Levels of

Organizations of
the Human Body
Lessons:

 1. Chemical Level
 2. Organelle Level
 3. Cellular Level
 4. Tissue Level

This module presents the knowledge on

how a simple chemical can build up to an organ
that forms an organ system and plays an
important role in our human body as it teaches
you on its phases of development.
 Pre-test

This pretest shall aim to test your initial knowledge on The Basics of the Anatomy and
Physiology with Pathophysiology. It shall seek to know what is the current knowledge or
perception you know regarding on the course

Instructions:
Answer the following questions based on your own understanding. Choose from the
provided choices and please put your answers on the space provided before each
number.

_______1. What do you use to measure acidity and alkalinity?

a. Blood Pressure b. Temperature c. pH scale d. Blood sugar

_______2. What molecule contains the usable form of energy for the cell?

a. ATP b. ACP c. SGPT d. Nucleus

_______3. What is the four major types of organic molecules?

a.Zinc, Iron, Vit. C and Vit. E b. Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic

Acids c. Nucleus, Golgi Complex, RER, Mitochondria

_______4. What organelles assemble proteins?

a. Lysosomes b. Ribosomes c. Nucleolus d. Rough ER

_______5. What is programmed cell death?

a. Neoplasia b. Apoptosis c. Necrosis

How do you rate yourself?

 If you got a perfect score, you have appropriate knowledge of the human body
and its processes.
 If you got a score of 3-4, it means you have a basic knowledge of the human
body.
 If you got a score of 0-2, it means that you need to have additional readings in
anatomy and physiology with pathophysiology.

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Lesson 1: Chemical Level

Introduction:

Our bodies are organized in a hierarchy, from simplest to most complex. The chemical level is
the simplest level that deals with the body’s chemistry and individual atoms and molecules. It talks
about atoms and how they bond to form molecules, water and how it is the basis for solutions in the
body, acids and bases and how they are measure by pH, organic molecules and their importance in the
body, and chemical reactions, such as cellular respiration.

Atoms and Isotopes

All solids, liquids and gases are composed of matter, Matter is defined as anything that takes up
space and has mass, the simplest chemical component of matter is element. An element has a unique
set of chemical properties and cannot be separated by chemical methods. See table 1.1

Element, by Weight Symbol Percentage of Body Weight

Oxygen O 65.00%

Carbon C 18.00

Hydrogen H 10.00

Nitrogen N 3.00

Calcium Ca 1.50

Phosphorus P 1.00

Sulfur S 0.25

Potassium K 0.20

Table 1.1 Major Elements of the Human Body

 Atom –the smallest piece of an element still exhibiting the element’s unique set of chemical
properties.

Atoms are composed of:

1. Protons

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 2. Electrons

3. Neutrons

The number of protons for each element is fixed and is indicated by the atomic number. For
carbon, the number of protons in each atom is six. The number of electrons equals the number of
protons. The atomic mass is the combined number of protons and neutrons. The number of
neutrons may vary for atoms of the same element.

 Isotopes –of an element are that have the same number of protons of every other atom of that
element but have different number of neutrons.

Bonding to form molecules

 Covalent Bond- two or more atoms share electrons to fill their outer shells.

 Ionic Bond –two or more atoms bind to form a molecule by giving up or receiving electrons
from each other to fill their outer shells.

 Ions- they are attracted to each other because of their opposite charges, so they form a
bond resulting in an electrically neutral molecule

 Electrolytes –they are ionically bonded molecules separate into their individual ions.
When placed in water. and they are capable of conducting electricity

 Hydrogen bond –it is a weak bond that occurs between positively charged hydrogen atom and a
negatively charged oxygen or nitrogen atom.

Water

It serves as key functions in the body, The human body is approximately 50%-75% (H2O).

As the main component of many body fluids, water carries out the following five functions in the body:

 Chemically separates ionically bonded molecules into individual ions called electrolytes

 It works as a lubricant in tears and the fluid of joints

 Aids in chemical reaction, as in saliva during digestion

 Water is used to transport nutrients and wastes in blood plasma

 It is also used for temperature regulation

Solutions

Body fluids, like tears, swears, saliva, and plasma, are not pure water, they are solutions. Every
solutions is composed of two basic parts: one or more solutes and a solvent.

 Concentrations –it refers to the amount of solute present in a solution relative to the amount of
solvent.

 Tonicity –it is used when comparing solutions;

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Hypertonic –it is more concentrated with solutes than the other solution.

Isotonic –it has the same concentration of solutes as the other solutions.

Hypotonic –it is less concentrated with solutes than the other solutions.

Acid, Bases and pH

 Acid –it is a molecule that releases hydrogen ion(H+) when added to water

 Base –it is a molecule that accepts the hydrogen ion(H+), often by releasing a hyroxide ion(OH-)
when added to water.

 pH – it is used to measure the strength of acids and bases. It has a scale of 0-14.

Organic Molecules

In common usage, the term organic refers to something that is healthy, free of pesticides and
naturally grown. The meaning in chemistry, organic molecules come from life and must contain atoms
of the elements carbon and hydrogen. See Table 1.2

Organic Elements Building Blocks Examples

Molecule

Carbohydrate C,H,O in a ratio of 1:2:1 Monosaccharides Glucose

Glycogen

Lipid C,H,O not in a ratio of 1:2:1 Fatty acids and glycerol Fats

Steroids

Phospholipids

Protein C,H,O,N Amino acids(20 different Keratin and collagen

amino acids)
Hormones

Enzymes

Etc.

Nucleic Acid C,H,O,N,P Nucleotides DNA

RNA

Table 1.2 Organic Molecules

Carbohydrates –contains atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1

 Monosaccharides –are the simplest form of a carbohydrate and they are the building blocks of
carbohydrates.

Lipids –these organic molecules contain atoms of the same elements as those in carbohydrates but not
in the 1:2:1 ratio

 Fatty Acids and Glycerol –they are the building blocks of lipids.

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Proteins –these contain nitrogen in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

 Amino acids- there are 20 different amino acids who are also the building blocks for proteins,
and it is important to know their functions according to their shape.

Nucleic Acids –they are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phoshorus.

 Nucleotides –they are the building blocks for nucleic acids, they are composed of sugar, a
phosphate group and a nitrogenous base, they are strung together in a twisted double strand
(double helix) , as in DNA, or single strand, as in RNA.
 Gene –it is the sequence of DNA that must be read to give you the directions to make one
specific protein.

Chemical Reactions

Some molecules will react with others in what is called a chemical reaction. The sum total of all
the chemical reaction takes place in the human body is called metabolism. In any reaction, you start
with reactants and end with products.

Reactants -> Products or Products <- Reactants

Read the arrow as “yield”, and know that it always points to the products. It does not matter in
what order the reaction is written, as long as you remember that you always end with the product.

Speed of Reactions

You must bring molecules together for them to react with one another. Imagine a playland ball
pit where children are playing. The children represent reactants/molecules. You need to have children
collide for them to interact. So what can you do to get them to come together quickly?

1. Increase the concentrations of the reactants

2. Increase the speed of the reactants

3. Use a catalyst

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

the energy released from the glucose molecule in cellular respiration must be converted to a
usable form. This energy is released from glucose molecule’s chemical bonds via cellular respiration and
then it helps to form a chemical bond between adenosine diphosphate and a third phosphate, releasing
the energy is needed.

Cellular Respiration

Some reactions require that energy be added for them to occur. Other reactions release the
energy held in the chemical bonds between the atoms in a molecule.

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Lesson 2: Organelle Level

Molecules of different types come together to form organelles. Organelles are specialized,
membrane-bound structure of cells. Each organelle has its own function, and together they carry out
the necessary cellular functions. Descriptions of organelles and their functions are listed in Table 2.1

Organelle Description And Location Function

Cytoplasm Fluid within the cells where the It contains electrolytes, nutrients, wastes
organelles are suspended and gases

Cytoskeleton Organized the organelles within the cell

Cell Membrane Phospholipid bilayer Gives structure to cell, defining what is the
intracellular (inside the cell) and what is
Found in all cells
extracellular (outside the cell); regulates
what may enter or leave the cell.

Cilia Hairlike extensions of cell membrane Move in wavelike motion to move

materials past the cell
Found in cell needing to move
materials outside themselves

Microvilli Hairlike extensions of the cell Provide extra surface are of the cells
membrane

Found in cells requiring extra surface

area

Nucleus Enclosed by a membrane Houses DNA

Found in all cells expect RBC

Mitochondria Rod-shaped; enclosed by a Carry out cellular respiration and process

membrane the energy released to form ATP

Found in large numbers in cells with

high energy demands

Ribosomes Large and small subunits Assemble amino acids into proteins

Found in large numbers in cells that

produce units

Golgi Complex Membrane-enclosed folds usually Receives and modifies proteins and lipids
close to the ER produced in the cell

Endoplasmic Sheets of membrane extending from 3. Site of protein production

reticulum nuclear membrane

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 1. Rough ER 1. Has ribosomes on its 4. Site of lipid production
surface, Extensive in cells
2. Smooth ER
producing proteins

2. Does not have ribosomes on

its surface, extensive in cells
producing lipids

Secretory vesicles Membrane packages bubbled off the Carry materials from the Golgi complex to
Golgi complex that contain the the cell membrane for export outside the
inspected and modified products of cell
the Golgi complex

Found in large numbers in cells that

produce proteins for export out of
the cell

Lysosomes Membrane-bound packages of
enzymes
Found in large numbers in cells
required to destroy materials
Store and isolate enzymes often used for
intracellular digestion until they are
needed

Table 1.1 Cell structures and Organelles

Cell Membrane

By studying the cell membrane, another important cell structure, you will see how different
organic molecules work together. It is designed to define the cell by separating the extracellular fluid
(fluid outside the cell) from the intracellular fluid (fluid inside the cell). Both fluids are primarily water.

Phospholipids, the primary component of a cell membrane, are composed of hydrophilic (

water-loving) glycerol head and two fatty acid hydrophobic (water-fearing) chains. The phospholipid
arrange themselves in a bilayer, This means that the glycerol heads face the extracellular and
intracellular fluids and that the fatty acid chains face toward each other (away from the fluids. They
phospholipids are not rigidly connected; they float side by side in what is called a fluid mosaic. See
figure 2.1

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Figure 2.1 Cell Membrane

Lesson 3: Cell Level

By now you should be familiar with the anatomy of cells, which are defined by a cell membrane
and contain various organelles depending upon the cell’s function. Protein fibers suspend the
organelles in a solution called cytoplasm, and together the organelles carry out the cell’s function.

Membrane Transport

Movement of ions and molecules across the cell membrane can happen in either of two general
ways: passively (requiring no energy) or actively (requiring energy). Materials can also be moved across
the cell membrane in bulk.

Passive Transport

It can move materials across the cell membrane in either direction-into or out of the cell, It is
important to remember that with each of the four following methods, no energy is required for this
type of movement to happen.

 Filtration-filtration is a passive-transport method that moves materials across a cell membrane

using force but no energy.

 Simple diffusion- all atoms and molecules maintain a constant state of motion. Molecules in
liquids and gases move more freely. You can see evidence of this movement if you add a drop
of food coloring to a stationary container of water.

The following factors govern the speed of simple diffusion:

 Temperature- heat causes molecules to move faster; increased temperature increases

the speed of simple diffusion.

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  Molecule weight- heavy proteins move slower than lighter, smaller molecules like
electrolytes, and gases diffuse faster.

 Concentration gradients-this is the amounts of difference in concentration on either

side of the membrane; the greater the difference, the faster the diffusion.

 Membrane surface area- the speed of diffusion is increased with greater surface area,
so there is more membrane for this to occur.

 Facilitated diffusion- this transport method is used for molecules that cannot diffuse through
the selective permeable membrane on their own (like glucose), so they need to get help getting
through a channel protein.

 Osmosis –An important homeostasis concept is a fluid and electrolyte balance.

Active Transport

It moves materials across the cell membrane from areas of low concentration to areas
of high concentration, it involves moving materials up a concentration gradient against the
natural trend of diffusion. It requires the cell’s usable form of energy contained in ATP
molecules.

Bulk Transport

This form of membrane transport moves large quantities of materials not individual
ions and molecules across a cell membrane at one time.

Two forms of bulk transport;

1. Endocytosis –moves material into the cell in bulk.

2. Exocytosis –moves material out of the cell in bulk.

Protein Synthesis

Two stages of protein synthesis;

1. Transcription –The DNA contains all the information on creating a protein, but it cannot leave
the nucleus. Somehow, the information contained in the DNA must be converted to a form that
can be transported to where it needs to be used.

2. Translation –it uses the directions contained in mRNA to assemble amino acids into a
functioning protein. There are 20 individual and unique amino acids. The specific amino acids
used and their sequence are vital to the protein’s eventual shape. And it must be transported in
the rough ER for assembly.

Cell Division

Two types of cell division;

Meiosis –is involved only in sperm and egg production

Mitosis –is the process all other cells use to divide, and it is necessary for the development of the
human anatomy, in mitosis, a single cell, the parent cell divides to become two daughter cells, once
the division has taken place, the parent cell no longer exists. Two daughter cells are identical to
each other and to the parent cell that came before them.

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Lesson 4: Tissue Level

Histology is the study of tissues. The four basic classifications of tissues are epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nervous. Following you will find a basic explanation of each of these tissue
classes. Specific tissues are covered in the relevant system chapters.

Epithelial tissues
it covers and lines all body surfaces, like the organs, vessels, ducts and line hollow organs, they
have a free edge that borders an open area on the outside surface or as a lining of an inside surface.

 Different shapes of an epithelial cell;

1. Squamous (flat and thin)

2. Cuboidal (cube-shaped)

3. Columnar (tall column-shaped)

The following are some examples of epithelial tissue:

 Simple squamous epithelial tissue lining the alveoli (air sacs) of the lung.
 Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue that lines the tubules in the kidneys.
 Stratified squamous epithelial tissue lining the mouth and esophagus.
 Simple columnar epithelial tissue that lines the small intestines.
See figure 4.1

Figure 4.1 Examples of epithelial tissue.

 Basement membrane –this separates epithelial tissue from other tissues.

Simple epithelial tissue –has a single layer of epithelial cells

Stratified epithelial tissue –is composed of stacked layers of epithelial cells

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 Pseudostratified epithelial tissue –appears to be layered, but all cells have contact with the
basement membrane, so it is a false layering

Transitional epithelial tissue –it is stratified, but its cell shape is difficult to describe because it is
so changeable.

Connective tissues

they have cells a fibers in a matrix. The density of the matrix and the type of the cells and fibers
determine the type of connective tissue. The density is highly variable; it can be very fluid, as in blood,
or as dense and hard as concrete as in bone.

Types of connective tissue; See figure 4.2

1. Loose/areolar connective tissue –has a loose arrangement of fibers in a matrix with a thick fluid
consistency.

2. Dense regular connective tissue –has mostly dense bundles of collagen fibers that run parallel
to each other.

3. Dense irregular connective tissue –has an interwoven pattern to its many composing fibers.

4. Adipose connective tissue –composed of lipid-storing fat cells.

5. Blood connective tissue –composed of red and white blood cells and platelets in a very fluid
matrix called plasma.

6. Cartilage connective tissue –is of three types: hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage. The fibers
involved determine their type. All three types of cartilage have cells surrounded by a very
durable gel-like matrix. See figure 4.3

 Hyaline cartilage connective tissue –has a very smooth and glassy appearance. Its
collagen fibers are so fine that they are virtually invisible.

 Elastic cartilage connective tissue –has elastic fibers running in all directions. These
fibers allow this cartilage to snap back to shape if bent.

 Fibrocartilage connective tissue –has dense bundles of collagen fibers all running in the
same direction. These fibers allow this cartilage to function as a shock absorber.

7. Bone connective tissue –has bone isolated by a dense, concrete-like matrix that makes bone
very hard.

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 Figure 4.2 Types of Connective tissue

Figure
4.3 Types
of

Cartilage

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Muscle Tissue

they are composed of cells with high concentration of proteins. The proteins and their
arrangement allow muscle cells to contract.

3 types of muscle tissue: See figure 4.4

1. Skeletal muscle tissue –it makes up the skeletal muscles that move the body and control body
openings, they are cylindrical, appear striated and have multiple nuclei pushed of to the side.

2. Smooth muscle tissue –can be found in the walls of hollow organs, veins and arteries. It allows
hollow organs to move materials through them and allows vessels to change their diameter.

3. Cardiac muscle tissue –found in the walls of the heart and is specially adapted to not fatigue.

Figure 4.4 Types of Muscle Tissue

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Nervous tissue (See figure 4.5)

it is used for communication through electrical and chemical signals.

Figure 4.4 Neurons and Neuroglial cells

Modes of Tissue Growth, Change, Shrinkage, and Death

 Tissue Growth

Hypertrophy –tissue grows because the existing individual cells grow bigger.

Hyperplasia –tissue grow because more cells are produced.

 Neoplasia –uncontrolled growth and proliferations of cells of abnormal or nonfunctional tissue

1. Neoplasm –it is also known as tumor.

Two types of tumors;

Malignant –they are considered cancerous because they have cells that break off and travel to other
parts of the body where they continue to produce more abnormal cells, this migration is called
metastasis.

Benign –they tend to be encapsulated, remain local, and are considered noncancerous.

 Tissue Change –tissue type is not absolute. Some types may change over a lifetime.

Metaplasia –tissue changes from one type or another.

 Tissue Shrinkage and Death

Atrophy –is the shrinkage of tissue due to a decrease in cell size or number

Necrosis –is the premature death of tissue, caused by a disease, infection, toxins, or trauma

Gangrene –is tissue resulting from an insufficient blood supply often associated with an infection

Infarction –the sudden death of tissue, which often result from a loss of blood supply.

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Apoptosis –programmed cell death, this mode of death removes cells that have fulfilled their
functioned and are no longer needed.

Post-test

This pretest shall aim to test your initial knowledge on The Basics of the Anatomy and
Physiology with Pathophysiology. It shall seek to know what is the current knowledge or
perception you know regarding on the course

Instructions:
Answer the following questions based on your own understanding. Choose from the
provided choices and please put your answers on the space provided before each
number.

_______1. What do you use to measure acidity and alkalinity?

b. Blood Pressure b. Temperature c. pH scale d. Blood sugar

_______2. What molecule contains the usable form of energy for the cell?

a. ATP b. ACP c. SGPT d. Nucleus

_______3. What is the four major types of organic molecules?

a.Zinc, Iron, Vit. C and Vit. E b. Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic

Acids c. Nucleus, Golgi Complex, RER, Mitochondria

_______4. What organelles assemble proteins?

b. Lysosomes b. Ribosomes c. Nucleolus d. Rough ER

_______5. What is programmed cell death?

a. Neoplasia b. Apoptosis c. Necrosis

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