy

Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 225

The comet

The Eagle Nebula [Nebula = a giant cloud of dust and gas in space]

Open Clusters [cluster = a group of similar things]

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Milky Way Galaxy

Planets
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 227

interstellar medium

cosmic microwave background

Proxima Centauri