MAJOR FUNCTIONS

1. Receiving sensory input

2. Integrating information

3. Controlling muscles and glands

4. Maintaining homeostasis

5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity

Major divisions:
central nervous system
-consists of the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
-all the nervous tissue outside the CNS, including nerves and ganglia

Sensory division/afferent
division

-conducts action potentials

from sensory receptors to the
CNS sensory neurons-transmit
action potentials from the
periphery to the CNS

Motor division/efferent division

-conducts action potentials

from the CNS to effector organs
(muscles and glands) motor
neurons-transmit action
potentials from the CNS toward
the periphery

Motor division:

Somatic nervous system

-transmits action potentials from CNS to skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system

-transmits action potentials from CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
Neurons/nerve cells

-receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and transmit signals to other neurons or effector organs

3 parts: cell body, dendrites, axons

Glial cells/neuroglia
-supportive cells of the CNS and PNS
-enhance neuron function and maintain normal conditions within nervous tissue
Myelin sheaths
-specialized layers that wrap around the axons of some neurons
-formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS

Nodes of Ranvier
-gaps in the myelin sheath

Organization of nervous tissue

gray matter
-consists of groups of neuron cell bodied and their dendrites, where there is very little myelin.
White matter
-consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin sheaths, which are whitish in color.
Synapse
-is a junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with another neuron or with cells of an effector
organ.
3 major components:
presynaptic terminal
-end of the axon
postsynaptic membrane
-membrane of the dendrite or effector cell
synaptic cleft
-space separating the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes
Spinal cord
-extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the 2 nd lumbar vertebra
Neural pathways - 2 simplest

1. converging pathway
-2 or more neurons synapse with the same postsynaptic neuron

2. diverging pathway
-axon from 1 neuron divides and synapses with more than 1 other postsynaptic neuron
Spinal cord reflexes

stretch reflex
-simplest reflex
knee-jerk reflex
-stimulus is stretching of the quadriceps femoris muscle.
Spinal nerves
-arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal roots and ventral roots.
-31 pairs of spinal nerves
3 major plexuses
1. cervical plexus (C1-C4)
2. brachial plexus (C5-T1)
3. lumbosacral plexus (L1-S4)
BRAIN

Major regions:

Brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon, cerebrum

Brainstem

-connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain

Cerebellum

-attached by cerebellar peduncles to the brainstem

-major function: comparator

- It helps with the coordination and movement related to motor skills, especially involving the hands and
feet. It also helps maintain posture, balance, and equilibrium.

Diencephalon

-part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum

Cerebrum

-largest part of the brain

-initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable
speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions
relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.
Sensory and motor functions

Ascending tracts
-carry sensory information from the body, like pain, for example, up the spinal cord to the brain.
Descending tracts
-carry motor information, like instructions to move the arm, from the brain down the spinal cord to the
body.
Other Brain functions:

communication between the right and left hemisphere

-right cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from and controls muscular activity in the left half of
the body.
-left cerebral hemisphere receives input from and controls muscles in the right half of the body.

Speech
-left cerebral cortex

2 major cortical areas

sensory speech area (Wernicke area)

-understanding and formulating coherent speech
motor speech area
-controls movement necessary for speech

Brain waves and consciousness

-electrical activity of the brain
-Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Memory
-divided into 3 stages
-working, short-term, long-term

1. working memory
-task-associated
-lasts only a few seconds to minutes and occurs mostly in the frontal cortex
2. short-term memory
-lasts longer that working memory
-retained for a few minutes to a few days

3. long-term memory
-the storage of information over an extended period. This type of memory tends to be stable and can
last a long time—often for years.

Limbic system and emotions

-influences long-term declarative memory, emotions, visceral responses to emotions, motivation, and
mood.

Other Brain functions:

Limbic system and emotions

-influences long-term declarative memory, emotions, visceral responses to emotions, motivation, and
mood.

MENINGES, VENTRICLES, CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

MENINGES

-surround and protect the brain and spinal cord.

-most superficial and thickest (dura mater)

-arachnoid mater (2nd meningeal membrane)

-pia mater (third meningeal membrane)

VENTRICLES

-Fluid-filled cavities in the CNS

Cerebrospinal Fluid

-bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion around the CNS.

-choroid plexuses produce CSF.

-blockage of the openings in the 4 th ventricle or cerebral aqueduct can cause CSF to accumulate in the
ventricles (hydrocephalus)

CRANIAL NERVES
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

-Comprises motor neurons that carry action potentials from CNS to the periphery.

-innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.

 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

1. Generating blood pressure

2. Routing blood

3. Ensuring one-way blood flow

4. Regulating blood supply

-The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart through
vessels of pulmonary circulation.
-The left side of the heart pumps blood to all other tissues of the body and back to the right side of the
heart through vessels of the systemic circulation.
SIZE, FORM, LOCATION OF THE HEART

 Shaped like a blunt cone and is approximately the size of the closed fist.

 Apex- blunt, rounded point of the heart

 Base- larger, flat part at the opposite end of the heart

 Location-thoracic cavity between the two pleural cavities that surround the lungs.

 Surrounded by the pericardial cavity.

 The heart lies obliquely in the mediastinum, with its base directed posteriorly and slightly
superiorly and its apex directed anteriorly and slightly inferiorly.
Pericardium

Two layers:
fibrous pericardium
-outer layer (tough connective tissue)
serous pericardium
-inner layer (flat epithelial cells with a thin layer of connective tissue.
Two parts:
parietal pericardium- lining the fibrous pericardium
visceral pericardium- covers the heart surface

EXTERNAL ANATOMY
Six large veins carry blood to the atria of the heart:

Superior vena cava & inferior vena cava

-carry blood from the body to the right atrium.

Pulmonary veins (4)

-carry blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Arteries (2) (great vessels/great arteries)

-carry blood away from the ventricles of the heart

Pulmonary trunk ( splits into R & L pulmonary arteries)

- Carry blood to the lungs

Aorta

-carries blood to the rest of the body

---

HEART CHAMBERS & INTERNAL ANATOMY

4 CHAMBERS: RIGHT & LEFT ATRIA; RIGHT & LEFT VENTRICLES

RIGHT AND LEFT ATRIA

Right atrium receives blood from 3 major openings:

1. Superior vena cava

2. Inferior vena cava drain blood from most of the body

3. Coronary sinus – drains blood from most of the heart muscle

LEFT ATRIUM

-receives blood through the 4 pulmonary veins, which drain blood from the lungs.

Interatrial septum- separates 2 atria from each other

Heart valves

2 types:

Atrioventricular (AV) valves-located in between each atrium and ventricle

Semilunar valves-located between each ventricle and its associated great artery

Tricuspid valve – AV valve between right atrium and right ventricle

Bicuspid valve - AV valve between left atrium and left ventricle

Papillary muscles-cone-shaped, muscular pillars of each ventricle.

Chordae tendineae (heart strings)-thin, strong, connective tissue strings that attach the papillary
muscles to the AV valve cusps.

Pulmonary semilunar valve- between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk

Aortic semilunar valve- located between the left ventricle and aorta
ROUTE OF BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART

BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE HEART

CORONARY ARTERIES

-supply blood to the wall of the heart

CARDIAC VEINS

-drain blood from the cardiac muscle

LEFT CORONARY ARTERY

3 MAJOR BRANCHES:

1. Anterior interventricular artery

2. Circumflex artery

Left marginal artery

HISTOLOGY OF THE HEART

HEART WALL

-Composed of 3 layers of tissue:

1. Epicardium

2. Myocardium

3. Endocardium

Epicardium/visceral pericardium

-thin, serous membrane forming the smooth outer surface of the heart.

-simple squamous epithelium overlying a layer of connective tissue and adipose tissue.

Myocardium

-thick, middle layer of the heart

-composed of cardiac muscle cells

-responsible for contraction of the heart chambers

Endocardium

-smooth, inner surface of the heart

-simple squamous epithelium over a layer of connective tissue

-allows blood to move easily through the heart

Cardiac Muscle

-elongated, branching cells that contain one, or occasionally two, centrally located nuclei.

-contain actin and myosin myofilaments organized to form sarcomeres, which are joined end-to-end to
form myofibrils.

-cardiac muscle cells are bound end-to-end and laterally to adjacent cells by specialized cell-to-cell
contacts called intercalated disks.

Gap junctions

-specialized cell membrane structures in the intercalated disks

-allow cytoplasm to flow freely between cells which enables action potentials to pass quickly and easily
from one cell to the next.
ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY OF THE HEART

-action potentials in the cardiac muscle take approximately 200 to 500 milliseconds to complete.
CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART

Contraction of the atria and ventricles is coordinated by specialized cardiac muscle cells in the heart wall
that form the conduction system of the heart.

 Includes SINOATRIAL (SA) NODE, ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE (AV) NODE, ATRIOVENTRICULAR

BUNDLE, RIGHT AND LEFT BUNDLE BRANCHES, PURKINJE FIBERS.

SINOATRIAL (SA) NODE

-located in the superior wall of the right atrium and initiates the contraction of the heart.

-action potentials originate in the SA node

ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) NODE

-located in the lower portion of the right atrium

-when action potentials reach the AV node, they spread slowly through it and then into the bundle of
specialized cardiac muscle called AV bundle.

AV BUNDLE

-separates the atria from the ventricles.

-divides into 2 branches of conducting tissue: left and right bundle branches.

PURKINJE FIBERS

-pass to the apex of the heart and then extend to the cardiac muscle of the ventricle walls.

CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM

Electrodes placed on the body surface and attached to a recording device can detect the small electrical
changes resulting from the action potentials in all of the cardiac muscle cells.
-normal ECG consists of a P wave, a QRS complex, T wave.

P wave

-results from depolarization of the atrial myocardium, and the beginning precedes the onset of atrial
contraction.

QRS complex

-results from depolarization of the ventricles, and the beginning precedes ventricular contraction.

T wave

-represents repolarization of the ventricles

-beginning of the T wave precedes ventricular relaxation

.
Cardiac cycle

-refers to the repetitive pumping process that begins with the onset of cardiac muscle contraction and
ends with the beginning of the next contraction.

-at the beginning of the cardiac cycle, the atria and ventricles are relaxed, the AV valves open, blood
flows into the ventricles, filling them to approximately 70% of their volume. (step 1)

ATRIAL SYSTOLE-the atria contract, forcing additional blood to flow into the ventricles to complete their
filling. Semilunar valves remain closed. (step 2)

VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE-at the beginning of ventricular systole, contraction of the ventricles pushes
blood toward the atria, causing the AV valves to close as the pressure begins to increase. (step 3)

As ventricular systole continues, the increasing pressure in the ventricles exceeds the pressure exceeds
the pressure in the pulmonary trunk and aorta, the semilunar valves are forced open, and blood is
ejected into the pulmonary trunk and aorta (step 4)

VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE-at thee beginning of ventricular diastole, the pressure in the ventricles
decreases below the pressure in the aorta and pulmonary trunk. The semilunar valves close and prevent
blood from flowing back into the ventricles. (step 5)
HEART SOUNDS

STETHOSCOPE

-originally developed to listen to the sound of the lungs and heart and is now used to listen to other
sounds of the body as well.

Two main heart sounds:

First sound: lubb

2nd sound: dupp

First sound occurs at the beginning of ventricular systole and results from closure of the AV valves

Second sound occurs at the beginning of ventricular diastole and results from closure of the semilunar
valves.
REGULATION OF HEART FUNCTION

Cardiac Output (CO)

-volume of blood pumped by either ventricle of the heart each minute.

Stroke Volume (SV)

-volume of blood pumped per ventricle each time the heart contracts

Heart Rate (HR)

-number of times the heart contracts each minute.

Formula:

CO = SV X HR

(ml/min) (ml/beat) (beats/min)

Example: In resting condition, the heart rate is approximately 72 beats/min, and stroke volume is
approximately 70mL/beat.

CO=70 mL/beat x 72 bpm

= 5040 mL/min (approx. 5 L/min)

INTRINSIC REGULATION

-Refers to mechanisms contained within the heart itself

Preload-degree to which the ventricular walls are stretched at the end of the diastole.

Venous return-the amount of blood that returns to the heart.

Afterload- pressure against which the ventricles must pump blood.

EXTRINSIC REGULATION

-refers to mechanism external to the heart, such as venous or chemical regulation.

nervous regulation: BARORECEPTOR REFLEX

-Mechanism of nervous system that plays an important role in regulating heart function.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE HEART

 By age 70, cardiac output decreases to approx. one-third.

 Hypertrophy

 By age 85, Cardiac output decreases 30-60%

 Connective tissue becomes less flexible, calcium deposits develop in the valves.

 Iincrease in cardiac arrhythmias

 Ccoronary artery disease and heart failure

 BLOOD
FUNCTIONS

1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products

2. Transport of processed molecules

3. Transport of regulatory molecules

4. Regulation of pH and osmosis

5. Maintenance of body temperature

6. Protection against foreign substances

7. Clot formation

COMPOSITION

Blood is a type of connective tissue that consists of a liquid matrix containing cells and cell fragments.

PLASMA

-Liquid matrix

FORMED ELEMENTS

-Cells and cell fragments

TOTAL BLOOD VOLUME:

4-5 L (Adult female)

5-6 L (adult male)

FORMED ELEMENTS

Red blood cells / erythrocytes

-most abundant (95%)

White blood cells/ leukocytes and platelets/thrombocytes

-5%

PRODUCTION:

Hematopoiesis

-Hematopoiesis is the process by which a small pool of self-renewing pluripotent HSCs produce red
blood cells, platelets, and all leukocyte types. 
RED BLOOD CELLS

-disk-shape, with edges that are thicker than the center of the cell

-biconcave shape increases its surface area for easier movement of gases and enabling it to pass more
easily through small blood vessels.

-lifespan: 120 days

HEMOGLOBIN

-responsible for the cell’s red color

-contains 4 protein chains and 4 heme groups. (1 globin: 1 heme)

Function

 Transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and transport CO2 from tissues to the lungs.
Other molecules that bind to hemoglobin

Carbon monoxide (CO)

-binds to iron in hemoglobin about 210 times more readily than oxygen and does not tend to unbind

-nausea, headache, unconsciousness, and death are possible consequences of prolonged exposure to
CO.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

-produced in tissues and is transported to the lungs where it is removed from the blood.

-involves bicarbonate ions (70%), hemoglobin (23%), and plasma (7%).

Carbonic anhydrase

-enzyme that coverts CO2 and H2O to hydrogen ion (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).

negative-feedback mechanism that increases the blood’s capacity to transport oxygen and maintain
homeostasis.
1. In macrophages, the globin part of hgb is broken down to amino acids and reused to produce
other proteins.

2. The heme of hemoglobin releases iron. The heme is converted into bilirubin

3. Blood transports iron to the red bone marrow, where it is used to produce new hemoglobin

4. Blood transports bilirubin to the liver

5. Bilirubin is excreted as part o the bile into the small intestine. Some bilirubin derivatives
contribute to brown color of feces (stercobilin)

6. Other bilirubin derivatives are reabsorbed from the intestine into the blood and excreted from
the kidneys in the urine (urobilin/urochrome)
WHITE BLOOD CELLS

-spherical cells that lack hemoglobin

FUNCTIONS:

1. To protect the body against invading

microorganisms and other pathogens

2. To remove dead cells and debris from

tissues by phagocytosis

Granulocytes:

1. Neutrophils (most common)

2. Basophils (least common)

3. Eosinophils

Agranulocytes:

1. Lymphocytes (smallest)

2. Monocytes (largest)

PLATELETS

-minute cell fragments produced in the red bone marrow from large cells called megakaryocytes.

-plays important role in preventing blood loss.

PREVENTING BLOOD LOSS

THREE PROCESSES:

1. Vascular spasm

2. Platelet plug formation

3. Blood clotting/coagulation

Vascular spasm

-immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel that results when smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel
contracts.

Platelet plug formation

- Accumulation of platelets that can seal up a small break in the blood vessel.

Blood clotting/coagulation

- Formation of clot which is a network of threadlike protein fibers, called fibrin, that traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid.
Fibrinolysis
- enzymatic breakdown of fibrin in bl

1. Thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator convert inactive

plasminogen into plasmin

2. Plasmin breaks down the fibrin in blood clot.

BLOOD GROUPING

Transfusion- the transfer of blood or blood components

from one individual to another

Infusion- introduction of fluid other than blood such as

saline into the blood.

ABO BLOOD GROUP

-system used to categorize human blood.

-
Rh blood group

-so named because it was first studied in the Rhesus monkey.

Rh positive – have rh antigens on surface of RBCs

Rh negative- lack the rh antigens

-ABO blood type and the Rh blood type are usually expressed
together

-antibodies against the Rh antigens do not develop unless an rh

negative person is exposed to rh-positive red cells.

-Rh incompatibility can pose a major problem in pregnancy

when the mother is Rh-negative and the fetus is Rh positive.

HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN (HDN)/

ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FETALIS

-mother produces Rh-antibodies that cross the placenta and

cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal red cells.

Diagnostic procedures

 ABO typing

 Crossmatching

 Complete Blood count

rbc, hemoglobin, hematocrit, wbc count

 Differential WBC (quantitate neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes)

 Clotting

Platelet count, Prothrombin time

Blood chemistry

FBS, LIPID PROFILE, BUN, BILIRUBIN