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Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate

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 OIILLSS
SSO
CHAPTER 2

Soils of
Abu Dhabi
Emirate
By
Shabbir A. Shahid, Ph. D.
and
Mahmoud A. Abdelfattah, Ph. D.

71

SOILS OF ABU DHABI EMIRATE
Introduction
Abu Dhabi Emirate has a hot desert climate, with
high temperature (usually exceeding 40 oC in
summer), and evaporation exceeds rainfall. The
rainfall is infrequent and irregular (annual about
120mm or less). There are two defined seasons, a long
dry summer between April and November, and a mild
winter period between December and March. Abu
Dhabi Emirate occupies 84% area of the United Arab
Emirates.
Soils are a structured natural environment providing
the source and the nurturing ground for a large part of
terrestrial life. Soils have always been central to
human civilization and life and are an integral part of
the physical and cultural environment that we may
take them for granted and even tend to treat them
contemptuously. Land use in this desert terrain was
based on nomadic patoralism with some oasis
cultivation, particularly date palms. The desert was
the home of Bedouin who roamed the sand seeking
grazing for their camel herds and for their flocks of
goats and sheeps.
A detailed practical soil map of the Emirate does not
exist at present, however, previous studies, such as
National Atlas of UAE (UAEU, 1993) and Abu Dhabi
Coastline Survey (Shahid et al., 2004) have shown that
the landscape of Abu Dhabi is dominated mainly by
low-lying sandy deserts, extensive salts-flats in the
coastal areas, gravelly plains covering wide areas in
both the far west and east of the Emirate, and alluvial
plains. These different landscape features strongly
suggest the occurrence of soil diversity in the Emirate.
72
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
The study by Shahid et al., (2004) revealed that, a
rather uniform looking coastal landscape in fact,
presents a diversity of sub-surface features that help
to categorize the soils into different soil classes. The
future Emirate wide soil survey will identify more soil
classes in the inland (ICBA-EAD, 2005).
Soils of the Emirate (Shahid et al., 2004; UAEU, 1993)
can be broadly categorized as sandy and sandy
calcareous, gypsiferous, saline, saline-gypsiferous, and
hard pan soils etc. These soils have been classified
into three soil orders (Aridisols, Entisols and
Inceptisols) of the Soil Taxonomy (USDA-NRCS,
1999). Entisols are the most commonly occurring
soils, followed by Aridisols to a relatively lesser extent,
and Inceptisols are the least common in the Emirate.
Soil classification is described in which detailed
descriptions of soil masses and their discontinuities
are made in test soil pits and soil profiles, and is also
supported by laboratory soil data. These soils are
described in the context of their formation,
temperature and moisture regimes, properties and
occurrence in the Emirate. Surface deposits of sandy
soils are described from erosion and transport
mechanism point of view. The efforts within the
Emirate in halting land degradation are briefly
presented.
Temperature and Moisture
Regimes of the Emirate Soils
Biological processes in soil are largely controlled by
soil moisture and temperature. Each plant species
has its own temperature and moisture requirements.
Soil moisture is an important property that
determines the process of soil development and
ultimate soil formation. In general, arid zone soils are
considered dry, however, they may not be necessarily
dry, they can be moist or saturated based on location
of landscape, where water may have been
accumulated through runoff or other sources. In the
Emirate soils Aridic (L. aridus, dry), Torric (L.
torridus, hot), and Aquic moisture regimes have been
identified. Aridic and Torric are the same but used in
different soil categories of soil taxonomy.
Soil temperature regimes are one of the important
properties that control plant growth and soil
formation. In frozen soils there is no biological
activity, between 0 and 6 oC, root growth of most
plant species and germination of most seeds are
impossible, and horizon as cold as 5 oC is considered
as a thermal pan to the roots of most plants.
Hyperthermic is the soil temperature regime
identified in the Emirate soils. This shows that
Emirate soils in general present soil temperature as 22
oC or higher, and the difference between mean
summer and mean winter soil temperature is more
than 6 oC either at a depth of 50 cm from the soil
surface or at a densic, lithic or paralithic contact,
whichever is shallower.
Entisols-Sandy Desert Soils
Soils of the order Entisols are least or non-developed
mineral soils with no evidence of accumulation of
specific features (as gypsum, clay, calcium carbonates
etc.) as diagnostic horizons other than an ochric
epipedon (light colour surface horizon) in the soil
profile. Three suborders (psamments, orthents and
fluvents), and three soil great groups
(torripsamments, torriorthents and torrifluvents)
have been recognized in the past studies (UAEU,
1993; Shahid et al., 2004). Article on “Sands of Time
–Heritage” published in the Gulf News (2003),
describes the background of seven colour sands in the
United Arab Emirates.
Entisols (sandy soils) cover large area of the Emirate
desert environment. Soil texture ranges between
73
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
OIILLSS
SSO
sand and sandy-loam. They are light in colour, low in
organic matter contents, weakly developed and very
susceptible to wind erosion. The coarse texture of
sandy soils causes a low water holding capacity and
high infiltration rate, which represent the main
production constraints, however, if appropriately
managed sandy soils can be productive. Nutrient
contents and nutrient retention are normally low,
thus causing a low inherent fertility status for
agricultural production. The upper A-horizon is only
weakly developed and can hardly be seen in a desert
sandy soil, soil structure is either single grain or
massive, and therefore, soils are well drained. In the
Emirate they occur in the form of sand sheets, gently
undulating hummocky to gently rolling sand dunes,
and steep, active eroding slopes. Many sandy soils in
the Emirate are unused, some areas are grazed, and in
the farming areas availability of irrigation water and
modern irrigation methods have made arable
cropping possible. Native sandy soils are calcareous,
slightly to moderately alkaline and non-saline and
non-sodic. The surface very often presents well
developed nabkha features (Figure 2.1).
Psamments are generally poorly graded sands on
shifting or stabilized sand dunes of various heights
ranging from nearly level to two and more than 50
metres height. While white sandy beaches scattered
along the coast are also psamments with relatively
more coastal carbonate contents (Figure 2.2). They
have relatively low water holding capacity and subject
to blowing and drifting and cannot easily support
wheeled vehicles. Psamments are generally deep
sandy soils, they may occur as thin sand cover over
hardpan.
Orthents are formed on recent erosional surfaces
that the diagnostic horizon from other orders does
not occur. They occur as narrow and broader, level to
nearly level ridges along the coastline. They are
recognized as rich in calcareous material dominated
by sea-shells, and are strongly saline due to nearby sea
effects, in the inland they may be non-saline. They are
shallow and may reach to considerable depth.
Texture varies from sand, loamy sand, sandy loam,
loam etc.

Fluvents are least occurring soils, and are
dominated in the mountain areas, where they were
non-saline to moderately saline, texture is generally
loamy, some are sand and gravelly. They were not
recognized in the coastline.
Representative soil profiles of orthents (coastal shelly
soils), psamments (inland desert soils) and coastal
psamments (white sandy beach soils) are presented
as Figure 2.3 a, b and c respectively. Morphological
and analytical soil properties of typical soil profiles
(Inland Psamments and Orthents) are shown in
Tables 2.1 and 2.2 respectively.
Figure 2.1. Inland sandy desert Psamments soil, nabkha features are also evident
Figure 2.2. Coastal white sandy Psamments soils Figure 2.3a. Orthents
74
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
SSOOIILLSS
Sand Dunes Soils and their Formation
Most of the Emirate desert is covered with a mixture
of low and high dunes intervening sand and salt flats.
Sandy desert soils begin behind the coastal sabkha,
with little white ripples extensively forming an
expanse of large orange-red dunes in the south-west
near Liwa. In the west there are mobile dunes (Figure
2.4). Towering sandy dunes rising to a spectacular
height of 200m from part of the Empty quarter or Rub
Al Khali, a vast desert which extends beyond the UAE
border.
Sand moves by strong and steady winds. As the wind
blows, it lifts small sand grains a few feet off the
ground, and then drops them. When they hit the
Figure 2.3b. Inland Psamments
75

Figure 2.3c. Coastal white Psamments
Figure 2.4 Sand dune soils in the desert environment
76
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
SSOOIILLSS
ground, they bump into other sand grains and cause nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous, that plants restrict water movement, limit drainage and impose
them to jump up and be caught by the wind. This need to stay healthy. In the Emirate in places dunes problems for irrigation. In contrast to caliche or a
kind of jumping movement is called saltation that can are not bare, perhaps the desert plants have changed duripan, the dissolution of subsurface gypsum may
be seen on the windward side of the dune, or the side in ways that help them to conserve water, and grow in cause subsidence of soils through solution and
facing the oncoming wind (Shahid et al., 2003). As the the very poor desert soils. The major problem plants removal of gypsum can crack building foundations,
tiny sand grains slowly work their way up the have in the dune field is being buried by moving sand corrode concrete i.e., gypsum contents of 1.25% are
windward dune face, they finally reach the crest, or dunes. Plants cannot walk away from a dune that is high enough (Soil Conservation Service, 1971) to
top of the dune. They fall over the crest and start to starting to bury them. Most of the time the plants provide enough sulfate to place the soil in a high
pile up because they are protected from the wind. simply die because they can no longer get the oxygen corrosion class -greater that 7,000 ppm sulfate, break
Now gravity steps in to move the dune. As more and they need once the sand has covered them. Living on irrigation canals, and make roads uneven.
more sand grains pile up, the angle of the leeward face top of the dunes requires very special adaptations.
In the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, Aridisols soils are
becomes steeper and steeper. A pile of loose material,
second most occurring after Entisols. At the suborder
like sand, can only hold a slope of about 34 degrees.
When the slope gets greater than 34 degrees, gravity Aridisols level, in the old Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975) only
Orthid has been recognized (UAEU, 1993), this is
pulls the loose sand down and the whole side might
Aridisols are soils in which water is not available to divided into three main groups (calciorthids,
slip at once, it is called slumping. Emirate desert
mesophytic plants for long periods i.e. there is no gypsiorthids, salorthids). In the New system of Soil
presents variety of sand dunes of varying heights.
period of 90 consecutive days when moisture is Taxonomy (USDA-NRCS, 1999), orthids identified in
The dunes of less than 6 metres high are called
continuously available for plant growth. The soils are the Emirate is equalized to three i.e., salids, gypsids,
embryonic dunes. The transverse dunes form long
usually dry, soil water is held at potentials less than and calcids suborders, these are described in the
ridges of sand can be very
the permanent wilting point. Due to an imbalance in following section. These three suborders are
tall. They move much
evapotranspiration and precipitation many soils in described broadly into soil categories as, saline, saline
more slowly - usually
the Aridisols contain soluble salts that may affect and gypsiferous, gypsiferous, calcareous and
between 2.5 - 4 metres a
plant growth. After irrigation water, salt contents are calcareous hard pan soils. The future Emirate wide
year. Barchan dunes are
the second limitation factor to the use of Aridisols. soil survey will diagnose more soil types, their
crescent shaped and
Only soils with adequate internal permeability should potential and uses (ICBA-EAD, 2005).
looks like a new moon
(Figure 2.4). The arms of
be selected for irrigation to avoid salinity/sodicity Saline Soils – Soils with soluble salts
problems arising from irrigation waters. To avoid
the barchan dune always Saline soils are the most common feature that can be
salinity/sodicity build up in the soil, irrigation and
point in the direction the recorded along the coastline of Abu Dhabi Emirate as
drainage systems must be well maintained to keep the
wind is blowing. Barchan sabkhas. The evaporation and continuous seawater
soils from reverting to their original state. Microbial
dunes are also very large, intrusion, reaction between the sediment and the
populations and organic matter content is usually
and move between 2.5 - 4 highly saline groundwater has produced these very
low. Due to lack of water the soils usually inherit their
metres per year. The strongly saline soils. Sabkhas, with their picturesque
morphologies from parent material, with high base
parabolic dune looks like features, constitute one of the most common
status. A surface “pavement” of gravels is present
an inside out barchan landforms along the coastal plains and in some inland
over many of the aridisols. Nutrient availability is low
dune. The movement of areas. Sabkha plain is a complex physiographic
due to high calcium carbonates and associated high
this dune has been feature that is partly depositional (coastal) and partly
soil pH.
slowed down by erosional (inland). The saline soils on the coastline
vegetation, and rarely A striking feature observed in many Aridisols soils are are stretched over a distance of 400 km by 4-7 km in
moves more than 1.5 the compacted layers of carbonates (caliche), width from the sea (Shahid et al., 2004). The largest
metres per year. gypsum, and silica (hardpan), these layers because of area occurs in the western part as Sabkhat Matti,
their resistance to weathering, may be relics of older which is located in the western part and extends
Dune soils are generally
landforms and not related to present profiles. These inland from the coast for 120 km reaching a height of
lacking in water, have
layers impede excavation in building and landscaping, 40 m above sea level at its southern tip. Evans and
very few nutrients, like
77
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate

Kirkham (2002) presented a view of Abu Dhabi
sabkha. In this chapter, sabkha is described in the
context of saline soils as classified by the USDA Soil
Taxonomy. Dwarf shrubland, in which Zygophyllum
qatarense, Halopeplis perfoliata, Haloxylon
salicornicum and Salsola drummondii play an
important role, dominate the vegetation types of the
coastal zone. Saline soils can be divided into three
broader categories; 1) saline soils; 2) saline-
gypsifeours and 3) saline anhydritic soils.
Saline, Saline Gypsiferous and Saline-anhydritic soils
in the Emirate are distributed in sabkhas, lowlying
depressional areas where water is collected from
surrounding landscapes and evaporated leaving
behind salts, and in agricultural farming areas where
brackish water is used for irrigation to offset the water
requirement of crops. In the second and third
Figure 2.5a Aquisalids (saline soils)
78
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
SSOOI ILLSS
category salt levels are not high enough to qualify as
Salids (soils with salic horizon), as is the case with
saline soils in the sabkha. These latter are considered
as saline phases of different soil taxa. The future soil
survey for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi project will
identify the occurrence of these soils developed
through secondary salinization. On the USDA Soil
Taxonomy hierarchy at suborder level the strongly
saline sabkha soils are classified as Salids. The salids
are further classified at great group level as Aquisalids
- with salt rich salic horizon and water table within the
upper 100 cm (Figure 2.5a); and Haplosalids - with
salic horizon and water table below 100 cm depth
(Figure 2.5b). Representative profiles are presented
Figure 2.6a. Gypsic aquisalids
below. Morphological and analytical soil properties of
typical soil profiles of saline soils are shown in Tables
2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
Figure 2.6c. Gypsic haplosalids
Where gypsic horizons are also recognized in the
profile, at the subgroup level they are classified as
Saline Gypsiferous such as gypsic aquisalids, gypsic-
anhydritic aquisalids, and gypsic haplosalids, in the
absence of gypsic horizon they are saline soils as
Typic Aquisalids and Typic Haplosalids.
Representative profiles are shown in Figure 2.6 and
their morphological and analytical soil properties are
shown in Tables 2.5 and 2.6.
Gypsiferous Soils
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is a common constituent of
many arid and semi-arid region soils. Anhydrite
(CaSO4) is the form found in many evaporites, and
hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O) is a transition form. In
Figure 2.6b. Gypsic anhydritic aquisalids the soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate gypsum as well as
Figure 2.5b. Haplosalids (saline soils)
anhydrite are found as common minerals in
79
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate

gypsiferous soils. In soils where gypsum is found, this
closely corresponded to the distribution of anhydrite.
Gypsum occurs as rocky outcrops, powdery material
as well as crystalline material, the latter found as
large well-developed lenticular crystals. The rocky
outcrops are exposed in the northwestern part of the
Emirate near the coastline. In coastal areas gypsum
has been identified as flakes, acicular, lenticular and
rosettes forms. Further inland, gypsum is found
mainly in the lower horizons of the soil profiles,
however, in the coastal areas it frequently occurs
within the upper 18 cm depth. The gypsum for the
gypsic horizon comes from overlying horizons so that
in gypsiferous materials the absence of gypsum in A
and B horizons is additional evidence of a gypsic
horizon. Potential gypsic horizons remain soft as they
accumulate gypsum. When the gypsum is present in
the subsurface horizon as 15cm or more thickness,
and has 5% or more gypsum than the upper horizon,
and has product of thickness in cm multiplied by the
% gypsum content of 150 or more is termed gypsic
horizon. Based on these criteria, soils are classified as
Typic haplogypsids (when gypsic horizon was below
18 cm of surface), and Leptic haplogypsids (when
gypsic horizon started upper boundary within the
upper 18 cm depth). Leptic haplogypsids are
common in the coastal area, whereas Typic
haplogypsids are common inland (Figure 2.7), in
places cemented gypsum has been identified in the
upper 1 metre (Petrogypsic). In the inland regions of
the Emirate they occur extensively in the
southeastern part (UAEU, 1993). Gypsum can be
recognized in the field by its white colour, however,
when the profile is strongly calcareous, colour alone is
not enough to identify gypsic horizon. Qualitative or
semi quantitative tests like the acetone gypsum test
(Richards, 1954) aid recognition of gypsic horizons.
Morphological and analytical soil properties of a
typical soil profile of gypsiferous soil is shown in
Tables 2.7 and 2.8 respectively.
Calcareous and Calcareous hardpan soils
Most of the Emirate soils are calcareous (containing
carbonates equivalents) to varying degrees, even the
80
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
Figure 2.7 Leptic haplogypsids, white powdery gypsum is
evident.
loose sandy, sand dune soils are strongly calcareous
(more than 25% carbonates equivalents). Sandy
calcareous soils occur through out the Emirate. In
these soils some of the carbonates are present
through the weathering of carbonate parent material,
while others are derived from the influx of carbonate-
rich wind borne dust as a part of the desert
environment. With limited and infrequent rainfall
carbonates are dissolved and precipitate at a depth
based on depth of wetting through a complex
geochemical and physical process, which often
include the co-precipitation of silicates and other
gravely material to form conglomerates. In places the
carbonates soil material is well laminated and
cemented to form aeolianites. Chemical analysis
OIILLSS
SSO
petrocalcic (Figure 2.8), these are the hardpan or
clacrete soils. The mineralogical analyses of the
calcrete revealed the dominance of Calcite (CaCO3)
and Quartz (SiO2), with minor amounts of dolomite
[Ca,Mg (CO3)2] and plagioclase feldspar (KAlSi3O8).
These calcrete/hardpan/petrocalcid soils occur
mostly in the northeast of the Emirate in the form of
gently undulating landform type. The soils are
shallow to very shallow due to the occurrence of a
hardpan at various depths in the upper 1 metre,
however, it may occur below 1 metre depth. In places
it may be exposed to surface due to deflation, and
often a sand cover of blown sand can be identified
above the hardpan. In Figure 2.9 the uneven and
rough surface, and marks from the tines of excavation
equipment indicate that the hard pan has been
excavated and transported for other uses such as
construction material, raw material for cement
manufacturing, and for road beds etc.
Figure 2.8. Calcareous hardpan soil
shows that in the sand dune and loose sandy soils
which cover most of the emirate desert, carbonate
ranges between 30 and 83% in the coastal soils; in the
inland sandy soils between 6 and 47%, in the calcrete
up to 53% carbonates were recorded (Shahid et al.,
2004). In the Emirate desert environment, rainfall is
insufficient (evapotranspiration losses exceed
rainfall) to leach the carbonates from the surface to a
lower depth, and hence as a consequence carbonates
appear throughout the soil profile. The soils
presenting sufficient calcium carbonate contents
within the upper 100 cm depth are qualified as calcic
diagnostic horizon. These soils are classified as
Aridisols at the USDA hierarchy at the Soil Order
level, and Calcids (suborder). In places the calcic Figure 2.9. An excavated calcareous hardpan
horizon is cemented to an extent that it qualifies as
81
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate

Inceptisols
Inceptisols (from the word inceptum, meaning
beginning) is the third soil order identified in the
Emirate. These soils are formed on slightly weathered
parent material, and are the least frequent in the
Emirate. They occur in the low interdunal area and
are associated with natural springs and are often
cultivated. Only two great groups (Haplaquepts and
Eutrochrepts) have been recognized in the Emirate
(UAEU, 1993). Haplaquepts are formed on loamy
deposits and are poorly drained, with near surface
water table except where they are drained, and oftenly
saline to varying degrees. Eutrochrepts differs from
haplaquepts as they are better drained.
Soil Forming Processes in
Abu Dhabi Emirate
An important feature of the soils in the Emirate is that
they are not static, rather these soils are dynamic
natural bodies interacting in a complex manner with
its environment. As a consequence, the soil changes
through time and in space as a response to
environmental changes. The soil is result of the
complex interaction of the processes of soil formation
in the environmental context, particularly climate,
parent material and topography. These processes
have operated over varying time periods. In the world
soil literature a number of soil formation processes
have been reported. Some processes are unique to
some areas and occur under the influence of specific
soil formation factors. In the Abu Dhabi Emirate
desert environment the following soil-forming
processes are identified. Some representative
features are presented in Figure 2.10.
Salinization is a process of soluble salts
accumulation in the soils (Figure 2.10a). In the
coastline salinisation is the major process, this was
recognized by the presence of surface salt crust and
an associated high water table with EC often more
than 200 dS/m. In the agricultural farming areas the
salinisation is introduced through anthropogenic
activities, where saline/brackish water is used for
82
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
OO
SS IL
IL SS
irrigation. The soil salinity varies widely depending
upon the salinity of the irrigation water, methods of Figure 2.10. Soil forming processes in the Soils of Emirate.
irrigation, soil properties and the duration of land use
and management practices.
Sodication is a process of accumulation of sodium
on the soil exchange complex. The sodicity is
presented as sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) or
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). Which is
high in the coastal soils due to sodium rich seawater
intrusion, however, sodicity is recognized in the
farming areas to a relatively less extent.
Gypsification is the process of gypsum accumulation
in soil profile. Such an accumulation is frequently
recorded in the coastline soils (Figure 2.10b), and less
frequently in the inland.
Calcification and Decalcification - calcification is a
process by which calcium carbonate accumulates in Figure 2.10a Salinization Figure 2.10b Gypsification
soils, and most commonly in subsurface horizons.
The direct source of calcium carbonate in soil is
calcareous parent material. Most of the Emirate soils
contain carbonates to a varying extent. In the
coastline soils the most likely source is the coastal
shells and the aeolian deposition of soil material. In
these soils, carbonates are disseminated or finely
dispersed throughout the soil matrix such that
specific carbonate features are not visible. In some
profiles carbonates are precipitated or cemented to a
hardpan “Petrocalcids”, these soils are common in the
eastern coast of Abu Dhabi Emirate. The calcium
carbonate accumulation is coupled with its removal
from overlying horizon (decalcification). The depth
where carbonates are dissolved the process is called
decalcification, where they accumulate is
Figure 2.10c Erosion Figure 2.10d Aeolian
calcification.
Erosion is the removal of soil by the action of wind or
water or due to a combination of both (Figure 2.10c).
In the Emirate desert environment wind has a major
role in drifting soil from loose surfaces. Whereas, Aeolian process is active in areas where loose sandy than the forces holding the particles in the air. The
water to some extent during torrential rain can also soils occur (Psamments). The aeolian deposits are soils formed through aeolian process are least
play an important role in removing soil material. Both the most predominant in the Emirate desert developed young soils without any horizon
agents (wind and water) remove soil material from environment (Figure 2.10d). Deposition of wind borne development (Entisols).
land surface, leaving behind the degraded land. particles occurs when the gravitational force is greater
83
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate

Mechanisms of Soil Particle
Movement in the Emirate
Desert
Generally desert like conditions are
considered as the endpoint of land
degradation process that is not
stopped before they become
irreversible. Among five major land
degradation processes (vegetation
degradation, water erosion, wind
erosion, salinisation and
compaction), wind erosion is
perhaps the major cause of
irreversible land degradation in the
Emirate, where loose, dry sandy
soils, poor vegetation cover
protection of the soil, and periods of
Figure 2.11. Mechanism of Particle movement in desert environment (Source:
strong winds prevail. The damage to
Shahid et al., 2003)
the soil comes when wind-borne soil
particles cause a cascading effect, fall
back to the ground, strike the soil,
and kick more particles into the air,
in a chain reaction. Bagnold (1973) distinguished
creep, saltation and suspension as three different
modes of particles, while Shahid et al., (1999; 2003)
described the chain reaction of three different modes
(Figure 2.11). During surface Creep particles > 500µm
are set in motion by the impact of saltating particles.
They are large and generally cannot be lifted up by the
wind, and tend to roll or slide and creep along the
surface. During the rolling process they lose their
sharp edges and become rounded. In Saltation
movement the particles (63-500µm diameter) are
rolled on the surface, a vacuum is created at the rear
of the moving particles whereas in the front the air is
co-pressed below the particles and the particles are
lifted up in the air. The lifted particles follow distinct
trajectories under the influence of air resistance and
gravity. On reaching the soil surface, they may
rebound or become embedded when impacting the
surface, or induce creep and suspension (the raising of
fine particles). The saltation particles on reaching the
surface can dislodge the soil particles (<63µm
diameter) and lift them into the air. They remain in
84
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
the atmosphere for a longer period called Suspension
movement, cause dust storm called “toze” and reach
the soil surface with rain and clog the soil surface to
form a surface crust. During these processes plants
can be buried, blasted by air-borne sand, have their
roots exposed through the scouring of soil; highways
are blocked, air polluted, waterways filled, and fertile
soil removed.
To evaluate the particle movement mechanisms in
surface deposits of Emirate desert soils, soil samples
were analyzed for particle size distribution. It was
deduced that the particles range from 5 to 24% in the
creep, 70-92% in saltation and 2-8% in suspension.
This illustrates that the soil particles in the Emirate
desert are in the size range, which is susceptible
dominantly for saltation movement, and therefore,
saltation moves the main mass of wind blown
particles. Fewer particles are moved by creep and the
least by suspension. Similar results have been
reported in the desert environment of Kuwait (Shahid
et al., 2001; 2003) and by Chepil (1945) in his very
earlier study on “Dynamics of wind erosion”.
SSOOIILLSS
Land Degradation and Environment urgency, and land degradation must be accorded
Enhancement -Abu Dhabi Emirate much greater significance on the environmental
agenda and a legal framework created as an
Perspectives
environmental asset.
Land and soil are important components of the
The Emirate’s record of caring for the environment,
Emirate desert ecosystem and of the wider
particularly wildlife, has been excellent; however, the
environment in which all plants and animals live.
lack of soil information in the Emirate threatened the
Over many years human used the environment to gain
long term use and care of the environment. To clean
economic rewards, however, many of the methods
and enhance the environmental quality in the
used to gain those benefits are now being seen as
Emirate, the wisdom of HH Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan
unsustainable, because in many cases they lead to
Al Nahyan undertook activities for soil fixation, and
degraded land. Degradation is the result of a number
about 300,000 hectares have been planted (forestry
of interrelated factors ending in land that is
plantation) to stop the creeping of sand, and to catch
chemically or physically too degraded for productive
suspended particles. These plantations are playing a
use or environmental services, and often also results
major role in enhancing the environmental quality
in degraded visual amenity. The degradation driving
and in halting land degradation to a significant
forces produce pressures that result in the current
extent, however, the benefits have been felt but never
state of land resources, with a negative impact on
been quantified. The pressure of today greatly
society and the environment. Emirate land resources
concerns the sustainability of land resources for
are of high environmental value, clearly there is a lot
future generation. It has become apparent that there
riding on our capacity to understand, conserve and
is a need to adopt a new philosophy concerning land,
manage the land resources of the Emirate efficiently
one that regards land in an ecological sense, and that
and as much as possible close to sustainability.
considers both human and the natural world as parts
Working together to tackle land degradation of the same ecosystem. We should promote and co-
problems is sensible, especially when the cause is not ordinate effective planning and management of the
confined to one property. To sustain the land equitable, efficient and sustainable use of water, land
resources of the Emirate, the environmental trend and other environmental resources in the Emirate.
must be counteracted with action as a matter of
85
Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
 SSOOI ILLSS
Summary References Shahid, S. A., Abdelfattah, M. A, Arshad, K. R, UAEU. (1993). The National Atlas of the United Arab
Muhairbi; M, Al Othman, Y. R, Al Haji, A, Mansouri, Emirates. UAE University & GEO Project, Al-Ain,
An Emirate wide practical knowledge of soils does not Bagnold, R. A. (1973). The physics of blown sand and M, Al Ahmed, S, Siddiqui, A, Azimullah, K. M, Sekaly UAE.
exist, however, the knowledge of soils is a pre- desert dunes. 5th ed., Chapman and Hall, London. A. L and Al Qubaisi, B. S. (2004). Soil Survey for the
USDA. (1975). Soil Taxonomy. A Basic system of Soil
requisite for sustainable land use planning and to coastline of Abu Dhabi Emirate. 2 Volumes (Volume 1:
Chepil, W. S. (1945). Dynamics of wind erosion. I. Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil
conserve and enhance the environment. In this Reconnaissance Survey and Volume 2: Soil Maps).
Nature of movement of soil by wind. Soil Science Surveys. Soil Conservation Service. USDA
Chapter on soils, efforts have been made to compile Unpublished Report of the Environment Agency -
60:305-320. Agriculture Handbook No. 436. U.S. Government
the existing scattered and limited knowledge about Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Printing Office: Washington DC.
soils into a concise form. By no means the Evans, G. and A. Kirkham (2002). Quaternary Soil Conservation Service. (1971). Guide for
Development of the United Arab Emirates Coast: New USDA-NRCS. (1999). Soil Taxonomy. A Basic system
information presented in this chapter is complete in interpreting engineering uses of soils. USDA, Soil
Evidence from Marawah Island, Abu Dhabi. of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil
all aspects, and this compilation is not a substitute for Conservation Service, 87p.
GeoArabia, 7(3):441-458. Surveys. USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 436. U.S.
a more detailed soil investigation in the Emirate. In
Government Printing Office: Washington DC.
this regards the soil survey of Abu Dhabi Emirate, Gulf News. (2003). Sands of time-Heritage. Gulf News
which will be jointly implemented by the International – Friday Magazine August 1-7, 2003. Published in
Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA) and United Arab Emirates, p. 12-15.
Environment Agency of Abu Dhabi (EAD) over the
ICBA-EAD. (2005). Soil Survey for the Emirate of Abu Table 2.1. Morphological Properties of Torripsamments and Torriorthents
years 2006-2009 will fill the gaps existing in the current
Dhabi. Technical Scope of Work and Terms of
soil information. In this chapter, soils are described
References – Jointly prepared by the International
for general information into broader categories, such
Center for Biosaline Agriculture, Dubai and the Horizon Lower Munsell Colour Sand Silt Clay Texture Gravels Structure Consistence Stickiness Effer- Boundary
as sandy, sandy calcareous, gypsiferous, saline, saline-
Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi, UAE. Depth Dry Moist % % % % (dry) vescence
gypsiferous and hard pan soils. The reader will get
(cm)
general information of the nature of the Emirate soils, Richards, L. A (ed). (1954). Diagnosis and
rather than detailed information, which is lacking Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. United
Torripsamments
under the current situation. Sandy desert soils States Salinity Laboratory Staff, USDA Handbook
(Entisols) are reported as dominant, followed by No. 60. pp. 158. Ak 40 2.5Y 7/3 2.5Y 5/3 95 1 4 Sand 0 M S NS Strong AS
Aridisols to a relatively lesser extent, and the Shahid, S. A., Omar, S. A. S. and Al-Ghawas. S. (1999).
Inceptisols are the least occurring soils. The soil Bk 75 2.5Y 6/3 2.5Y 5/3 98 0 2 Sand 0 M S NS Strong
Indicators of desertification in Kuwait and their
information is supported by limited morphological possible management. Desertification Control
and laboratory soil data. The general nature of the Ck 150 2.5Y 7/3 2.5Y 5/3 97 0 3 Sand 0 M S NS Strong
Bulletin, No. 34:61-66.
soils is also discussed in terms of land degradation
Shahid, S. A., Omar, S. A. S. and Al-Ghawas, S. (2001).
and from erosion perspectives. Based on soil
Evaluation of aeolian soil movement mechanisms as a Torriorthents
characteristics of the desert soils “Saltation” as the
function of particle size analysis. KISR Annual Report Ak 20 2.5Y 7/2 2.5Y 6/3 94 4 2 Sand 0 SG L NS Violent CS
dominant mechanism of soil particle movement is
5851:37-40.
deduced, followed by surface creep and the
suspension movement. Abu Dhabi Emirate efforts to Shahid, S. A., Omar, S. A. S, Misak, R. and Abo-Rezq, Bk 40 2.5Y 7/2 2.5Y 6/2 97 2 1 Sand 0 SG L NS Violent CS
halt land degradation in the desert environment and H. (2003). Land resources stresses and degradation in
implementation of a large forestry plantation have the Arid Environment of Kuwait. In Desertification in Ck1 60 2.5Y 7/1 2.5Y 6/1 98 1 1 Sand 0 M SH NS Violent GS
also been discussed. the Third Millenium. Edited by A. S. Alsharhan, W. W.
Wood, A. S. Goudie, A. Fowler and E. M. Abdellatif. Ck2 150 2.5Y 7/1 2.5Y 6/1 95 3 2 Sand 0 M SH NS Violent -
Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers, Lisse, The
Netherlands, p. 351-360.
M = Massive; SG = Single Grain; S = Soft; L = Loose; SH = Slightly Hard; NS = Non Sticky; AS = Abrupt Smooth; CS =
Clear Smooth; GS = Gradual Smooth.

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 SSOOI ILLSS
Table 2.2. Analytical Properties of Torripsamments and Torriorthents Table 2.4. Analytical Properties of Saline soils (Aquisalids and Haplosalids)

Horizon Lower pHs ECe ESP Carbonates Eq. Gypsum Olsen Organic Water Saturation Bulk Porosity Horizon Lower pHs ECe ESP Carbonates Eq. Gypsum Olsen Organic Water Saturation Bulk Porosity
Depth dS/m (%) (%) P matter Retention 15 percentage Density (%) Depth dS/m (%) (%) P matter Retention 15 percentage Density (%)
(cm) < 2mm >2mm mg/kg (%) bar gcm-3 (cm) < 2mm >2mm mg/kg (%) bar gcm-3

Torripsamments Aquisalids

Ak 40 8.28 2.76 1 45 0 0.8 0.038 0.78 3.7 24 1.54 41 Az 17 Salt Crust

Bk 75 8.13 2.77 2 46 0 1.2 0.04 0.78 3.6 23 1.62 38 Akz 50 7.06 212 81 20 0 0.1 0.26 0.11 3.2 20 1.42 46

Ck 150 8.12 4.51 3 48 0 1.2 0.04 0.24 3.5 22 1.63 38 Bz 80 6.93 202 71 1 0 0 0.25 0.16 4.3 27 1.03 61
Bzw Sample not collected as water table started at 80 cm
Torriorthents
Haplosalids
Ak 20 8.00 9.14 13 37 2 0.8 3.38 0.54 3.7 23 1.76 33
Akz 15 7.67 232 88 6.4 0 2.3 0.30 0.78 3.3 21 1.35 48
Bk 40 8.28 22.8 32 30 24 0.1 2.36 0.70 3.5 22 1.53 42
Bkz1 50 7.84 105 67 6.4 0 0 0.28 0.76 4.2 27 1.41 46
Ck1 60 8.06 16.9 30 36 2.6 0.0 2.04 0.68 3.5 22 1.37 48
Bkz2 100 7.57 139 72 8.8 0 0 0.26 0.76 4.6 29 1.50 43
Ck2 150 8.22 16.6 38 35 - 0.0 1.25 0.32 4.8 30 1.37 48
Ckz 140 7.49 152 71 9.6 0 0 - 0.76 4.6 29 1.57 40
ECe = Electrical conductivity of soil saturation extract; pHs = pH of soil saturated paste; ESP = Exchangeable sodium Ckzw 200 Sample not collected
percentage.
ECe = Electrical conductivity of soil saturation extract; pHs = pH of soil saturated paste; ESP = Exchangeable sodium
percentage.

Table 2.3. Morphological Properties of Saline soils (Aquisalids and Haplosalids)

Horizon Lower Munsell Colour Sand Silt Clay Texture Gravels Structure Consistence Stickiness Effer- Boundary Table 2.5. Morphological Properties of Saline-Gypsiferous soils (Aquisalids and Haplosalids)
Depth Dry Moist % % % % (moist) vescence
(cm) Horizon Lower Munsell Colour Sand Silt Clay Texture Gravels Structure Consistence Stickiness Effer- Boundary
Depth Dry Moist % % % % vescence
Aquisalids
(cm)
Az 17 5Y 8/1(Salt crust) Salt Crust
Gypsic Aquisalids
Akz 50 2.5Y 6/4 2.5Y 5/4 88 3.5 8.5 Sand 0 M Fr NS Strong AS Az 5 5Y 8/1 Salt crust 72 24 4 SL 0 Salt crust VR (dry) SS NE AS
Bkyz 30 10YR 7/3 10YR 5/4 76 20 4 LS 0 M VFr (moist) SS Strong CB
Bz 80 2.5YR 5/6 2.5YR 6/4 87 4.0 9.0 Sand 0 M Fr NS None - Ckyz 40 10YR 7/3 10YR 5/3 81 17 2 SL 0 M F (moist) MS Strong -
Ckyzw 60 10YR 7/2 10YR 6/3 Sample not collected due to in water table
Bzw Sample not collected as water table started at 80 cm
Gypsic Aquisalids-Anhydritic
Haplosalids Akz 12 10YR 6/3 10YR 5/4 51 45 4 SL 0 M Fr (moist) NS Strong AW
Akz 15 10YR 5/6 10YR 4/4 88 10 2 Sand 0 M Fr NS Strong CS Bkyz1 40 5Y 8/1 5Y 8/1 Anhydrite layers – not analyzed 0 M Fm (moist) VS SE GS
Bkyz2 70 5Y 8/1 5Y 8/1 0 M Fm (moist) VS SE AC
Bkz1 50 10YR 5/6 10YR 4/4 97 2 1 Sand 0 M Fr NS Strong DS Ckzw 100 2.5Y 6/3 2.5Y 5/3 87 11 2 S 0 M L (moist) NS Strong -

Gypsic Haplosalids
Bkz2 100 10YR 5/6 10YR 4/4 96 2 2 Sand 0 M F NS Strong DS Akz 20 10YR 6/3 2.5Y 5/3 71 25 4 SL 0 M VFr (moist) NS Strong CS
Bkyz1 60 2.5Y 6/3 2.5Y 5/3 82 16 2 LS 0 M Fr (moist) MS Strong AS
Ckz 140 10YR 5/6 10YR 4/4 97 2 1 Sand 0 M L NS Strong DS Bkyz2 85 2.5Y 7/2 2.5Y 5/3 96 2 2 S 0 M VH (dry) VS Strong CS
Bkyz3 120 2.5Y 7/2 2.5Y 6/3 54 41 5 SL 0 M Fr (moist) SS Strong AS
Ckzw 200 10YR 5/6 10YR 4/4 Sample not collected M L NS Strong - Ckzw 160 2.5Y 7/4 2.5Y 5/3 76 20 4 LS 0 M Fr (moist) SS Violent -
SL = Sandy Loam; LS = Loamy sand; S = Sand; M = Massive; VR = Very Rigid; VFr = Very Friable; Fr = Friable; Fm = Firm; L = Loose;
M = Massive; SG = Single Grain; Fr = Friable; L = Loose; NS = Non Sticky; AS = Abrupt Smooth; CS = Clear Smooth; DS NS = Non Sticky; VS = Very Sticky; SS = Slightly Sticky; MS = Moderately Sticky; AS = Abrupt Smooth; CB = Clear Broken; AW =
Abrupt Wavy; GS = Gradual Smooth; AC = Abrupt Clear; CS = Clear Smooth; NE = Non Effervescent; SE = Slight Effervescent.
= Diffused Smooth.

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Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate
 SSOOI ILLSS
Table 2.6. Analytical Properties of Saline-Gypsiferous soils (Aquisalids and Haplosalids) Table 2.7. Morphological Properties of Gypsiferous soils

Horizon Lower pHs ECe ESP Carbonates Eq. Gypsum Olsen Organic Water Saturation Bulk Porosity Horizon Lower Munsell Colour Sand Silt Clay Texture Gravels Structure Consistence Stickiness Effer- Boundary
Depth dS/m (%) (%) P matter Retention percentage Density (%) Depth Dry Moist % % % % (moist) vescence
(cm) < 2mm >2mm < 2mm >2mm mg/kg (%) 15 bar gcm-3 (cm)

Gypsic Aquisalids Leptic Haplogypsid

Az 5 6.96 236 80 19 - 34 - 0.14 0.30 3.0 19 1.32 50 Aky 20 10YR 8/3 10YR 6/4 79 18 3 LS 0 SAB VFr NS VS CS
Bkyz 30 7.37 166 73 19 - 39 - 0.25 0.54 4.0 25 0.90 66
ky 60 2.5Y 7/3 2.5Y 5/3 86 11 3 LS 0 M Fr NS Strong AS
Ckyz 40 7.27 205 77 47 - 1 - 0.21 0.16 4.1 26 1.49 43
Ckyzw 60 Sample not collected due to in water table Cky1 100 2.5Y 7/4 2.5Y 5/4 77 19 4 SL 0 M Fr NS Strong -

Gypsic Aquisalids-Anhydritic
Cky2 120 2.5Y 7/4 2.5Y 5/4 Sample not collected 0 M Fr NS S -
Akz 12 6.84 229 53 25 - 17 - 0.30 4.5 2.8 18 1.39 47
Bkyz1 40 7.28 190 59 8 - 56 - 0.25 4.5 - 44 - -
SAB = Subangular blocky; M = Massive; VFr = Very Friable; Fr = Friable; NS = Non Sticky; VS = Very Slight; S = Slight;
Bkyz2 70 7.18 187 59 8 - 59 - 0.25 3.7 - 44 - - AS = Abrupt Smooth; CS = Clear Smooth, LS = Loamy Sand; SL = Sandy Loam
Ckzw 100 7.15 183 64 53 - 1 - 0.21 2.2 3.2 21 1.53 42

Gypsic Haplosalids
Akz 20 6.65 239 81 35 - 17 21 0.12 7.70 5.0 32 1.12 57
Bkyz1 60 6.80 222 71 47 - 2 - 0.23 0.14 3.4 22 0.95 64
Table 2.8. Analytical Properties of Gypsiferous soils
Bkyz2 85 6.82 226 72 47 - 2 28 0.48 3.66 4.6 29 1.14 56
Bkyz3 120 6.96 212 67 38 - 24 - 0.22 0.30 5.2 33 1.50 43
Horizon Lower pHs ECe ESP Carbonates Gypsum Olsen Organic Water Saturation Bulk Porosity
Ckzw 160 7.18 222 70 47 - 1 - 0.50 0.22 3.2 20 - - Depth dS/m Eq. (%) (%) P matter Retention percentage Density (%)
(cm) < 2mm < 2mm >2mm mg/kg (%) 15 bar gcm-3
ECe = Electrical conductivity of soil saturation extract; pHs = pH of soil saturated paste; ESP = Exchangeable sodium
percentage. Leptic Haplogypsid

Aky 20 7.95 20 27 6 52 0 0.13 0.30 4.4 28 0.98 62

Bky 60 8.16 15 27 21 18 11 0.13 0.84 4.0 26 1.12 53

Cky1 100 8.46 55 53 23 12 0 0.17 0.76 3.7 24 1.45 45

Cky2 120 Sample not collected

ECe = Electrical conductivity of soil saturation extract; pHs = pH of soil saturated paste; ESP = Exchangeable sodium
percentage.

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Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate Soils of Abu Dhabi Emirate

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