April, 194':'] The Tmnsactions of the S.A. Institute 0/ Electrical E·n.gineers.
119
authors-usually referred to by the cognos-
centi a.."l the Goodlet Loop to differentiate
it from a much more comprehensive affair
that was subsequently put into operation
at several Union ports when the gear became
available from gngland-bridged a very
serious gap. It was a practical experiment
based on pure theory and put into com-
mission at a time of dire necessity when
some form of submarine detection just had
to be installed. The gear available locally
was negligible and the facilities for making
it, were very limited-in fact, almost every-
thing had to be home made and improvized ;
it is a tribute to the S.A. Naval Forces
personnel that it was able to rise to the
demands made of it, and to produce on the
spur of the moment a workable midget
submarine detector.
That this loop continually gave us a
large number of false alarms proved how
Hcnsitive it was-hut that wasn't what some
of the operators said about it at the time.
The mf'thods of overcoming this super~
sensitivity are aptly related, and should
t.he necessity ever arise again for such an
install~tion, t.he experience with the fir8t
experimental loop will pave t,he way for a
highly efficient submarine detector.
In conclusion, perhaps the authors would
confirm that some of the loose numerals in
Figs. 4 and 5 refer to types of val ves.
G. D. Walker, A.:M.{S.A.)I.E.R.: I
would like to ask the authors whether that
was the only scheme they considered at the
time and why this particular solution was
selected. Other means of detecting are, of
course, available such as the supersonic
devices and equipment of this kind, which
could easily have been adapted for th~
A ~IGHTNING
By B. F. J. SCHONLAND, D.Se., F.R.S., M.(S.A.)I.E.E. and Dr. P. G.
Summary
A description and explanation is given of an
electronic device which indicates the presenco of
lightning within Borne 20 miles and which gives
anticipatory warning of imminent flllahes in the
near vicinity.
purpose, was available in this country
throughout the war.
But referring to the particular form of the
solution of the problem described to-night,
it may be of interest to others to know that
I had a somewhat similar problem to solve
during t,he war, but instead of having to
detect midget submarines I had to detect
the movement of a midget steel ball in a
falling.ball viscosimeter.
'Vhen I first looked at the problem I
concluded that the flux detecting methods
would be of little or no use a!:J outside mag-
netic influences would give rise to the same
kind of perturbations as described here
to-night. In ,the flux detecting method
descrihed two coils were used differentially
connected, whereas in the viscosimeter
deteotor two coils were used, each coil
forming one leg of a bridge network, the
other arms of the bridge being simple
resistances. It was energized at 6 000 cycles
by a valve oscillator, and the output of
the bridge was detected by mea.na of a
following amplifier, detector and valve volt~
meter. Indications were given on a d.c.
meter..
I wondered whether something of t,hat
sort could not have been used in this case
as it may perhaps have given better results.
The device was extremely sensitive and
stahle and was able to indicate the presence
of small particles of steel almost too small
to be seen. On one occasion I thought of
adapting it for me,dical purposes, for
searching for steel particles in the eye, for
example. As a timing device for the falling-
ball viscosimeter it proved very effective.
Dr R. Guelke (in reply): I should just
like to mention that the possibility of using
the a.c. bridge balance method was not
overlooked.
WARNING DEVICE.
GAN~ M.Sc.
Introduction
This instrument arose from the results
of researches into atmospheric electricity,
which showed the possibility that some
degree of warning of approaching thunder~
storms might be given to interested persons,
120 The Transactions 01 the B.A. Institute of Electrica.l Engineers. [April, 1941

and more especially to those responsible order:-

for the manufacture, storage and use of 9x 105
explosives. Several forms of this instru- B= V~ volts/meter (1)
ment have been built and operated satis-
factorily, and, as the demand for an instru- where L is in kilometers.
ment of this nature is likely to increase, Use is made of this result in the instru-
it is felt that the design and the principles ment, firstly, to ensure that only flashes of a
on which it operates should be made more desired and definable degree of proximity
widely known. will give risc to warnings. Secondly, an

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The atmospheric electric effects employed
The basic phenomena involved are
illustrated in Fig. 1, and are explained in
simplified form as follows : -
A thunder cloud, when charged up so
that It is about to cause a lightning flash,
gives rise to an upwardly directed static
electric field as sketched. When a flash to
ground occurs, this field is entirely or partly
annulled. The positive charge on the
antenna thereupon runs to earth, giving a
positive pulse across the input resistance.
Practically all :fia-shes to ground give pulses
of positive polarity, but Hashes within the
cloud may, at great distances, give negative
signals. In general, however, most field
changes from storms within visible or
audible range are positive.
The average_ field change due to flashes
which are not extremely near is of the
application of the inverse cube law is made
by means of an attenuator which reduces
the sensitivity some 27 times - corre-
sponding to a reduction of L of three times,
Le., a flash at such distance that it is just
recorded by the instrument at reduced
sensitivity, would have been recorded three
times as far away at the higher sensitivity.
In other words, the " warning area" at the
higher sensitivity is about ten times that
at the lower sensitivity.
When the cloud approximates to an
overhead position a corona current is liable
to arise owing to the intense electric fields
which occur. This current is directed in the
sense of the arrows on the diagram, and
gives rise to a steady potential across the
aerial resistance. This current in the
aerial is, of course, a measure of the intensity
of the field. 1Vhen it exceeds about 2 micro-
amps (with the particular aerial in use
 .1"lle l.ransac~wns OJ
with the instrumcnt) there is strong pre·
sumption that a flash to ground is shortly
due to occur in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the instrument or, at any rate,
under the base of the cloud. Use is made of
this effect in the instrument to give anti.
cipatory warning of nearby flashes.,
The operation of the instrument
The instrument is designed to indicate
these effects in the simplest fashion. That
is to say, it indicates (a) that flashes have
occurred within a certain radius, which is
either about '1 or about 20 miles according
to the position of the "nearffar" switch,
(b) that the corona current has reached
such a value that a flash in tho immediate
neighbourhood is imminent.
Earlier models of this instrumont made
use of sensitive relays and gas relay tubes
to actuate tho warning equipment, but tho
model here described operates entirely by
means of vacuum tubes, which are easily
replaced at the present time. The circuit
is given in Fig. 2. The input circuits have a
rcsistive path to earth of about 1/2 megohm
(~ in parallel with R 3 and R 4 ) with direct
connection to the grid of \\. R:lJ Cl'R5 ,C2
form an attenuator to red uee the transient
due to a flash about 25 times when required
for " ncar" sensitivity.
V] performs two functions. 1t transmits
transients (amplified in normal fashion)
via C4 to V2 . In addition, d.c. potential
ohanges on the grid are amplified and
passed via point A to V 3. A is tied to earth
by the large condenser C3 which (with its
associated resistors), has a time constant
of about one second, and which eliminates
rapid signals so that the potential of A
fluctuates slowly in accordance "\\-ith the
corona current in the aerial system.
V2 is a flip-flop circuit of welI·known typo
arranged to give a positive pulse through
Cs lasting about 1/10 seconl}. This arrange-
ment is necessary because the transient due
to a lightning flash may be too brief to
operate the relay at all, and because tho
bell and other mechanisms attached to the
warning circuits lllay require to be kept
switched on for a certain timo to operate
satisfactorily.
The bias for V 3 is obtained from point A.
By means of potentiometer P the current
through R 7 is so adj usted that A is at a
~lLe c •..'J.. H1SUtU~e 0l1!JteCtrzcat hllfl1.neeTS. J~l
suitable negative potential, when no d.c.
current is flowing in tho aerial. When the
grid of VI goes negative the potential of A
rises until V 3 conduct,s sufficiently to cause
the relay to close. At this stage, owing to
the fact that the cnrrent through V 3 is
now sensitive to small changes of potential
on its grid, and mving to the feed-back
from its cathode via the bleeder resistance
to the cathode of VI' the whole system
oscillates with a period associated with the
circuits of V2 (abollt 2 cycles per second).
This causes the relay to open and do..."p.
periodically as long as the point A is at an
adequately positive potential. This effect
has the advantage oyer "straight" d.c.
current-amplification that the relay opens
and closes smartly, thus avoiding the
arcing or sticking at the cont,acts which
might occur if its armature tended to ,nove
very slowly. It should be noted that this
"corona current" warning is effective
in either position of the near/far switch.
The instrument" therefore, gives a brief
sharp ring on ·the electric bell attached to
tho rolays, for each positive impulse due
to a lightning flash, and gives a continuous
intermittent ringing (somewhat reminiscent
of a telephone) when the d.c. aerial current
exceeds about two micro-amps, upward.
Apart from the bell, an additional signal
is given by means of the neon tube "4-
which flashes each time the relay closes,
and, of course, other extension signals
could be arranged from the relay contacts.
The operation of the instrnment can be
tested at will by means of the test button
" 'I~." This applies a suitable negative
voltage to the grid of VI through a high-
resistance. R 6 • \Vhen the test button" T "
is pressed and released rapidly, the brief
warning signal is given each time it is
released (the removal of a negative voltage
being equivalent to an applied positive
voltage). When the test button is held
down for longer than a second or so then
the continuous warning operates.
The antenna
A standard antenna has been designed
for usc with the instrument to cover the
requirements-
(a) that it applies a suitable magnitude of
signal to the set independently of its
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Erratum: Tho negative lead from the powf.'r paek should lea.d to the bottom of the bleoder resistance

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Ar_ril, 1947] The Tronsactions of the B.A. Institute of Electrical EngineeTs.
site, and that it is equally effective for
any direction.
(b) that it permits the corona current to be
measured by the set, and that it remains
adequately insulated for this purpose even
in rain.
The antenna is sketehed in diagrammatic
form in Fig. I. It consists of an unguyed
vertical rod 1 inch diameter, 8 feet high,
attached to a plate at its base, which is
supported bv thrf'e insulators fixed at
ground level. . The plate keeps the insulators
dry. A weatherproof junction box adjacent
to the plate contains the resistors R 1 , R 2
and from it a concentric cable is taken
underground to the chassis, which occupies
about a 1 foot cube. By this means, any
possibility' of the lead-in acting as an
additional aerial, is avoided, and the
cable capacity Co is an essential part of
the input circuit arrangements. These are
arra,nged to reduce high-frequency com-
ponents in the signal such as may arise
from a " leader" flash or from local sparks,
so that the effective signal is that due to
the main field change given in equation (I)
above upon which the rough estimation of
distance of the :Bash dppends.
Apart from bells, lights, etc., a record of
warnings given can be taken from -the
output terminals, i.e., a record of each
closure of the relays. A suitable recorder
gives a t.ran8lllcrse mark on a helix written
on paper wra.pped round a drum, which is
rotated and traversed so as to give a record
lasting 24 hours. The" imminent flash"
warning is easily recognizable on this record
b ccause it shows up as a. solid mark of
considerable length.
Conclusion
It will be observed that the instrument
is not designed to take cognizance of
lightning flashes or storms at greater
distance than they could uormally be scen
or heard. But a compromise must be made
between practical requirements and the
mere recording of " atmospherics" which
ean be easily observed by any wireless set
even when they originate thousands of
miles away. Care has been taken in this
DISCUSSION
S. G. H~llt A.M. (S.A.) I.E.E. : The
authors of this paper deserve our congratu-
lations and OUf thanks for their work in
helping to overcome a major disability
123
equipment to see that it is not too sensitive.
It is true that this limitation means that
it cannot give more warning of an approach-
ing storm than could be given by observa-
tion of the weather. But the object of the
instrument is to aet as a supplementary,
and more or less infallible, observer, a.nd to
bring to the notice of the official, whose
duty it may be to keep an eye on the
weather, of the fact that there are thunder-
storms in the vicinity.
rl'he " imminent flash" warning is valu-
able, and one which could not be given by
casual observation of thunder clouds.
']'he near/far switching arrangement has
as its prime objeet the limitation of tho
area from ,vhieh warnings are received.
'Vith reservations, it can also be used to
indicate whether the latter is approaching
or not. For instance, when warnings are
received from a storm on the "far H
sensitivity, the instrument may be set to
" near." If warnings start occurring and/or
increasing in frequency, the presumption is
th~t the storm has approached. But,.
o\vmg to the fact that the field-strengths
due to flashes at a constant distance have
considerable variation (equation 1 giving the
average) and the fact that there might bo
more than one thunderstorm in the warning
area, and the possibility that a cloud near
by may have been building up its charge,
the judgment as to the degree of approach
and, more generally, the degree of danger
from an observed thunderstorm cannot be
effectively made without inspection of the
sky in addition to the assistance given by
the instrument.
Practical requirements would demand, in
addition to advance notice of thunderstorms,
an indication of how much time there is
before safety precautions need be taken,
and an unambiguous advance signal of their
immediate necessity, in fact a complete
robot which would remove any need for
human judgment. We do not claim that
this instrument fully serves that purpose.
The instrument is protected under S.A.
Patent No. 445/38 and is being manu·
factured in South Africa by a Johanncs-
burg firm ..
affecting industry in this part of the world.
At the Modderfontein Dynamite Factory
the risk of explosion due to lightning is,
124 The Transactions of the 8 ..4.. Institute of. Electrical Engineers.
-during the summer months, an ever
present hazard.
We take most elaborate precautions to
minimize the danger due to lightning. Every
bit of metal in composite explosives
machines is mechanically bon~ed together
and earthed; all our buildings which are
mainly of wood and iron construction, are
completely bonded together and earthed
and, in addition, each house is covered by
lightning conductors so arranged that the
house falls entirely within a. 90° cone from
the apex. Our earthing system consists of
.a network of 19/14 bare copper conductors
carried underground and connected to our
water reticulation system and earth plates
.at suitable points.
It is also our practice, wherever a storm
is seen to be approaching, to shut down all
,explosives manufactured and remove the
workers from the various explosives houses
to their mess rooms outside the danger
zone. The wisdom of this course of action
was amply demonstrated in 1923 when three
nitro-glycerine houses were blown up in one
week by lightning, fortunately without loss
·of life.
Late last year, we had an incident which
might have proved fatal and under con·
ditions in which the lightning detector
described to-night would have proved
invaluable.
The sky at the time was completely
covered by low cloud and it was actually
raining lightly when suddenly, without any
warning, a lightning flash came through the
low cloud and struck a nitro-glycerine wash
house. A lead filter vessel outside the house
·connected to a lead fume pipe from the wash
-tanks was struck and the lightning travelled
along this fume pipe passing the first tank
and went to earth over the outside of the
second tank which contained approximately
4000 lb of nitro-glycerine.
I n passing along the fume main it burst
,'3 flanged joint just above the wash tank
.with' such violence that the lower flange was
driven hard into the lead top of the wash
tank and the nuts off the bolts ~'ere driven
through the ceiling above the tanle
Fortunately no explosion occurred in this
:instance, but had one happened, there
would have been considerable loss of life,
,as under the circumstances it was impossible
[April, 1947
to observe the approach of the charged
cloud.
Our explosives manufacturing plant con-
sists of three self-contained factories, each
of which is in the charge of a superintendent.
It is this superintendent's duty to decide
by visual observation when a storm is so
dangerously close that he must stop the
factory. This' is a heavy responsibility
because if he pulls the men out too soon,
he loses production and if he leaves it too
late he might lose lives.
"T e should very much like to relieve the
superintendents of this responsibility, and
it is for this reason that we are pleased to
see this further development in lightning
detecting apparatus.
In 1938 we installed one of Dr Schonland's
first lightning detecting instruments. This
early instrument had the disadvantage that
the aerial system was too complicated to
erect easily in our heavily wooded factory
areas and it was consequently erected in
the central electricians' shop. In this
position, as it gave only a general warning
of the proximity of storms, it was of little
value to our explosives plant and its usc
was abandoned.
The new instrument overcomes this
disability and will be installed in a factory
office, so that its warning of storms within
a radius of seven miles will be most useful
to us. The other attractive feature of the
new instrument is its warning of corona
current. The warning device actually
installed may not give us sufficient time to
clear the factory in the event of a charged
cloud approaching. fairly quickly, but it is
proposed to fit a microammeter in series
with this warning device to give us the
actual value of this corona current. We
hope by correlating visual observation with
the readings obtained on the microammeter
to be able to establish a figure beyond which
it would be dangerous to keep the factory
working.
I haYe, of course, dealt with the instru-
ment only as it affects my own particular
industry, but I appreciate that the warning
it will give will be of immense value to those
responsible for electric blasting anywhere,
particularly in shaft sinking operations
where an accident due to lightning is just
as likely to be fatal as in the explosives
industry.
 April, 1947] The Transactions of the B.A. Institute 0/ Electrical Engineers. 125

The authors deserve our thanks for their danger to life and limb of those employed
clear exposition of the working principles in at least two of the major industries of
of their instrument and for their work, tho Reef.
spread over so many years, to reduce the

MEASUREMENT OF POWER-FACTOR AND POWER

BY MEANS OF AMMETERS, VOLTMETERS
AND A STATIC CONDENSER

By B. J . .T. NICORA, A.M. (S.A.) I.E.E.

The determination of power and power· and from point 0 radius I bisect in point B.
factor in single-phase circuits, especially at The projection of OR equal t.o I" yields the
low power-factors, can be obtained by the watt component of I (or 1z ) and thereby
well-known three-ammeter method. The
use of that method is made possible by the
introduction of an auxiliary circuit of purely
ohmic character.
A method similar to the three~ammeter
method is described in the following, but
the auxiliary circuit employed contains a
static condenser.
Fig. I shows the connection and Fig. 2
the vector diagram.

I
I
I
I

;
I
I
I
I

,I
I

LOAD Ie
STATIC CONDENSER A

the power -factors C08'+' and COSeIl can be

easily calculated,
' 11·1 2
Analyt lOa y 0= .
v S (S-Ie)Ie(8-1%) 8-1
Fla. 1 h
were Ic + 1~
8 = --:;::--~
+I
2
I c con~titutes a current leading 90 0 before 10
V, a.s the operating losses of good static CQS ell = T
• condensers are extremely low (of the order 10
of 0·2 per cent), I c, l z and I are measured C08'+' = l~
and the corresponding vectors form a
triangle. In order to determine the power con-
OA perpendicular to V and made equa.l sumption the knowledge of V is also
to Ie gives the point A from which radius 1z: necessary, i.e.,P=VIo