CONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION

 PRINCIPLE

 DESIGN

 POWER CONSUMPTION

 HEATING EFFICIENCY

 MICROWAVE SAFE MATERIALS

 EFFECTS ON FOOD AND MATERIALS

 HAZARDS
 INTRODUCTION
A microwave oven, often colloquially shortened to microwave, is a
kitchen appliance that heats food by bombarding it with electromagnetic
radiation in the microwave spectrum causing polarized molecules in the
food to rotate and build up thermal energy in a process known as
dielectric heating. Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently
because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 25– 38 mm (1–1.5
inches) of a dense (high water content) food item; food is more evenly
heated throughout (except in thick, dense objects) than generally occurs
in other cooking techniques.

Percy Spencer
invented the first
microwave oven after
World War II from
radar technology
developed during the
war. Named the
"Radarange", it was
first sold in 1946.
Raytheon later licensed
its patents for a home-
use microwave oven
that was first
introduced by Tappan
in 1955, but these
units
were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop
microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana
Corporation, which was acquired in 1965 by Raytheon.
Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and
cooking vegetables. They are also useful for rapid heating of otherwise
slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats, and chocolate.
Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly
brown or caramelize food, since they rarely attain the necessary
temperatures to produce Maillard reactions. Exceptions occur in rare
cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items
(such as bacon), which attain far higher temperatures than that of
boiling water. The boiling-range temperatures produced in high-water-
content foods give microwave ovens a limited role in professional
cooking, since it usually makes them unsuitable for achievement of
culinary effects where the flavors produced by the higher temperatures of
frying, browning, or baking are needed. However, additional heat sources
can be added to microwave ovens, or into combination microwave ovens,
to produce these other heating effects, and microwave heating may cut
the overall time needed to prepare such dishes. Some modern microwave
ovens may be part of an over-the-range unit with built-in extractor hoods.
 PRINCIPLE
A microwave oven heats food by passing microwave radiation through
it. Microwaves are a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation
with a frequency higher than ordinary radio waves but lower than
infrared light. Microwave ovens use frequencies in one of the ISM
(industrial, scientific, medical) bands, which are reserved for this use, so
they don't interfere with other vital radio services. Consumer ovens
usually use 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)—a wavelength of 12.2 centimeters
(4.80 in)—while large industrial/commercial ovens often use 915
megahertz (MHz)—32.8 centimeters (12.9 in). Water, fat, and other
substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process
called dielectric heating. Many molecules (such as those of water) are
electric dipoles, meaning that they have a partial positive charge at one
end and a partial negative charge at the other, and therefore rotate as
they try to align themselves with the alternating electric field of the
microwaves. Rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into
motion, thus dispersing energy. This energy, when dispersed as
molecular vibration in solids and liquids (i.e., as both potential energy
and kinetic energy of atoms), is heat
The electric dipole consists of two charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign separated by a distance 2a, as shown in Figure.

The electric dipole moment of this configuration is defined as the vector

p directed from –q to +q along the line joining the charges and having
magnitude 2aq:
p=2 qa
Now suppose that an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field
E, as shown in Figure 26.20. We identify E as the field external to the
dipole, distinguishing it from the field due to the dipole. The field E is
established by some other charge distribution, and we place the dipole
into this field. Let us imagine that the dipole moment makes an angle
θ with the field.

The electric forces acting on the two charges are equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction as shown in Figure 26.20 (each has a
magnitude F = qE) Thus, the net force on the dipole is zero. However,
the two forces produce a net torque on the dipole; as a result, the dipole
rotates in the direction that brings the dipole moment vector into greater
alignment with the field. The torque due to the force on the positive
charge about an axis through O in Figure 26.20 is Fa sin θ, where a sin θ
is the moment arm of F about O. This force tends to produce a clockwise
rotation. The torque about O on the negative charge also is Fa sin θ ;
here again, the force tends to produce a clockwise rotation. Thus,
the net torque about O is

Because F = qE and p = 2aq we can express τ

as
It is convenient to express the torque in vector form as the cross product
of the vectors p and
E:

We can determine the potential energy of the system of an electric

dipole in an external electric field as a function of the orientation of the
dipole with respect to the field. To do this, we recognize that work must
be done by an external agent to rotate the dipole through an angle so as
to cause the dipole moment vector to become less aligned with the
field. The work done is then stored as potential energy in the system
of the dipole and the external field. The work dW required to rotate the
dipole through an angle dθ is dW=τ dθ (Eq. 10.22). Because τ = pE sinθ
and because the work is transformed into potential energy U, we find
that, for a rotation from θi to θf , the change in
potential energy is

The term that contains cos θi is a constant that depends on the initial
orientation of the dipole. It is convenient for us to choose θ i = 90°, so
that cos θi = cos 90° = 0. Furthermore, let us choose Ui = 0 at θi = 90° as

our reference of potential energy. Hence, we can express a

general value of U = Uf as
We can write this expression for the potential energy of a dipole in an
electric field as the dot product of the
vectors p and E:

In this case, once we rotate the dipole through angle θ, the system tends
to return to the original configuration when the object is released. The
dipole begins to rotate back toward the configuration in which it was
aligned with the field.

Molecules are said to be polarized when a separation exists between the

average position of the negative charges and the average position of the
positive charges in the molecule. In some molecules, such as water, this
condition is always present— such molecules are called polar molecules.
Molecules that do not possess a permanent polarization are
called nonpolar molecules.
We can understand the permanent polarization of water by inspecting
the geometry of the water molecule. In the water molecule, the oxygen
atom is bonded to the hydrogen atoms such that an angle of 105° is
formed between the two bonds (Fig. 26.21). The center of the negative
charge distribution is near the oxygen atom, and the center of the
positive charge distribution lies at a point midway along the line
joining the hydrogen atoms (the point labeled X in Fig. 26.21). We can
model the water molecule and other polar molecules as dipoles because
the average positions of the positive and negative charges act as point
charges. As a result, we can apply our discussion of dipoles to the
behavior of polar molecules.
Dipole Moments of different substances

in food Water p = 6.2 × 10-30 Cm

Sunflower oil p = 2.007 × 10-30 Cm

Olive oil p = 1.957 × 10-30 Cm

Palm oil p = 1.926 × 10-30Cm

Microwave ovens take advantage of the polar nature of the water

molecule. When in operation, microwave ovens generate a rapidly
changing electric field that causes the polar molecules to swing back
and forth, absorbing energy from the field in the process. Because the
jostling molecules collide with each other, the energy they absorb from
the field is converted to internal energy, which corresponds to an
increase in temperature of the food.
 DESIGN
A microwave oven consists of:

 A high voltage power source, commonly a simple

transformer or an electronic power converter, which passes
energy to the magnetron
 A high voltage capacitor connected to the magnetron, transformer and via
a
diode to the chassis
 A cavity magnetron, which converts high-voltage electric
energy to microwave radiation
 A magnetron control circuit (usually with a microcontroller)
A short waveguide (to couple microwave power from the
magnetron into the cooking chamber)
A metal cooking
chamber A turntable
or metal fan

Modern microwave ovens use either an analog dial-type timer or a digital

control panel for operation. Control panels feature an LED, liquid crystal
or vacuum fluorescent display, numeric buttons for entering the cook
time, a power level selection feature and other possible functions such as
a defrost setting and pre- programmed settings for different food types,
such as meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, frozen vegetables, frozen dinners,
and popcorn. In most ovens, the magnetron is driven by a linear
transformer which can only feasibly be switched completely on or off. As
such, the choice of power level does not affect the intensity of the
microwave radiation; instead, the magnetron is cycled on and off every
few seconds. Newer models have inverter power supplies that use pulse
width modulation to provide effectively continuous heating at reduced
power, so that foods are heated more evenly at a given power level and
can be heated more quickly without being damaged by uneven heating.
The microwave frequencies used in microwave ovens are chosen based
on regulatory and cost constraints. The first is that they should be in one
of the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands set aside
for non communication purposes. For household purposes, 2.45 GHz has
the advantage over 915 MHz in that 915 MHz is only an ISM band in the
ITU Region 2 while 2.45 GHz is available worldwide. Three additional
ISM bands exist in the microwave frequencies, but are not used for
microwave cooking. Two of them are centered on 5.8 GHz and 24.125
GHz, but are not used for microwave cooking because of the very high
cost of power generation at these frequencies. The third, centered on
433.92 MHz,is a narrow band that would require expensive equipment to
generate sufficient power without creating interference outside the band,
and is only available in some countries. The cooking chamber is similar
to a Faraday cage (but there is no continuous metal-to- metal contact
around the rim of the door), and prevents the waves from coming out of
the oven. The oven door usually has a window for easy viewing, with a
layer of conductive mesh some distance from the outer panel to maintain
the shielding. Because the size of the perforations in the mesh is much
less than the microwaves’ wavelength (12.2 cm for the usual 2.45 GHz),
most of the microwave radiation cannot pass through the door, while
visible light (with its much shorter wavelength) can.

The production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength

(microwaves) is done with cavity magnetron. The cavity magnetron is a
high- powered vacuum tube that generates microwaves using the
interaction of a stream
of electrons with a
magnetic field while
moving past a series of
open metal cavities (cavity
resonators). Bunches of
electrons passing by the
openings to the cavities
excite radio wave
oscillations in the cavity,
much as a guitar's strings
excite sound in its sound
box. The frequency of the
microwaves produced, the
resonant frequency, is
determined by the cavities'
physical dimensions. Unlike other microwave tubes, such as the klystron and
traveling-wave tube (TWT), the magnetron cannot function as an amplifier,
increasing the power of an applied microwave signal, it serves solely as an
oscillator, generating a microwave signal from direct current power supplied to
the tube.
 POWER CONSUMPTION

A microwave oven converts only part of its electrical input into

microwave energy. An average consumer microwave oven consumes
1100 W of electricity in producing 700 W of microwave power, an
efficiency of 64%. The other 400 W are dissipated as heat, mostly in the
magnetron tube. Additional power is used to operate the lamps, AC
power transformer, magnetron cooling fan, food turntable motor and the
control circuits. Such wasted heat, along with heat from the product
being microwaved, is exhausted as warm air through cooling vents.

For cooking or reheating small amounts of food, the microwave oven

may use less energy than a cook stove. Although microwave ovens are
touted as the most efficient appliance,[19] the energy savings are largely
due to the reduced heat mass of the food’s container.[20] The amount of
energy used to heat food is generally small compared to total energy
usage in typical residences in the United States.
 HEATING EFFICIENCY
Microwave heating is more efficient on liquid water than on frozen
water, where the movement of molecules is more restricted. Dielectric
heating of liquid water is also temperature-dependent: At 0 °C,
dielectric loss is greatest at a field frequency of about 10 GHz, and for
higher water temperatures at higher field frequencies.

Compared to liquid water, microwave heating is less efficient on fats

and sugars (which have a smaller molecular dipole moment. Sugars and
triglycerides (fats and oils) absorb microwaves due to the dipole
moments of their hydroxyl groups or ester groups. However, due to the
lower specific heat capacity of fats and oils and their higher
vaporization temperature, they often attain much higher temperatures
inside microwave ovens. This can induce temperatures in oil or very
fatty foods like bacon far above the boiling point of water, and high
enough to induce some browning reactions, much in the manner of
conventional broiling (UK: grilling) or deep fat frying. Foods high in
water content and with little oil rarely exceed the boiling temperature of
water.

Microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaways in some

materials with low thermal conductivity which also have dielectric
constants that increase with temperature. An example is glass, which
can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting if
preheated. Additionally, microwaves can melt certain types of rocks,
producing small quantities of synthetic lava. Some ceramics can also be
melted, and may even become clear upon cooling. Thermal runaway is
more typical of electrically conductive liquids such as salty water.

A common misconception is that microwave ovens cook food “from the

inside out”, meaning from the center of the entire mass of food
outwards. This idea arises from heating behavior seen if an absorbent
layer of water lies beneath a less absorbent drier layer at the surface of a
food; in this case, the deposition of heat energy inside a food can exceed
that on its surface. This can also occur if the inner layer has a lower heat
capacity than the outer layer causing it to reach a higher temperature, or
even if the inner layer is more thermally conductive than the outer layer
making it feel hotter despite having a lower temperature. In most cases,
however, with uniformly structured or reasonably homogenous food
item, microwaves are absorbed in the outer layers of the item at a
similar level to that of the inner layers. Depending on water content, the
depth of initial heat deposition may be several centimetres or more with
microwave ovens, in contrast to broiling/grilling (infrared) or
convection heating—methods which deposit heat thinly at the food
surface. Penetration depth of microwaves is dependent on food
composition and the frequency, with lower microwave frequencies
(longer wavelengths) penetrating further.

The previous paragraph notwithstanding, the interior of small food

items can reach a higher temperature than the surface because the
interior is thermally insulated from the air. It is possible to burn the
inside of a cookie while the exterior remains unbrowned.
 MICROWAVE SAFE MATERIALS

In most home kitchens, we'll find an assortment of different materials

used in our containers ranging from glass to plastic to ceramic to metals.
But are all food grade materials similar? Should we care if a container is
marked Microwave Safe? Let's take a closer look at some common
materials used in food containers and if they are microwave safe.

Glass & Ceramics

Glass containers are often marked microwave safe. These containers
can be heated in a microwave without a problem. The issue with glass
that is not microwave safe is that micro-air bubbles may be present in
the glass and as the glass heats in the microwave oven, the bubbles may
expand to the point where the glass breaks or shatters. (Obviously, you
shouldn't eat food where it's glass container has
broken.) Pyrex glassware is an excellent example of microwave safe,
heat resistant glass that can also be baked. Even Pyrex glass cannot
withstand the intensity of direct heat, such as a range or a broiler, for
long, so don't use glassware with such heating methods. Also, all glass
is susceptible to thermal cooling shock (rapid cooling, for example,
dunking in cold water while hot) and may crack.

One popular method of testing if a particular glass is microwave safe is

to microwave the container while it is empty for one minute.
If the container is hot, then it is not microwave safe. If the container is
warm, it should be fine for heating food. If the container remains cool,
you can cook in the microwave with that container. Any glass container
with a metallic trim should never be microwaved. The electrical currents
induced by the microwave radiation in the metals can cause sparking
and pinpoint heating of the glass. Sometimes this can result in marring
or even breaking of the glassware. Also, make sure any glassware with a
colorful coating, finish, or stain should be marked for use with food or
microwave safe before attempting to use in food preparation. The dyes,
pigments, or stains may not be food grade. Almost always, decorative
plates are not for use with food.

Food safe ceramic uses glazes that are made from harmless materials
like silica, dolomite, kaolin, feldspar, ball clay, and others. In these
glazes, the inevitable leaching that occurs is only a functional and
aesthetic issue and has no health impact. Glazes that contain metals such
as lithium, lead, or barium may present a health issue. Ceramic
containers made with such glazes cannot be sold in the United States
without either a permanent marking stating it is "Not for Food Use -
May Poison Food" or have a hole in the container (presumably
rendering it useless for food preparation). If you make your own
ceramics, make sure you use a food grade glaze if you plan to use it in
your kitchen.

Plastics
Food grade plastics are made from a specific list of plastics approved by
the FDA (which may include dyes and recycled plastic that have not
been determined to be harmful to humans). Once a plastic container has
been used to store non-food items (like detergent or paint), it can no
longer be considered food grade. Plastics containers that are not food
grade may leach plasticizers into food on contact. Due to the nature of
plastics, they have a high affinity for fats. Plastics that come in contact
with an oil-based substance will almost always be irrevocably altered
and the plastic may never become truly clean once again.
Contact to foods that are high in fat may cause leaching of the original
oil-based substance into the food even if the plastic was originally food
grade.

Microwave safe plastics are food grade plastics (which do not leach
plasticizers) that are known to be able to withstand higher than normal
temperatures. Plastics that are not microwave safe may leach harmful
substances when heated in a microwave oven. (There was an internet e-
mail scare/hoax that was passed around claiming the USDA or FDA and
independent researchers showed that dioxin (a plasticizer) leached out
of plastic wrap onto food being microwaved. This is untrue since all
microwave safe plastics are dioxin free. Saran and Ziploc both maintain
that their product lines are completely plasticizer free. The temperatures
necessary to create dioxin (around 1500°F) are beyond the normal
operating conditions of household microwave ovens.)

Lexan is a food grade polycarbonate plastic that has gained a large

following in the food service community. It is hard, durable, and
resistant to reacting with oils resulting in a virtually stain and odor proof
material. It is capable of handling a range of temperatures from below
freezing to boiling.
Recently, Sierra magazine published a report claiming that
polycarbonate plastics leach an endocrine disruptor called Bisphenol-A
(BPA). Unfortunately, the studies the article was based on cannot be
directly related to use in the food industry since the tests were
performed on non-food grade polycarbonate mouse cages (which
affected the growth cycle of the mice). No evidence of food grade
polycarbonates (such as Lexan) being a health hazard has been
uncovered.

The S.C. Johnson Company says that the larger Ziploc brand bags are
microwave safe. All Ziploc bags are made of microwave safe materials,
but bags smaller than 1 quart size may be too thin to withstand the
temperature of the food being microwaved.
 EFFECTS ON FOODS AND
NUTRIENTS
Several studies have shown that microwaves negatively impact food’s
nutritional value. Some excellent scientific data has been gathered
regarding the detrimental effects of microwaves on the nutrients in
your food:

 A study published in the November 2003 issue of The Journal of

the Science of Food and Agriculture5 found that broccoli "zapped"
in the microwave with a little water lost up to 97 percent of its
beneficial antioxidants. By comparison, steamed broccoli lost 11
percent or fewer of its antioxidants. There were also reductions in
phenolic compounds and glucosinolates, but mineral levels
remained intact.
 A 1999 Scandinavian study of the cooking of asparagus spears
found that microwaving caused a reduction in vitamin C.
 In a study of garlic, as little as 60 seconds of microwave heating was
enough
to inactivate its allinase, garlic's principle active ingredient against cancer.
 A Japanese study by Watanabe showed that just 6 minutes of
microwave heating turned 30-40 percent of the B12 in milk into
an inert (dead) form.
 A recent Australian study9 showed that microwaves cause a higher degree
of
"protein unfolding" than conventional heating.
 Microwaving can destroy the essential disease-fighting agents in
breast milk that offer protection for your baby. In 1992, Quan
found that microwaved breast milk lost lysozyme activity,
antibodies, and fostered the growth of more potentially pathogenic
bacteria
 Another study about breast milk/infant formula by Lee in 1989 11
found vitamin content becomes depleted by microwaving, and
certain amino acids are converted into other substances that are
biologically inactive. Some altered amino acids are poisons to the
nervous system and kidneys.
Other studies show that, if properly used, microwave cooking does not
affect the nutrient content of foods to a larger extent than conventional
heating, and that there is a tendency towards greater retention of many
micronutrients with microwaving, probably due to the reduced
preparation time.

 Nutrients are leached from food during any form of cooking,

especially when the food is cooked for a long period of time with
high amounts of water. So, for example, boiling carrots might
strip nutrients much more drastically than microwaving them,
because the carrots’ nutrients might get washed away with the
boiling water.

 Availability of some amino acids in food materials might be

improved, since no surface browning occurs. And microwave
heating might lead to destruction of trypsin inhibitors in beans.

 Microwave cooking forms fewer nitrosamines and AGEs on

meats than conventional cooking methods.

 Spinach retains nearly all its folate when cooked in a

microwave; in comparison, it loses about 77% when
boiled, leaching out nutrients.

 Bacon cooked by microwave has significantly lower levels of

 carcinogenic nitrosamines than conventionally cooked bacon.

 Steamed vegetables tend to maintain more nutrients when microwaved

than when cooked on a stovetop.

 Microwave blanching is 3-4 times more effective than boiled

water blanching in the retaining of the water soluble vitamins
folic acid, thiamin and riboflavin, with the exception of ascorbic
acid, of which 28.8% is lost (vs. 16% with boiled water
blanching).
 HAZARDS
Homogeneous liquids can superheat[38][39] when heated in a
microwave oven in a container with a smooth surface. That is, the liquid
reaches a temperature slightly above its normal boiling point without
bubbles of vapour forming inside the liquid. The boiling process can
start explosively when the liquid is disturbed, such as when the user
takes hold of the container to remove it from the oven.

Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a

microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Insulating
plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are
generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets
explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt.

"Hot spots" in microwaved food can be hot enough to cause burns—or

build up to a "steam explosion." This has resulted in admonitions to
new mothers about NOT using the microwave to heat up baby bottles,
since babies have been burned by super-heated formula that went
undetected. Another problem with microwave ovens is that
carcinogenic toxins can leach out of your plastic and paper
containers/covers, and into your food.
Any object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks)
when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil
(though some foil used in microwaves are safe, see below), twist-ties
containing metal wire, the metal wire carry-handles in paper Chinese
take-out food containers, or almost any metal formed into a poorly
conductive foil or thin wire; or into a pointed shape. The electric arc has
the effect of exceeding the dielectric breakdown of air, about 3
megavolts per meter (3×106 V/m). The air forms a conductive plasma,
which is visible as a spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air,
some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy
in large quantities. The effect of microwaving thin metal films can be
seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed
type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which
heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of
concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films
can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving.

Direct microwave
exposure is not generally
possible, as microwaves
emitted by the source in a
microwave oven are
confined in the oven by
the material out of which
the oven is constructed.
Furthermore, ovens are equipped with redundant safety interlocks,
which remove power from the magnetron if the door is opened. The
radiation produced by a microwave oven is nonionizing. It therefore
does not have the cancer risks associated with ionizing radiation such as
X-rays and highenergy particles. Long- term rodent studies to assess
cancer risk have so far failed to identify any carcinogenicity from 2.45
GHz microwave radiation even with chronic exposure levels, i.e., large
fraction of one’s life span, far larger than humans are likely to encounter
from any leaking ovens.[48][49] However, with the oven door open, the
radiation may cause damage by heating.

One of the worst contaminants is BPA, or bisphenol A, an estrogen-like

compound used widely in plastic products. In fact, dishes made
specifically for the microwave often contain BPA, but many other
plastic products contain it as well.
Some magnetrons have ceramic insulators with beryllium oxide
(beryllia) added. The beryllium in such oxides is a serious chemical
hazard if crushed and ingested (for example, by inhaling dust). In
addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human carcinogen by the
IARC; therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons should not be
handled. This is obviously a danger only if the microwave oven
becomes physically damaged, such as if the insulator cracks, or when
the magnetron is opened and handled directly, and as such should not be
a concern during normal usage.