CONTENTS

1. A. Non- Destructive Testing Methods

B. Properties of Materials
C. Defects in Materials
D. Material Defects and Failures in Service

2. A. X-ray Technology
B. Radiation Sources
C. Gamma Radiography Equipment

3. A. Photographic and Non-Photographic Recording

B. Lead and Fluorescent Screens

4. A. Work Parameters and Conditions-

B. Evaluation of Radiographic Quality

5. Defectolo gy

6. Selection of Radiography Techniques

7. Radiographic Standards and Selection of Test . Methods

8. Advances in Radiography
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1A NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

1: INTRODUCTION 0

'Non-destructive testing (NDT)' is testing materials withourdestroying them. The materials.

after inspection do not change in their size, shape , physical or chemical properties.

There are six major NDT methods viz., visual and optical aids; die rah testing, ul Masonic
testing, eddy cuirent testing, magnetic particle testing and dye penetrant testing. q h se are
regularly used by industry.

Each of these methods, has its own flaw detection capability and therefore no method can
I
replace other methods. These methods are discussed in brief.

2: TYPES OF NDT METHODS

Commonly employed NDT methods can be broadly divided. into two groups

i) Methods for detection ')f internal defects

ii) Methods for inspection of surface/sub-surface defects

3: METHODS FOR INTERNAL FLAWS

'3.1 : Radiographic Method

Basic principle of radiographic testing is shown in figure 1.1. The radiation transmitted
.through a material, is recorded on an X-ray film. In this method, different types of radiations
and films are u,ed, depending upon the type of information required.

Z Object
Defect

Distribution of
E- transmitted intensity
through the object

Fig: 1.1 : Principle of Radiography Testing.

1.1
 3.1.1: X and Gamma Radiography

Radiography testing is most widely used in industry for inspection of welds, castings and
assemblies . The image of a material produced on an X-ray film shows optical density (degree
of blackening) variation depending on the internal structure of the object.

Industrial X-ray machines ""in the range of 50-400 kV are used for inspection of meta)
thicknesses ul;-to 7.5 cm steel equivalents. Betatrons and linear accelerators upto 30 MeV are
used is r highr T _
thicknesses..

Artifi4ially produced' radioisotopes. emitting gamma radiations., such as iridium-192 and

roduced'
cobalt 60 have many advantages over X-ray machines. Equipment used for gamma
radiography is compact, rugged and ideal for field work. Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources
combined together can cover inspection range of 10-200 mm of steel equivalents.

3.2 : Ultrasonic Method

Ultrasound waves are generated by piezo electric ransducers which convert electrical energy
to mechanical vibrations and vic-versa . These waves are made ' to fall on the material to be
tested . As the wave travels through the material, it may get reflected , refracted , scattered or
transmitted depending upon the structure of the material.

Longitudinal
waves

7/77 /
!x x
!

a. Pulsecho Method b. Transmission Mediod

Fig. 1.2 : Ultrasonic Methods

Most commonly used frequency range for industrial inspec_rion is 0 .5 - 25 mega llerrz. Three
important methods of ultrasonic testing are pulse-echo , transmission aid resonance techniques.

3.2.1 : Pulse-Echo Method

In this method, evenly timed pulse waves are transmitted into the material to be tested. Ina
homogeneous material, the wave travels through the material and gets reflected from the back
swfaee. in case of a aefect, the original pulse reflects back from-the. defect loce.tion and
returns to the transducer before the return of hack surface echo pulse as shown in figure I.2a"
A single transducer canOerve both as.transrnirter and receiver.

1.2
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.uyilc lll(WJd. ^ Ill III' hcm'1 g
thedtywd^i c,.ue/.uJw .•.,1•,n+^r/avrY ' l/iar^
It »•^•^•av,t !t flu'fridtL • IWIIr#t1.e f, •u(1... t ,.... 1.._I .,

3.2.2 :.Transmission Method

In this method, two separate transducers are used on.either.side of the material, one as
transmitter and the other as receiver (Fig. 1.20) Variation in intensity across the-transmitted
beam indicates the soundness of the material. Attenuation of the sound beam is indicative of
coarse grain structure of the material. When the wave length is comparable to the grain size
of the medium, scattering process predominates.. Transmission method is less sensitive.

3.2,3: Resonance Method

This method is mainly useful for measurement of thickness of plates -r sheets and
also in case
of bonded materials . In this method, ultrasonic wave of continuously
varying frequency is fed
into the material .. The frequency is varied till a standing wave is set up within the material,
causing it to resonate at the fundamental frequency or multiples of it at a greater
amplitude as
shown in figure 1.3. The resonance is sensed by an instrument. Change in resonant frequency
is an indication of discontinuity.

Fig. L3 : Principle of Resonance method.

4: METHODS FOR SURFACE/SUB-SURFACE INSPECTIONS

4.1.: Visual a id Dye. Penetrant Testing Methods

Examinatio n of cracks and other irregularities on the surface under visible light is the cheapest,
. - simplest and qu ckest NDT method. However, all . defects cannot be seen , byvnaiddd eyes.
Therefore , techr.iques to increase the contrast of the discontinuity to make it visible , are used.
Coloured and fluorescent dyes are made to seep into the surface cracks to provide contrast
against the background.

?.3
 4.2 : Rayleigh Wave Testing

Rayleigh waves are ultrasonic shear waves propa

g ated near th e surface of a material
of frequencies in the range . Waves'
of 1-10 MHz are used for detection of surface cracks and other
defects. The technique is used, where access is limit ed .

4.3 : Magnetic Particle Testing

This,method is applicable onl y

to materials which can be rnagnetisec '_ The object is 4'
magnetised b
y applying high alternate or direct currents (A.C or
D.C) and flow of magnetic'
powders is observed either in dry or wet process .
Surface
cracks , forging laps and seams, etc. can be easily detected discontinuity , such as grinding"
. In some cases , sub-surface
defects about one centimeter deep, can also be revealed.

COIL

Fig. 1.4 : Principle of Eddy Current Testing

4.4 : Eddy Current Testing

The method employs alternating currents i{ the range (50-5000 kHz),.and is useful for detection
of surface and near surface defects in electrically conducting materials. When a coil
carrying
alternating current is placed in the proximity of metal specimen, as shown in'figure 1.4eddy
currents are induced on the surface layer. Strength of these eddy currents depends on z la; n:^
number of surface variables.

1.4 L' o a U rvuA.hl

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• 4i^'ivi7 .ECfiK^^` ^'^^,,I^^..Zi'MrJ^ ^G.;a.MrtiS.r _.
 w.syy^,
^7tnttk'a rXilie^ -,rw«. ^ t ra ,..W. r uw

,,Depth.of inspection depends upon type-of material and frequency of the alternating current and it
is'about •140 mm:

.C 5 LEAK TESTING

Leak testing ,method is used-to check fabricated components and systems , ifor nuclear reactors,
pressure-vessels, electronic valves ,. vacuum equipment, gas containers, etc.; A leak is passage of
:,a gas frpm one side of the wall of the container to the other side, un er pressure or concentration
difference. It is*measured as cc/sec.

Depending upon the range of leak , detection capability, a number ofl test - methods are available.
Some examples are; pressure*drop / rise, ultrasonic leak detectors, bubble tests and ammonia
sensitised paper, with detection capabilities upto 10-4 cc /sec. Halogen diode sniffer, Helium
mass spectrometer and Argon mass spectrometer have detection sensitivities in the range
10-' 10.11 cc/sec.

. air •_.. :•_. _ «. i..

ffisagz^
 1B• PROPERTIES OF MATERIA,LS
X ' INTROD
• UCTION "`

Selection of a material for a given job depends upon its physical and i
Most structural mat er i als mech an
are subject to external forces, an i cal properties.
'
stresses which generate internal me
The reaction of the part to these str
Hence esses can be critical to its continued fun t onin ^
, it is important for the NDT personnel to know the normal material ro er i
as effect of discontinuity upon-the material servic
eab ility. P P t ^, as weir 14

2 TYPES OF PROPERTIES

The application for ch a material is usrd, determines which property is most important.
2.1 : Chemical. Properties

Chemical properties (reaction with other materials) are of interest, main! be

resistance to corrosion. X cause of the need for

2.2 : Physical Properties

Physical properties of materials are associated with their atomic structure: -

crystalline type, atomic spacing, specific heat, melting point, etc. eg density,

2.3 Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties of materials like strength, hardne"ss, are most important

processes and for determining sizes and shapes in manufacturing
necessary for carrying loads .
2.3.1 Tensile Strength

A stress strain diagram is used to describe

strength of a material . many of the : mechanical pro p
erties i mportant the
It shows the stress-strain bh a^iour of the
applied and increasing tensile stress . e material under gradually
It indicates three , eg i ons
a. Elastic Region at Low Stresses -
by stresses is quite small indicates that the longitudinal--strain produced
and is proportional to the app li ed stress.
b. Plastic Region
at Medium Stresses :
increase in strain occurs indicates that at a certain stress lev
and the material is said
^ field . to e1 an abrupt
c. Necking Region at
reached, the material High Stresses : wherein, when the ultimate
starts to neck into larger strain
and breaks i nto two parts. strength is
s, until the material ruptures

Strains beyond the elastic limit, which result in residual strains on unto sn
inelastic-or plastic strains.
Materials which u n d e r g are called
are referred to as "ductile go relatively IargePlastic to ru
". Those which under g o littl e or n o plastic strain ptore
;
1. e . tare,

1.6
 Mnll`.I'#II twt

are referred to as "brittle".

2.3.2 :' Toughness and. Notch-Toughness

The toughness of a material is defined as the ability of an unnotched member (e.g. a smooth
round bar) to absorb energy, when loaded slowly. Notch toughness of a material, is defined as
the ability of a material to absorb 'energy in the presence of a sharp notch , when. loaded very
rapidly with an impact load.

2.3.3 : Creep

Creep is the flow of material overa period of time,.when under a load too small to produce any
measurable plastic deformation at the time of.application . The simplest type of creep test is
made by just hanging a weight on the test specimen and observing its elongation , as a function of
time by using a microscope or other sensitive detector of strain.

2.3.4: Fatigue

Fatigue testing determines the ability of a material to withstand repeated applications of stress
which in itself is tors small .to produce appreciable plastic deformation . Fatigue, usually is a more
critical design criterion than any other, for the structural safety and reliability of machinsry or
structural compone nts_. T!.:.•.. , .

2.3.5: Hardness

The hardness. of a materiaLis measured- byhatdness .tester. - Threexypes_of hardness- test are.the.
scratch ,' rebound and penetration tests . - Hardness measurements are extremely useful as a quick
and rough-indication ofthe mechanical properties of a metal.
 Jim
1C. DEFECTS IN MATERLAL,S
I: INTRODUCTION

A discontinuity can occur any time in the history of a piece of metal. If it is introduced during
the initial production from the molten state, it is termed as inherent discontinuity. If caused
during further processing, fabrication or finishing, it is called processing discontinuity.
Finally, if it arises during the use of the end product either due to environment, load or both, it
is called service discontinuity.

2: CASTING DEFECTS

Casting is the process of causing liquid metal to fill a cavity and solidify into a useful shape.

The discontinuity that can occur during casting process are given below

a. Non-metallic inclusions
the impurities in the starting Non-metallic inclusions within the. molten metal, are caused by
material and most of the non-metallic matter being lighter. rise to
the top of the ingot, but some are tra ppe d , w i t h
in, because the molten metal above them
hardens before it could reach the surface. These inclusions are irregular in shape.
b. Porosity : It is spherical or nearly spherical shaped and i
molten material. s caused by the entrapped gas in the

C. Pipe-. The molten metal, after being poured into

a mold, star ts to cool and it solidifies. The
solidification process s
solidification , the moltentarts from the surface and travels towards the centre of the ingot. On
metal contracts . Since the centre of the ingot is the
solidify, most of the shrinkage is observed in the last to cool and
centre. This results in a cavity called
"PIPE ". It may extend from the top towards the interior of the ingot along the axis.-
.oF
d.
d. Cold-shut :
Cold shut is formed when molten metal is poured over solidified metal. When
the metal is poured ,
it hits the mold too hard and spatters small drops of metal .
drops of metal hit higher up on mold, they stick and solidify When these
. When the rising molten metal
reaches and covers the solidified drops of metal, a crack like.. discontinuity i:. formed. Cold
shuts can also be formed by the l a ck o f
material of different temperatures. fusion between two intercepting surfaces of molten

e. Hot tear (shrink crack) :

Hot tear. is caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sections
of a casting as the metal cools. In a casting having light and heavy sections, the light sections,
being smaller, solidify faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier sections towards them, as
they are.hotter and do not shrink as fast.

f. Shrinkage cavity
:Shrinkage cavity is caused by lack of enough molten :1 etal to fill the
space created by shrinkage of the solidifying metal, just as a "PIPE" is formed
in an ingot. It
can be found anywhere in the cast product, unlike the "pipe" in the ingot, which always occurs
only at the top portion of the ingot.

1.8
 metal . These, are called :' tungsten inclusions ; Y..; tLf

r g. Lack of fusion : Lack of fusion or incomplete fusion , as it is frequentlytermed, describes

( the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal or interweld passes to ifuse together
completely: This failure to obtain fusion may occur at side wall or:.in-the -interpass region.
Lack of fusion is usually elongated in the direction of welding and may have eft h rounded or
sharp edges depending on how it is formed.

h. Lack of penetration : Lack of penetrations due to failure of weld metal to ex :end into the
i root of the joint . The most frequent cause for this type of defect is 'the unsui able groove
design for the selected welding process.

i. Undercut : During welding of the final or cover pass, the exposed upper edges of the weld
preparation tend to melt or run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove.
Undercutting occurs when insufficient fillet metal is 'deposited to fill the resultant, at the edge
of the weld bead . The result is- a groove that may be intermittent or continuous . and'parallel to
the weld bead . Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current, incorrect arc
length, high speed , incorrect electrode manipulation, etc.
 ._ 1

ID. MATERIAL DEFECTS AND FAILURES IN SER IICE .

1 : INTRODUCTION

The response of metals to various stages of manufacture , construction or service rife can vary
widely depending upon chemical composition ; heat treatment , mechanical working, surface
conditions , presence of discontinuity and other material characteristics.

2: CAUSES OF MATERIAL FAILURE

Products and structures may be subjected to. ,a number of service conditions , as mentioned
below, which may result in discontinuity.

a. stationary load,
b. dynamic load, unidirectional or multidirectional, multi-directional - more serious,
c. high temperature,
d. pressure creating stress above a material 's elastic limit
e. corrosive environment,
f. vibrations,
g. excess loading,
h. improper maintenance and
i. ageing-

3: TYPES OF MATERIAL FAILURE

There are two generally accepted types of material failure in service : one is the easily
recognized 'FRACTURE' or separation into two or more parts; the second is the.less easily
recognized "EXCESSIVE PLASTIC DEFORMATION" or change of shape-and/or position.

4: SERVICE CONDITIONS LEADING TO MATERIAL FAILURES

4.1 : Corrosion

Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by the chemical action of some surrounding or

contacting medium which may be lilluid, gas or some combination of the two. This
deterioration can be either uniform or Ik.,calized. To some degree, corrosion can influence all
metals, but the effect varies widely d spending upon the combination of the metal and the
corrosive agent.

4.2 : Fatigue

Failures occurring under ;onditions of dynamic loading are called "FATIGUE FAILURES".
Most. service failures occur as a result of tensile stress.

1.12
i
 metal : These are called 'tungsten inclusions
t' S'M'#FCSii
Jiow { ^ $it7r5 ^ ^,icisrsj
9. -Lack f fuscon Lack of fusion or ncomplete fusion , asst ^jstfrequently
'termed describes
E the failure fof adjacent field metal and base metal or . lidtetweld passes to fuse together
completel y. This failure ` to 'obtain fusion may occur at side wall or in the interpass region.
Lack of fusion . is usuall y. e'on gated in the direction of welding and :may have either rounded or
sharp edges depending on h ow it is formed.

h. .Lack of penetrat n : Lack of penetration is due to .

failure of weld metal to extend into the
root of the joint. . The most frequent cause-f
or this type of defect is the'unsuitable groove
design for, the select welding process.

i. Undercut : During. welding of the final or cover pass, the `exposed upper edges of the weld
preparation tend to melt or run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove.
Undercutting occurs when irsufficient .filler metal is deposited to . fill the
' resultant, at the edge
of the weld bead . The result is a groove that may be intermittent or continuous. and parallel to
the weld bead . Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current
, incorrect arc
length , high speed , incorrect electrode *manipulation, etc.
 ID. MATERIAL DEFECTS AND FAILURES IN SERVICE •
1: INTRODUCTION

The response of metals to various stages of manufacture ,

construction or service life can vary
upon chemical composition, --heat treatment , `
conditions , mechanical working, surface
Presence of discontinuity and other material characteristics.

2: CAUSES OF MATERIAL FAILURE

Products and structures may be subjected to'a number

below, which may result in discontinuit of service conditions, as mentioned
-
a. stationary load,
b.' dynamic load ,
unidirectional or multidirectional, multi-directional - more serious,
c. high temperature,
d. pressure creating stress above . a material's elastic limit
e. corrosive environment,
f. vibrations,
g. excess loading,
h. improper maintenance and
i. ageing.

3 : TYPES OF MATERYAL'FA1LURE

There are'two generally accepted types of material failure in service: one is the easily
recognized 'FRACTURE' or separation into two or more parts; the second is the less easily
recognized "EXCESSIVE PLASTIC DEFORMATION" or change of shape and/or position.

4: SERVICE CONDITIONS LEADING TO MATERIAL FAILURES

4.1 : Corrosion

Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by the chemical action of some surrounding or

contacting medium which may be liquid, gas or
deterio some combination of the two. This
ration can be either uniform or localized. To some degree, corrosion can influence all
metals, but the effect varies widely depending upon the combination of the metal and the
corrosive agent.

4.2 : Fatigue

Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading

are. called "FATIGUE FAILURES-.
Most service failures occur as a result of tensile stress.

1.12

•'1
 Wear . isprobabl ythe most --important factor in. the deterioration of machinery with moving
components , oftep limiting both the - life-and the performance of such equipment . Wear is the
loss of material from the surface. Wear is.affected by a variety of conditions , such. as the type
of lubrication , loading, speed , temperature, materials , surface finish and hardness.
C
4.4 Overstress

it may happen when a part . is accidentally exposed to a load which is much greater than its
design load. When this happens, the component may undergo plastic deformation . or fracture,
to relieve the high stress -within the part.
 I

2A. X-RAY TECHNOLOGY

1: INTRODUCTION

X-rays were discovered by a German, scientist , Prof. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 189.,.
Some of the properties of X-rays are given below.

1. X-rays are electromagnetic radiations, similar to visible light, with higher energy.
2. They can pass througl}t mattet and get absorbed/scattered in the process.
3. They can affect X-ray,Pphotographic films.
4. They can excite and i' nize atoms'of the medium , through which they pass.
5. They can cause injury ytobiological systems.

2: X'AND GAMMA RAYS

X and gamma rays have similar properties , Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus , whereas
X-rays are generated outside.the nucleus when high speed electrons intera c th atoms=
Gamma rays have d , discrete energies, whereas,X - rays have continuous energies. The
efinite
maximum energy of X-rays depends on the incident electron energy (Fig. 2.1).

f Characteristic H-raBs
Relative
7 of Tungsten
Intensitg

Applied Voltage
=200 kV

0 50. 100 150 200

Photon Energg (keV) --4

Fig. 2.1 : Typical X-ray Spectra

2.1 : Advantages and Disadvantages of -X ray Equipment for Radiography

a. Advantag

1. X-ray machines have higher radiation output (about 45 R/min at 50 cm from a

200 kV, l5mA X- ray unit, compared to 40 R/h at 50 cm from a 20 Ci iridium-192
source), enabling larger turnover of workload.

2. They have small focal spot size, which helps to obtain sharper images.

2.1
 3 [3se of^tys results in
} better image contrast
, as X_ rays have contin uou s
4 . X ray un i spectrum
ts ensure complete radiation safety, when they are switched 'OFF.
b. Dsadvanta^PS

1. X-ray units are bulky, for use at indicate & inaccessible locations.
2. They require electric power for operation.
3. They require high capital investment.

I.: PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

X-rays are produced when a beam of high energy electrons collides with any material (target).
X-ray production increases with increase
in atomic number of the target atom and with
increase in the incident electron energy. In an X-ray machine, less than one per cent of the
electrical power supplied is converted to X-rays and the -remaining power
this heat is not
. removed efficiently, the target material may melt. p appears as heat. if

Although X-ray intensity is different for different" target material, the distributi X-ray
energies for all targets is similar, the maximum on of
electrons . In an energy being the energy of the incident
X-ray
or the applied=kilovoltagemachine, if the potential difference between the filament and the target
* is 200 kV, then the energy of the electrons hitting the target is
200 keV and the maximum energy of the X rays would be 200 keV -`A typical X-ray
spectrum is shown ins 2 i
sharppeaks. .. g The continuous X-ray spectrum will
These also contain one
mote or
.._A,
peaks
called characteristic X-rays. are of definite energies, dependent in the target element, hence are
t
The quality of an X-ray beam can be described by its Half Value Thickness (HVT). • The
HVT is a function of the effective energy of the X-ra
the applied kilovoltac, y beam, which is approximately 1/3rd of
filtration. tag e. also depends upon'the nature of the power supply and the added

Cathode Filament Anode hood

shi eld i
Target

t.

GIas.5 casing

Fig. 2.2 ..Hooded Anode X-ray Tube.

 The essential requirements for the production of X_-rays are

a: a source of electrons (heated tungsten filament),

b. high voltage supply to accelerate the elect ions ,
c. a target , usually tungsten ,
to stop the electrons and to convert their energy to X-rays
The cross -
section of a typical X-ray unit is shown in Fig. 2.2.

The target.is usually of small dimension, say 2-3 mm.

much of the energy appears When the electron:; hit the target,
8Y inofthe
used for the purpose form
heat of f heat and it has to be rapidly removed
removal . ; Copper, is
primary coolants can be circulated throughCertair1
the samanodes are hollow in construction , so that
oil is.also sometimes used around e to remove the generated heat
the X-ray . Mineral
insulator unit, to remove heat. and serve as ele
ctrical

The penetration of X-ray beam depends on the applied kilovoltage

decided by the current flowing through the filament , whereas , t
(millamperage). he intensity is

Selection of the target material is based on the following properties:

I. The target material should have a high melting point.

2. It should possess a high atomic number.

3. It should possess high thermal conductivit (t d:

y o ssipate the heat quickly).
4 It should have low vapour pressure at high temperatures
the Target material and its deposition on the walls ( to prevent a raporation of
of the X-ray tube, as this would
cause absorption of X-rays and disturbance in the insulation properties of the tube).
Tungsten , having an atomic number 74
, and melting point 34ppaC is the most
preferred target

X-ray tube is contained in a suitably shaped steel shell for ruggedness. I'lie
viz., kilovoltage (kVp), tube current
( mA), besides the cooling pattern, decides t e `,1 ratings,
an X-ray unit. ucture of

4 RE^UIFEIKENTS
OF AN INDUSTRIAL X_P
^Ay TUBE,
1. An industrial X-ray tube must be capable of operating
indefinite periods at maximum loading. continu oL_1^
^^ , ffor
or
2. It should. be able to pass appreciable current over the low
voltages
This is to permit such radiographs to be taken, est
voltage techniques whi n
, essit to low
within reasonable exposure periods.
3. It should
defi .^..:.ti possess the smallest possible focal area . For ni a^
oa, a point source of radiation is one of the r '^ radicgr ^p
tubes have very y small focal areas . rquireme 't -,;,dEr r, X-ray

2._
 `/FY"Y .., tO ..W M dtJ.. _.
AC
4'96 •ry. 6 ^'p4^'a!1
r^ratriovw„ t^A

4. The design safety..shouid. i.nclu:1e sufficient shielding .materiai (say lead or

equivalent steel) -so that-the leakage radiation level at every rating ` comb iation
(L.U Ad'
, m) oes fiot exceed I IVit at I metre from the target,

-5 , SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL X RAY TUBES

Industrial radiography involves inspection of objects of various materials and ip,qany shapes
and sizes . For objects containing organic compounds , eg., food .stuff, plastic insulating'
materials, etc., the required voltage is in the range of 50 - 100 kV. The examination of light
metal and steel castings , welds in pipelines , pressure vessels , ships-and bridges and weapons of
war, requires kilovoltage'in the-range 150-kV - 2 MV.- Most frequently used voltage is
between 150 kV and -400W.' Portable X-ray units, in the voltage range -150 kV to 250 kV
are used for field radiography. - X-ray units of higher voltage are generally stationary ones,
r
for use in enclosed installations.

X-ray units can also be used as -cabinet installations with incorporated lead. shielding and safety
interlocks . (eg., the unit becomes operable, by actuation of certain microswitches , only when
the object occupies a preset position in front of the beam port).

5.1 : Fluoroscopy

The fluoroscopy technique is used for continuous production line scanning of die castings, in
food processing. industry, etc. A fluoroscopy unit consists of X-ray source, fluorescent screen
(line i adm.iam sulphide). and leaded 'glass barrier. The equjpment is normally supplied in
shielded enclosures. The object-to be examined isplaced in between X-ray beam and
fluorescent-screen. ;.A_shadpw image-is. produced on the screen-and it is viewed through
television monitorsystem or-by the use of image intensifiers.

.5.2.:-Fine Focus Tube ,-,'.:

The use of fluorescent scree is, for examination of castings and assemblies at considerable
magnification, is made- possible by using a tube. with a very fine focus of about 0.2 mm in
.;..diameter. The small size--nf the spot reduces- geometric unsharpness and also produces image
magnification. -

Target
Electron
beam

-Pig. 2.3 : Rod Anode-System

 5.3 : Rod Anode Tube

The examination of confined spaces , like the pipes of a steam boiler

or the cylinder heads of,
an internal combustion engine , has given rise to an X -
ray equipment with the target at the 'end
of a long tube. The target and therefore , the whole anode is earthed ,
so that the source of
radiation can be pushed into the cavities. mentioned above . In X-ray units used for
circumferential radiography, the target is placed at right angle to the tube axis and as a result,
the radiation emerges all round in the forin of a ;uisc. For unidirectional beam, the target is
at 45 ° inclination ( Fig. 2.3). I
I
5.4: Crawler X-ray Units

These units are.useful for cross-country pipe lint. inspection, with automatic movement from
joint to joint and are becoming increasingly popular. The power input is obtained from diesel
generators.

6 : X-RAY GENERATOR CIRCUITS

The power, supply required for the operation of an X-ray tube ars

a. a low voltage, to heat the filament,

b. a high voltage, to accelerate the electrons.

The filament of an X-ray tube is normally operated at 6-12 volts with 5-6 amps of-current.
This-is derived from the mains line using a step- down transformer. The high' voltage is usually
obtained from a step-up transformer.

To maintain the target at positive potential with respect to the filament, different types of
rectification circuits are used, viz., half-wave rectification, full-wave rectification and constant
potential units. There are various advantages of using a constant potential X-ray unit. It
yields better X-ray output than that produced by a pulsating potential having the same peak
kilovoltages. It gives a more penetrating beam; as. required in industrial radiography.

7: LINEAR ACCELERATOR

To obtain high energy X-rays in the McV.rani;e, for inspection of very thick objects, linear
accelerators are used. In these, the X-ray intensity can be of the order of few hundred
Roentgen per minute at one metre.

2.5
 •ZB. Rt3yJAT P.. LO ,.

and 2 ' artificially .1made.

Radioisoto p es; are broadly classified as 1.:naturally occurring- 4
potassium -40, ui naum= 238 and its daughter products are some-of the naturally occurring
226(encapsulated) was used
'radioisotopes.' t' :se naturally occurring radioisotopes , radium=
presently used in industrial radiography , viz.
earlier in industrial `radi6grapiy. Radioisotopes ,
cobalt-60 firidium- 192,. thulium-17Q are artificially produced

2: PRODUCTION OF RADIOISOTOPES*:,.

There are three methods of producing artificial radioisotopes; by,

a. activating elements with neutrons in .a nuclear reactor,

b. processing fission products from spent uranium fuel rods from a nuclear reactor,
c. bombarding elements with charged particles from particle accelerators.

2.1 : Production by Activation Process

When a target element is bombarded with neutrons "in a-reactor, :activation may occur mainly
by one of the ibilowing processes depending on the energy of the neutrons..
59 60.
a. (n.7-,reaction eg. 27 o (n,7' 27 o
-•. :...
59 59,
b. -(n,p)reaction eg. 27 o (n,p) 26 e

.27 24
lAl (n,a) 11Na

to 'a', by bombardment of 'iridium-191 with

iridium-192 is"also"obtained by-a process similar
-neutrons.

When a target containing ' m' gram of the element of interest- is exposed to a neutron flux of
v en b y th e relation
n/cm2-sec. the activity induced in the target (S^) is gi

S`_0.6Xm_X0Xor
A r l-e-o.693vr Bq

Where, St is activity in becquerels (Bq.)

t is time of irradiation
t &T are in same units).
T- is half-life of radioisotope produced (
a is cross section in barns ( 1024 cm2) for the reaction
A is mass number of the target element

2.6
 For production of iridium-192 , cobalt- 60 and thulium- 170 radiography sources , thin metal
discs of purity better than 9W9 per cent are used as targets.

2.2 : Production by Nuclear Fission

Caesium-137, used sometimes in industrial radiography is produced by nuclear fission. In a

nuclear. reactor, uranium atom splits ( undergoes fission) into two different elements with the
release of neutrons and enormous amount of energy , Caesium- 137 and strontium -90, two
radioisotopes , Commonly used both in industrial and medical applications , are produced by this
method: Caesium-137, because of its chemical form, is now discouraged for use in industrial
radiography.

3: SOURCES FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

'A radioisotope, to be useful in industrial radiography should have l

a. suitable radiation energies,

b. higher radiation output,
c. reasonably long half-life and
d. possibility of economic production at high specific activities.

Iridium - 192 and cobalt - 60 are two commonly used radioisotopes in industrial radiography.
Table 2.1 gives the characteristics of then; tio radioisotopes.

TABLE 2.1: CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES

Source Half-life Production Gamma Radiation Useful

Process Energy . Output Range of
(MeV) R/h/Ci This:kness
at 1 metre in Steel (mm)

192 I 191 0.296 to

r 74.4 d 77Ir(n,r) 0.43 10- 60
77 0.613

1.17 &
60 Co 5.3 y 59 Co (n,r) 1.3 50-200
27 27 1.33

3.1 : Specific Activity

The specific activity of a radioisotope is measured in gigabequerels per gram (GBq/g) or curies
per gram (Ci/g). A high specific activity indicates that a radioisotope of given activity will be
of smaller mass. In industrial radiography, to obtain a sharper image, the size 'of the source
should also be small. This is achieved by a source of higher physical density. Iridium-192,

2,7
 with a physical density .2 ..4 g
radiography...

4 : FABRICATION OF R PYOISOTOPES
C
Fabrication of a sealed. radioisotopes involves sealing' of the active material in-an'inactive
capsule, resistant ^voughltowithstandunder nprmal-conditions of use, dispersion ;of active
materials : General y, stainless steel is used as the encapsulation material.

Board of Radiation and * Is xtope Technology (BRIT), M . umbai-400 094, fabricates and supplies
cobalt- 60 and iridi in-192 radiography sources for use in a variety of.equipment and in a range
of activity values. Although there are differences in shapes and sizes of source assemblies,
the inner source capsule , loaded in these , are similar in shape and dimensions. It is a stainless
steel capsule with dimensions: 8mm length, 4.5mm diameter... Eacharidium-192'pellet is of
dimension 2.5mm diameter and 0.3mm thickness. The number, of pellets in a capsule
depends on the activity required. A 1000 GBq capsule may have fdur.,or five such pellets.
 TABLE. 2.2 DECAY CHART FOR COBALT -60 SOURCE
'(Half-life: 5.27 years)'

Months-> 02 08 10

Years

..y
00 - 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90
01. 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0,80 0.78
02 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.70 0.69
03 0.67 0. 66 0.64 0.63 O.61 0.60
04 0.58 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.53
05 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46
06 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40
07 0.39 0. 38 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
08 0.34 0.34. 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.31
09 0.30 0. 29 . 0.29 0.28 M28 0.27
10 0.26 0,26 0.25 0.24 0,24 0.24

TABLE 2.3 : DECAY-'C- ILART FOR IRIDIUM-192 SOURCE

(Half-life ; 74.5 days)

Days 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

000 - 0.95 0.91 0.87 0,83 0.79 0_'x`5 0.72 0.69 0.66
050 0.63 0.60 0.57- 0.54 0.52 0.50 0--7 0.45 0.43 0.41
100 0.39. 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.31 0. 3 28 0.27 0.26
150 0.25 0.23 0,22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0. (.18 0.17 0.16
200 0.15 '0.15 0.14• 0.13 0.13 0.12 0. f.1II 0.11 0.10

2.9
 OL*Z

C 0 0 FnACTUHI (EMAINItIC
8
N
8
N
o 0 0 O
0 0. 0
K)
N IW Ian

J
0

FIIACTION UIEMAtN11IC
0
0
0 00 0
N

C
N .- .. °122

_ Jr
 2C. GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT

1 : INTRODUCTION ,
Gamma radiography equipment or camera consists of the following :

1. A source housing, which serves as a shielded container for the gamma source during
its storage and it has an arrangement to give a controlled radiation beam, when
needed.
2. An 'Exposure Mechanism', built in the source housing or separately attachable and

3. Accessories such as source manipulators, teleflex cable and gear drive system,
,flexible guide tubes for the cable and source travel , source position indicators,
radiation beam collimators , source changers (for transport), etc.

Design and development of radiography equipment has special importance in the programme of
NDT inspection..

2: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EXPOSURE DEVICES

The design and test criteria for radiographic exposure devices are based upon both use and
transport considerations , as these devices are also used as transport packages.

Size , shape and weight of a.radiography camera is dependent upon the types .ofThe exposure
heart
` the shielding material used
mechanism , the activity . of the. radioisotope and also on l'he design
. '
of the gamma' adiography , ezposure device is sourceassembly with its housing
and fabrication criteria to be considered are

1. shielding material
2. exposure mechanism
3. source assembly
4, safety interlocks
5. control unit
6. accessories
7. feasibility and reliability
8. easy maintenance and- source replenishment
9. installation
10. transportation

In general , the exposure devices can be. broadly classified on the basis of their weight.
30
) (Portable)
a) Manually handled (light) - upto 50 kg (Class P
b) 'Holley mounted (medium ) 50-500 kg (Class M ) (Mobile)
c) Nixed (Inhouse) '(Heavy ). - Over 500 kg (Class F ) (Fixed)

Classifications
Trolley and manually handled units can be moved at the site for exposures .
given in brackets are as per ISO 3999.

I
2.11
 ---- 0e , fiii, n74
--

1. Main body 2. Source 3. Source assembly.

4. Shutter 5. Teleflex cable 6. Driving unit

Fig. 2.5 : Source Exposure Methods.

a) Source held -in the housing and the shutter is displaced to expose the source
(Fig; 2.5a).. . It could be used 'only. in portable cameras because of practical
limitations on size and weight of the shutter. (no longer in use in Indic)
b) Source held on a cylindrical drum which is rotated to expose the. source -(Fig. 2.5b).
( It provides wide radiation beam.
c) Source enclosed in a rigid source holder which is moved through a small distance-for
giving the exposure (Fig..2.5c).. This type is used generally for sources with more-
penetrating radiation such as cobalt-60, of:higher activity, and for use in permanent
exposure rooms.

d) Source :as ombly attached to the`tipof a-flezible cable and-driven out of the source
housing for panoramic exposure (Fig. 2.5d).
3: DESIGN
The impprtant points to be considered, whip designing a radiography camera are ;

1. type of source assembly,.

2. shielding material,
3. source exposure mechanism,
4. incorporation of safety devices,
5. feasibility of fabrication,
6. easy maintenance and sou ^ice reply:nishment
7. installation and
8. transportation.

3.1 : Source Assembly

The radiation source in a radiography camera is always housed in a secondary. container called
'source assembly '. The source assembly can be of two types, rigid or flexible . Rigid source
holder is preferred for source housings shown in fig . 2.5a to 2.5c. Flexible source assembly is
:used , when the source ,is required to travel large distance to and from the source housing,
through bends and at different planes . (Fig 2.6)

Iridium-192 Source capsule,

pellet .

ROLI- 1 source assembly

v77`7'.17.1. 1..7°77`
Tecliop5-660 source assemblg-

\` \
Teletron source assemblg

Fig. 2.6 : Source Assemblies

3.2 : Shielding Material

As stated earlier, size and weight of a source housing is decided by-theshielding material and its
thickness . Properties of different shielding materials are given Table 2.4.

2.13
 1. Atomic number 82 88% tungsten (Z=?4) 92
9% copper (29)
3 % nickel (28)
.9 19.07
2. Density in gram /cc 11.3 18

3. Melting point (°C) 327 3420 1132

5. Half value layer

12.45 7.65 6,88
Cobalt-60 (mm)
4.8 3.2 2.71
Iridium- 192 (mm)

easily available and can be made in

Lead is a commonly used shielding material , as it is cheaper,
lining to hold it, as it is a soft material . Heavy alloy and
any desired shape . But, it needs a metal - . However,
uranium are best suited for shielding to produce compact and light weight cameras
fabrication of source housings with these materials requires special techniques.

3.3 Source Exposure :

Directional exposures with collimated beam with source fixed in the source housing are best
from the radiation safety stand point. However, such exposures greatly restrict the flexibility
most of the modern units are designed for panoramic exposure with,
of operation . Therefore ,
provisions to attach collimators (Fig. 2.7 ) for directional exposures...

ential exposure For unidirectional exposure

For circumfe -
Shielding' thickness should be more than 1 TVL
Ti. Fig. 2.7 : Col limators°

2.14

r'l^ ti^r
 Panoramic exposures are made by moving the source assembly out of thesource housing , using
remote driving devices, operated by pneumatic , electrical or mechanical systems. With flexible
source assembly, only mechanical systems using teleflex cable are favoured.

3.4 :Safety Devices

All radiography equipment should be provided with safety devices such as inu :rlocks,
source.
couplings source holder locking, immobilizing device for the source , etc. In -house facilities
are planned with more elaborate safety devices, such' as door interlocks, audio
-visual' signals,
search-operatiotas .in exposure areas, and other fool-proof safety features . In.addiFion,
radiation m3Tnitoring instruments should also be, incorporated in the design.

3.5 : Fabrication

Design of the unit should be done keeping in mind the limitations during the fabrication of
components . These components are evaluated .for soundness and reliability to ensure fool
-
proof performance over the designed life of the equipment.

3.6 : Maintenance

The equipment should b e designed in such a way that minimum maintenance is required during
its service and.defective part is easily replaceable.

3.7 : Transportation

The design of the camera , when loaded with source should meet the <prescribed transport
regulations.

3.8 : Installation

Installation of units with kilocurie activity needs special gadgets. These gadgets should be
designed in conjunction with the unit to be installed.

TABLE 2.5:: PERMISSIBLE LEAKAGE LEVEL

AROUND RADIOGRAPH' CAMERAS
Maximum exposure rate
mGy/h (,-.,PJH)
Class On external 50mm from 1rtt;
surface of external surface extern2.s sse
container of container of con: -_ae
Portable 2.0 (200) or 0.5 (50) 0.02 {
Mobile 2.0 (200) or 1.0 (100) 0.05 ti .
Fixed 2.0 (200) or 1.0 (100) 0.10 (1

2.15
 QUALITY CONTROL DURING PROUI^CTIO^T:
All radiography cameras are .
confirm the Integrity of required to be sublet ed to strict gt,alrty^control examinatior. to
mechanical parts and also to ensure that radiation leakage levels are
below the permissible limits. The existing
permissible radiation . leakage. levels on the source
housings in 'off position are given in..the table 2.5.

Prototype lu nits x' ith remote control system are specially tested for
simulated nditie ns to assess the life of components . operational reliability under
N and associated accessories.
5: EQU PMENT IN USE IN INDIA

Iridium-192 and cobalt -

60' sources together can cover an inspection range of thickness
10-200 mm, steel equivalent. Thus, efforts. for equipment development have been mainly
directed towards these sources. Many equipment are commercially available, with these
sources shielded eith er wt; + Uead, heavy alloy or depleted uranium

1. Portable

Teletron SU-100/50 Gammamat TI/TI-F/S-301

Amertest- 660 ^ ,,^^ Century SA
Spec-2T 200 Gammarid

2. Mobila

RCOLI-1 Gammamat-M (Crawler)

CRC-2A, Gammamat TK 10•
IRCX-150 GR-50

Fri&d

CBC 5000 Gammamat TK 100/600

Amertesi 520 Gas Prom

Some of these egilipment are discussed below.

54 Lead shielded, low cost equipment

5.1.1: Iridium-192 Units'

ROLL-I is a remote operated lead shielded cainera'designed for 35 Ci iridium-192 source

(Fig. 2.8). It has 'S' conduit to-house a flexible source assembly.

5.1.2: Cobalt-60 Units

Radiography camera with a capacity of 10 Ci designed for panoramic exposure is shown in

 figure 2.9. The spherical source h)usin g, i
maneuver. The unit enables source movement in s mounted on a rugged trolley
for ease of
. a rigid guide tube for panoramic exposure.
Radiation beam can be restricted for directional exposures using a collimator, which can be
fixed to the source housing.

5.2 : Light. Weight, High Activity Equipment

These have either depleted uranium orr heavy alloy material for shielding. Fabrication of these
source. housings is not as easy lead ource housings. The cost of the material is also very high.

Some of the imported radiogr, phy eauip;:nent approved in I

2. 1 4. ndi a are shown in figures 2.10 to

6: TYPE APPROVAL OF GA1 J 4 RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT

.The built-in safety of gamma radiography equipment, both from radiation and operational point
of view,, is very essential because majority of the radiography work is carries out in workshop
and construction
-sites which call for a strong and rugged equipment. kshop

As per the present safety requirements, in addition to shielding adequacy, all models of
radiography equipment must be so designed,
tests, such as as to withstand various
drop test, fire test., vibration. test, shock test, water mechanica l and operational
test, as per the specifications laid down by Inter immersion test and endurance
national Standards. Organisation (ISO 3999).
Only those :equipmnt which conform to all the provisions of ISO 309e
permitted to be used for industrial radiography work. ar approved and

2.17
 1. Source assembly 2.' Source 3. Lead Shield
4. Locking system 5 . Secondary container

Portable/mobile camera Flexible source assembly

Flexible guide tube 'S '. codduit
Ball & socket-coupline ..__

Fig. 2.8 : ROLI- 1 Camera

1. Source position
2. Source assembly
3. Rotating shutter
4. Lead shield
5. Shutter handle
6. Shutter arrestor plug
7.'Shipping cap
8. Front side cover
9. Rear side cover

l
 1. Shield-
2. Source
3. Source assembly
4.- Source assembly catch
5. Key lock for shutter
6. Shutter opening handle
7. Spring lock for shutter
8.'.Shielding plug

Portable'camera ,Depleted uranium shield

Rigid source assembly Ball & socket coupling
(tungsten )
Straight conduit

Fig.. 2.10: Teletron/Gammavolt Camera

--1. Source ._ . .
2. Lock
3. Source assembly
4. Stopper
5. Shield

Portable camera Depleted uranium shield

'S' conduit .
Flexible guide tube
Ball & socket coupling Flexible source assembly

Fig. 2.11: TechOps/ Amertest Camera

2.19
 1. Source .capsule . 4. Source assembly
2. Safety plug ;, L^F;.,1 5:lunger type lock=.. ;=;,,_.- - :.mac
- 3. Depleted uranium-shield '=

Fig. 2.12: SPEC - 2T Camera.

1. Source assembly
2. Source
3. Shield
4. Shutter

Portable camera Depleted uranium shield

Flexible pencil Straight conduit
Flexible guide tube Ball & socket coupling

Fig. 2:13 : Gammamat Camera

i
1. Shutter plug in a hollow shuttle 2. Shutter arrestor
3. Shutter shuttle receptor 4. Source capsule
5. Source holder 6 . Shield 7. Lock

Fig. 2.14: Gammarid - 192 Camera.

2.21
 3A. pH .:TOGRAPx-HC AND, NON-PHOTOGRAPHIC
C -RECORDING

1: INTRODUCTION

The type of X-ray - film used in radiography, plays an important role din the detection of flaws.
It is therefc re, important to have detailed knowledge about structure and properties of films.

2 : STRIACTURE OF X -RAY FILM

Figure 3.1 howl .xoss-section of a typical X -ray film. It consists of

(
base,
emulsion, .
binding layer and
protective layer

Protective layer (11A)

Emulsion ( 10 - 151A)

Polyester-Base (175µ)

Emulsion (10 151A)

'Protective layer (11A)

Fig. 3.1 : Cross Section of an X-ray Film

G
2.1 : Film Base

Polyester is the most commonly used material for film base.

2.2 : Emulsion

Silver bromide (AgBr) mixed with. gelatin, is used as film emulsion.

2.3 : Binding layer

This layer acts as binder between film base ' and emulsion.

2.4 : Protective layer

The protective layer consists only gelatine.

It serves to protect the lower layers from physical
damage, abrasion and stress marks.

3.1
 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF FILMS
3.1 : Film Density

X-ray
film on exposure to radiation and processing produces black deposits of silver. 1
blackening of the film is called optical density (
D) and is given by the expression,
L
D = Loges

Where L0 = Intensity of incident light

LL = Intensity of transmitted light

Optical
density is measured with an instrument called 'Densitometer'.

The factors which control the optical density are

a. type of film
b: energy of radiation
c. amount of exposure and
d. processing conditions

0 2 3
Log relative exposure -^

Fig. 3.2 : Characteristic Curves of X-ray Films

3.2 : Characteristic Curve

If:, number of different exposures are given to various areas of an X-ray film and densities
obtained at these areas after processing are plotted as a function of
Logo ( exposure), the

3.2

ewr4wagme
 resulting curve is called ' Characteristic; ;urye , of thed-Win (1.1g .. 2}. ^
giv: s information on

a. speed of film and

b. film contrast

3.2.1 Speed
(
Speed is defined as the density recorded on a film due to a given radiation exposure. It is
measured in terms of inverse' of exposure . required to produce a radiograph of a particular
a film which requires less
density, under given conditions . Keeping other factors constant ,
exposure is faster. Figure 3 . 2 shows characteristic ,, of two industrial X-ray films in which
film A is faster than, film B.
TABLE 3.1 : FILM FACTORS OF SOME COMMON FILMS

Type of ' Film Film Factor Source Type of Film . Film Factor
Source with Double
with Double
Lead Screen Lead Screen

Iridium-192 . Agfa D-2 9.5 R Cobalt-60 . Agfa D -2 19.6 R

(. 'D 8.0 R
D-4 4.0 R
D-7 1,2 R D=7 2.5 R

-NDT-55 .. 3.8R NDT-55 7.5R

*NDT --65 1.4 R NDT-65 3.OR
NDT --70 1.0 R NDT-70 2.OR

The amount of exposure of a given radiation energy required on a film to produce a given film
' film factor'. A film
density (usually. 2.0) under specified conditions of processing is called
with lower film factor is faster than the one with a higher value.. Film factor depends on
energy of radiation . Film factor values fora few commonly used films are given in Table 3.1.

3.2.2 Contrast

Film contrast or gradient is defined as the•.change in density recorded on a. film for a given
change in radiation intensity.

The slope of the characteristic curve at a given density is the measure of the gradient of the
film, Gd, at that density,

D2 D1
Log E2 - Log

3.3
 The gradient of a film depends on the size of its crystals . • Gradient of industrial X - ray films
goes on increasing with optical density , as shown in figure 3 3 . it is practicall inde nd
J
of the radiation energy. In general , compared to coarse grain film fine grain films
pe ent
have lower
speeds , but, higher gradient at a given density.

Film Speed
H>Y>Z

1 2 3
Density --7

Fig. 3.3 . 'Gradient Versus Density

3.3 : Effect of 'radiation energy

There is very little effect on the shape of the characteristic curve due to energy of radiation.
. However, the film speed depends on radiation energy ,
as can be seen in table 3.1.

3.4 Various Types of Films

The films can be divided into three groups on the basis of radiography requirements.

1. Films for use with fluorescent screens, also known as salt screen films.
2. Films for use with metal screens or without screens (also called
'direct films'). This
group covers a large range of industrial X-ray films. The films are classifies
depending upon the grain - size of the films;

Class - I Highest contrast , lowest speed film

Class - H. - High contrast , low speed film
Class - III - Medium contrast , medium speed'film
Class - IV - Lowest contrast, highest speed film

3. Films used for special purposes, e,g, single emulsion films.

3.4
 ,r n A» > TT0RFSCENT.SCREENS:
(I
C 1. INTRODUCTION
there are two disturbing factors.
When an object is radiographed without using screens ,

C object), in film is low.

1. The absorption of primary radiation (transmitted through the
This results in longer exposure time.
scattered by the object), in film is
2. The absorption of low energy scattered radiation (
relatively more . Thi; reduces the image quality.

, radiography screens
Hence, to reduce exposure time and improve image quality of radiographs
are used.

2: TYPES OF RADIOGRAPHY SCREENS

commonly used in industrial radiography
There are two types of radiography screens ,
practice : metallic foil screens and fluorescent screens.
, contrast and elimination of scattered
These screens differ in their basic characteristics e.g, speed
radiation.

3: METALLIC FOIL SCREENS

-ray film is
Metallic screens help in reduction of scattered radiation from the object. The X
sandwiched- between ; a pair .of lead. screens, as shown in figure 3:4.

Radiation transmitted
i from object
l
V1I
Card board I plastic

=- I ead-screen (front)
......•::.:r:: ^:;. ::asp - Film
Lead screen (back)

Card board / plastic

\1l \T/\`^.\`^ Backscattered radiation

Intensifying Screens.
Fig. 3.4 : X-ray Film Sandwiched Between a Pair of Lead

3.5
 3.1 : Reduction of scattered radiation

Attenuation of incident radiation in the object results l W ),.

radiation and this falls on the film , production of ow energy scar .^
atomic number el along with the in ut ed
transm °
ements have more absorp radiation. rfa
foil of high atomic number tion cap
apacity for low energ As : l
is placed bstweeobject primay ry radiations ,
energy radiation and film, it will ab sorb most
,- before it fa l ls on the film
radiation will be reduced . . Hence, effect of e of theo
action also . Similarly, This metallic foil will serve additional thu low .ener scat
y, to reduce low ener ¢ pose! of tain e rfica ^
back . scattering:of the gy
pri mary radiation , f¢ (° pe ined d
radiographed ) , a metal from objects p l
sheet of high atomic number is l aced behi a d ocf e specimen m-, ,
double coated X-ray film i paceb ic ' ithe
s sa 111tH. Hen(,.?
effect of ndwiched
scattered between a pair of m o
radiation on the film, r etal lic if screens toreduce(
radi
exulting
in an improved defrnit ion of radiogra,,
3.2 ; Intensifyin g A ctinn _ >
Intensifying action of a radio
graph
y which is defined as screen is expressed in terms of rnrensificatiOn Factor (u

Exposure time required to produce

IF = film density without screen a certain

Exposure-time required top

with screen . roduce same density

In this definition ,
it is assumed that same film avid radiation source are
exposures. 'IF' due to double lead screen exposure with action -192 used for both tfx
source is about 4.5.,
Intensification action occurs due to the photoelectrons, emitted as a resultof interaction
rays with the material.
of X o(

Intensification factor due to metallic screens depends

on:
a. foil element
b. thickness of foil,
c, energy of radiation, and
d. 'pecimen thickness.

4 : FLUORESCENT SCREENS

These are also called 'Salt Screens'.

on which certain inorganic crystallineThese
s screens consist of
card is board plastic materi givir:
light when radiation is incident oil them. Since a photographic film are coated on one side. They
a ubstances glow
tivve to gi ! ig
than to X/r rays, it enhances the sensitivity of the film. A material more which orsensitive
has e its fig
emission in blue or ultraviolet region IS used ,- g'
to blue tight. The for t,ti-s Purpose, since the film is highly sensiti^
most commonly
screens are used in pairs, used coated
so that a double material for this purpose is calcium tungstate. The
X•ray
as shown in figure 3.5. film can be sand-witched between the

3.6

^Viwm
 C,F.*- yv'-yew
Each._crystal.. in salt screen emits light . This light'ldiiverges in all directions and gives image
unsharpness.

Intensification factor (IF) due'ta salt screens depends upon

C: a.; density of radiograph,

bJ thickness of screen,
c.; coating material and
d. energy of radiation

InIgamina 'radiography, ° the-,intensification factors with salt screens , are not very much -greater
than that'obtained with lead screens. Secondly, these screens give poor quality image . Hence,
these screens are not'much used in industrial radiography.

- X or gamma rays
IH..1lllbl -Card board / plastic

-Salt (CaWO4) screen

- Film
- Salt (CaWO4) screen
( i
-Card J,oard / plastic

Fig. 3 . 5 X-ray Film sandwiched between a pair of salt intensifying screens

3.7
 4A. WORK PARAMETERS AND CONDITIONS
1: INTRODUCTION
In' radiography, work parameters and conditions
play an equally im p ortant role as th e applic^.
radiography techniques . The handling of X-ray films before
and after exposure and filr>
processing are important in this respect.

2: HANDLING OF FILMS

X-ray films should be handled '

carefully to avoid physical strains such as pressure creasing.
buckling and friction on it. The normal pressure applied on a cassette to provide good contat.
with the object does not damage the films. Whenever the films are - loaded in flexible cassette"
and external clamping devices are used , it should be seen
that pressure is applied uniformly.
Localized pressure on film can pro du ce artifacts in the radiograph

2.1 : Loading and Unloading Films

Films should be held by edges in order to prevent finger or pressure marls . P recaut i
on shou t
be taken to avoid handling films in a manner which would cause frictio1 and give confusing:
black marks on the radio grap h .

2.2 : Expiry Date

The expiry date pn a . film pacts means that the

film should be used before the given date.
Expiry dates ol'di e films : tepeitd oit iTie storage conditions.

3: FILM STORAGE

3.1 : Protection from Gamma and X-rays

X-ray film should be protected from X - rays and gamma rays to avoid
fogging.

3.2 : Chemical and Physical Hazards

Film should not be kept in a chemical storage room or in any loca' io- where there
of gas . Chemical vapours , is leakage
high humidity and temperatures also cc :_:-ibute to film fogging.
Film should be stored in as cool a place as possible , and in tropi :<
regions, temperatures
control in the store r o om is recommended .
Films may be stored for lo ng periods in a
refrigerator.

4-: FILM PROCESSING

After exposure to radiation, a latent 'image of the object is form, i

: r0CCSSi ^ b b,_ y the X,ray film. Film
i iv B.ible hiiagt to a visible . and permanent image
. There are five
main stages involved in film processing
. S-i^^ h„

4.1
 1. Development oreation of the visible . image.
2. Stop bath removal of excess developer solution and stopping of developing
action.
2. Fixation : removal of unwanted, unexposed silver halide and making image
permanent.

3. Washing : removal of unwanted fixation products.

4. Drying removal of .unwantedwater.

5: LATENT IMAGE FORMATION •

On exposure to X or gamma radiation , silver bromide in the film is converted to metallic

silver.

6 : EFFECT OF DEVELOPMENT

The function c•f developer solution is to reduce only exposed grains of silver bromide into
additional metallic silver and leave unexposed , unaffected grains . The rate of development of
exposed crystals is much greater than corresponding rate of unexposed crystals.

Mechanism of the reaction is

Ag+ + e: ---> Ag
c
The electron for the reaction is donated by developer solution.

6.1 : Developers in Use

V%vt 1V(471A
Th ere are two distinct typ es of develop ers . ,n'( ra _
A-N -
( 1. Solid pack, containing two separate bags of chemicals which have to be dissolved in
correct quantity of water before use.
(
2. Liquid concentrate, which require appropriate dilution with water to give the
working solution:

6:1.1 Coaunercial Developers A u

lx'c. A G of /'
3

Some of the commercially available developers for manual processing of X-ray films are given
in Table 4.1.

.6.1.2: Use -of Developers

ideal developing temperature is 200 C and duration of 5 minutes. To avoid faults during
developing , it should be properly agitated during developing.

4.2
 Make
Trade Name
Size of the pack
to make (in litres
of working solution
Kodak Indian
Photographic 2.25
Co developer
4.50
9.00
13.50
22.50
Agfa-Gaevert C-230
developer 2.25
4.50
9.00
13.50
22.50
May& B
aker Solidex X-ray
Developer 2.50
4.50
9.00
13.50
22.50

*7 :STOP BAjj. .

After developing, the image comes

and enable to be viewed, If into existence and remaining osses makes it Permar
enhan no. action. is taken, the developer will continue to' work product..,,
ced densfty, fog or irregular developer stains. The unwanted developer
a stop bath. There are two types of stop baths. is removed uy
7.1; Water Rinse

The excess developer is removed from the film simply by inmersin1, it •

bath.. Static water rinse involves the risk of solution becoming alkaline in a running wa-
be of any use in stopping development. Hence, running water bath i oith use and cease tn
rec
-7.2 Acetic Acid Rinse mmended.

This; bath is static and 2 to 3

effigy;ietit in action and requiresf films to be immersed a neit for bout5 m to ed
However, unlike flow water rinse, acetic acid will becomeseconds c P y This is more
. with agitation:
throughput of 100 FT2/
gallon is reasonable life suggested for this exhausted with use. A
.
7.3 Faults arising during rinsing.

Th only fault which can occur at this stage is due to delay in puffin'
instop bath. A thin layersto the
of oxidized developer on the film can lead developer laden
in filn
to production of brows
wn

4.3
^'.^rtty.'
"w'^t^rla ult: Cd^ . ^t. ^3rtll^J
.^wi .^w•'l11 ^ ^ . ' w ^. y i.

8: FLING BATH

The fixer reacts with undeveloped silver bromide in the film and transforms it into water.
soluble compound which gets dissolved ' in washing operation. In addition , it enables the
image to become.permanent . Since the silver halide is still sensitive to .light to a small extent,
and so will slowly darken. if it is al?lowed io•remain on the film.

8 1 • Filing Agent I N3

The most widely used agent is sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2Og), commonly known as 'h pot ..
Its solution in Water rapidly dissolves silver chloride and bromide . uAc- A-dd IV4 ,

8.2 : Use of ]Turing Bath

Generally, the film is kept for 2-3 minutes in rapid fixing bath and for about 10 minutes in
ordinary hypo bath.

1. Agitation The films should be agitated initially, when immersed in fixer.

2. Temperature . The fixation process is less critical than development process

and a temperature range oft 2.5°C to standard 20°C is
acceptable.

8.3': Faults arising due to fixation

Most of the defects arise clue to contamination of fixer by developer into fixer , through
careless use of stop bath stage. Faults may also arise if films are inserted without agitation.
Streaks may be produced , due to uneven removal of developer.

9.: WASHING..AND DRYING

0.1': Washing

Washing is carried out to eliminate unwanted products from the emulsion after the fixing
operation . For this purpose, . the film is washed in running water for about 20 minutes and
then taken for drying. It is important to ^ use' flowing water , so-that the film on its removal
from bath is•taken out from uncontaminated water. -

9.1.1 Faults arising during washing

Usually twenty minutes are allotted for this stage, b ut the period may prove insufficient if,

a. the water is unusually cold,

b.'flow is inadequate,
c. tank is too. small for film throughput and
d. film is not inserted ` n a proper way.

4.4
 Each of these factors will lead to incomplete elimination of thiosulphate complexes from
gelatin. This will make the film yellow/brown on storage.

9.2 : Drying

It is necessary to remove excess water, as a wet radiograph is not convenient to handle and is
I
liable to mechanical, damage. Usually the wet films are dried by blowing a current of hot aif
over the films, and various types of drying cabinets exist for this purpose.. These cabinets
often include filter at their air intake to free the air from dust, which may stick to the wet film.

10: CHECK LIST OF PROCESSING -DIFFICULTIES

AND FILM BLEMISHES
Blemish or Difficulty Causes

Black crescents Kinking of f! m before processing.

White crescents-. Sharp bending or folding of the processed film.

-Overalfog Over-development, over-age film, prolonged exposure to safe light,

improper safelight filter, insufficient protection in storage from
radiation sources, film stored where temperature or humidity is too
high or chemical vapours exist, viewing developed film, before it is
properly fixed.

Black streaks / blotches Light leaks due to faulty film holders or cassette.

Streaks White and black streaks at points where film was attached to hanger
caused by processing solution remaining-on clips from earlier use.
Inadequate agitation during development. Removing film to view
during development time causing developer to run across film
unevenly. Contamination by chemically active deposits,
contamination of developer / fixer.

,/Drying spots and Drops of water on semi-dried film or drops of water running
streaks down semi-dried surface.

-Black spots Developer splashes before placing entire film in developer.

Brown stains Inadequate fixing.or exhausted fixing solution, prolonged

development in old developer, inadequate rinsing.

Dark deposits Oxidized products from developer or reacting silver salts.

White crystalline Inadequate washing after processing.

deposits

Milky appearance Incomplete fixing, exhausted fixing bath.

Sharply outlined Uneven development, films not agitated during development,

light dark areas films, hung too close together in developer.

Blisters Formation of gas bubbles in film emulsion.

Air bubbles Air trapped on film surface during development.

(light spots/patches)

4.5
 - in temperature of
Solution too warm , extreme- d ifferences
Reticulation (leather successive processing baths.
like appearance)
Fixing in warm or exhausted bath.
Frilling (loosbning Prolonged washing at high temperature.
of emulsion)
Due to'static electric discharges caused friction between film and
Static marks (Black
birdtrack effects) some other object.
Improper handling.
Scratches (black,
crack-like lines),
"Dark fingerprints Film touched . with dirty fingers before development.
Film touched with greasy fingers before. development.
"sight fingerprints
fitted or worn screens . Dirt on film screens.
White spots and'areas
Excessive hardening in fixer.
Brittle radiographs Excessive drying time.

11 : GEOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION

overned mainly by the'basic principles,of the shadow
The radiographic image on the film is g controlling various geometrical
fo.mation. - A sharp aid undistorted image is obtained. by of
factors such as source size, source to film distance, film to abject distanc , alignment
exposure
-`radiation beam. with respect to the plane of the object and film. Different
geometries are shown in Fig. 4.1
romthese exposure. eometries, it could be seen thatthe radiographic images always have an
F e Ioseness
element of magnification which will depend upon nd h°tfilm`
-th planes of t elobject athe en of odd
Distortion in the image would depend on the
Attempts are mrmade to keep both of them in the same plane, however, with specim
.geometry image. distortions are observed.
on the radiogralih due to the finite size
Both X and gamma rays produce a. certain unsharpHess
_ eomet; ical unsharpness (Ut)
of the focal spot`oc`tlie source.: This unsharpness is called g
which is calculated .as..: , ,
dx^.- orSFD = t(l+d/Ut
us SFD.- t ..
focal spot,
where, d` -effective diameter of the source/
SFD - source to .film distance, . -
t -thickness of the object.
The magnitude of Ut can uiiiy
ression, that U can never be zero .
ti is blear from this exp . Considering• this,:fact , various codes
proper selection of exposure v ariables
minimizedby prop
permit a certain Ug value related to object thicknesses..
 TC: C
I.

VNEWINIXIMEMEN/I A / r / / / / % r . 7 / / I d ^/f / f i l 1
Small source 11 Large source Large SFD
Small U9 Ug Large Ug Small Ug
$

I
I
1

^,9I/
fI/I/7IJ0UlUflf/,
Thinner object Thicker ob ject Film close to
Small Ug Large Ug object F
Small Ug
1 Film awag from
object-
Large Ug

C S - Source, 0 - Object
F -. Film, Ug- Unsharpness
C - Central radiation beam axis

Central axis Central axis not

perpendicular to perpendicular to
object centre object centre
Small Ug Large Ug

Fig. 4.1 : Geometric Representation of Radiographic Image.

4.7
 Radiation .. X-ray _
Material : Steel :=
Film : DuPont NDT 65
Film Density : 2.0
Distance : 36 inches
Screens : Lead
Front 0.12 mm
Back : 0.25 mm
Development : 5 minutes
20°C

C Fig. 4.2 : Exposure Chart for X-rays:

Radiation : Iridium-192
SAW - _ 9y 1ti gamma rays
Material : Steel
4 , CC - _ - - - `1'
0.000 Film .: DuPont NDT 35-75
UAW - -
^.
Film Density 2.0
Distance - : 24 inches
Screens Lead
600
- - -
- - Front . : 0.12 mm
400
300 Back : 0.25 mm
- - - - Development : 5.minutes
200
20° C
$00
6o
40
rl -
30

20 71!

0.6

Fig. 4.3 : Exposure Chart for Iridium- 92 Source. (Different Films)

4.8
 Lead screen : 0.1 mm front Lead screen : 0.15 mm front
'0.15 rnm back 0.20 mm back
Iridium - 192 Cobalt - 60

Density : 2, Developing time : 5 minutes, 20° C

Film : Agfa D7, For NDT - 65 film , multiply .above values by 1.5
To obtain exposure values in GBq x hour; multiply above values by 37.

Fig. 4.4 Exposure Chart for Gamma Rays (Different SFD)

Recommendations for optimum results are -

1. source or focal spot size should be as small as practicable . Ideal source will bei
point source,

2. source to object distance should be as large as possible,

3. the film should be in close contact with object and

4. source location should be-such , that radiation pass normal through object thickness. I

4.9
 For calculating the exposure time, the following steps should be followed :

1.Calculate the present source -activity in curies (Ci) from the decay charts.
2.Find thickness (cm) of the object.
3.Find HVT (cm) of object material; for the given source, from the HVT tables.
4.Find SFD (cm) for the object thickness.
5.Write RHM value (0.5 for iridium-192 and 1 .33 for cobalt-60)
6.Find film factor (F in Roentgen) from table 4.2.

TABLE 4.2 : FILM FACTOR (F) VALUES

(.
Film Factor (F)
Source
. NDT-65 NDT 70 Agfa D-7 Agfa D-4

Iridium-192 1.4.R. . LO R 1.1 R 3.5 R

Cobalt-60 2.8 R 2.0 R 2.2 R . 7.0 R

Substitute all these values in the'following formula :

F x 21rrrk x (SFD)2 x 60
Exposure time (minutes) . C x RHM.x (100)2

It may be noted.thatfthis formula is not very accurate for higher thicknesses, particularly when
using cobalt-60 source. Exposure charts as given in figures 4.2 - 4.4 are more accurate and
are recommended for use.

z rci e 1 : Calculate the exposure time in minutes for 0.75 inch. thick steel using 180 kV
X-rays. The machine is operated at 5 mA settings.

From figure 4.2, the exposure for 0.75 inch steel at I^J kY is 35 mA.min.

If the machine is operated at 5 mA setting, the exposure time is 35'5 7 minutes.

( Exercise Z :.Calculate the exposure time in minu tes for 1.5 inch thick steel using NDT 65 film
at 12 inch SFD'to produce optical density 2.0, using iridium-192 source of 8 curies.
(
From figure 4.3, the exposure time for.1.5 inch steel on NDT 65'film is 250 Ci.min.
(
a The exposure chart is made for.SFD of 24 inch.
EF (curie. min) x di 250 x 122
i ` t Exposure time (min) _ - = 7.8 minutes
cxd2 8x242

EF - Exposure factor for SFD di

r: - A.' i itv :n

d2 New 1,SFD .

4.10
 Exercise 2 : Calculate the exposure time, with the following data :

Source - Iridium-192, 10 curies (C= 10)

Steel plate 25 mm thick (x = 25) (HVT or T,4 = 12.5 ,nm)

Film -, NDT-65 (F = 1.4)

Radiography density required = 2.0

Let SFD be 50 cm

Substituting all these values in formula,

1.4 x 221112.1 x 502 x 60
Exposure time (min)
10 x 0.5 x 1002
1.4 x 4 x 2500 x 60
5 x 10000
16.8 minutes.

From exposure chart (Fig. 4.2) we can see that for 25mr a steel and SFD 50 cm, we need
around 2 . 8 curie x hour. It means the product of source activity and time in hours should be
2.8.

Hence, fora source activity of 2.8 curie, exposure time is 1 hour

for 1.0 curie, exposure time is 2.8 hours
fo: 10 curie, exposure time is 2.8 x 60 x 1/10 = 17 minutes I

We can calculate similarly, for other thicknesses also.

4.11
 QUALITY
4B. EVALUATION OF RAD IOGRAPHIC
The sensitivity, in turn,
is assessed by radiographic sensitivity .
The quality of a radiograph control contrast and definition of the image.
depends upon factors which

1.1 : Radiographic Sensitivity

smallest
Sensitivity is a general qualitative term referring
no the isize of
and definition of
detail which can be seen on a radiograph. It is governed by the
image appearing on the radiograph.

r t Contras
1.2: Radiographic
of . It depends upon
Radiographic Contrast is the density difference in two areas a radiograph
Radiog p
the subject contrast and film contrast.
gamma ray intensities transmitted
1.2.1 Subject Contrast is defined as the ratio of X or g sintensity
on quali ty, nsed
It depends upon the radiation ect
d be thesubj
ns
through two different areas of a^ec^ woul
distribution, and scattered radiation. Higher the radiation energy, lower
contrast.
G) refers to the slope of characteristic curve of the film at a given
1.2.2: Film Contrast ( rocessing conditions and optical density. It is
upon the type o f film
,p
density .- It depends it can be expressed as
. Mathematically,
independent of radiation quality

D
(i = Log E

1.3 :• Radiographic Definition

Radiograph is Definition refers to the sharpness of the outline of the image. It depends upon
the type of film, screens, radiation energy and exposure geometry

2 : FACTORS AFFECTING SENSITIVITY

These are given in table 4.3-

3: IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS (IQI)

of IQI or penetrameter sensitivity. These are
The quality of radiograph is expressed in terms exposure and visibility of their
specimen
small devices placeda nh the a o
f sensiti vi y.nDesirable properties of IQI are as
adiog ph, forms the the
image on the radiog
given below :
1. The material should, preferably, be the same as that of thehie technique.
2. It inust be sensitive in its reading to changes in radiograp

4.12
 i I

3. Method of recording should be simple, unambiguous.

4. It should have means for identification.
TABLE 4.3 : FACTORS INFLUENCING RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
Radiographic Contrast Radiographic Definition

Subject Film Geometric Graininess,

F_ D
Contrast Contrast Factors Fac;:tors

s efflrtr^t by Affected 1 y
Affected b
a. Focal spot/ a. '^ype of
a. Thickness a. Type of film
film source size
difference
in specimen
b. Source to b. Type of
b. Atomic number b. Film screen
processing film distance
and density
.of specimen parameters
c. Specimen to c. Film.
c. Radiation c. Radiographic development
density film distance
quality
d. Activity of d. Sudden change
d. Scattered in thickness
radiation developer
of specimen

e. Screen film
contrast

3.1 : Commonly Used Image Quality Indicators.

. have been used. Some
Various types of designs of IQI based on wires, holes , slits, etc
common designs are shown in figure 4.5.

3.1.1 : Plaque/Hole (ASTM) type

This type of IQ' is a constant thickness plate having three drilled holes of diffeieit diameters.
If the plate thickness is T, the hole diameters are T, 2 T and 4T with minimum hole diameters
, 0 and 0.040 inches respectively. The plaque must be of the same material as
are 0.010, 0.0'
specimen. Th. same penetrameters are accepted by ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.

Identification numbers and notches, specifying the material and the IQI thickness are fixed
each plate. The number indicates thickness in thousands of an inch. Three quality levels c:.n.
be determined with a given ASTM IQI, as given in table 4.4.

4.13
 Wire Diameter (mm) tDIN 62 1 E
Set 1-ISO-7 6-ISO- 12 10-ISO-16

3.2X68 1 .0 0.4'' .
2.5 0.8 . 632.
2.0 0.63 0.25•
1.6 0.5 0.2,
1.25 0.4: •0.16'
1.0 0.32 0:13'
0.8 0.25 0.1, .$
10 ISO. 16
DIN WIRE I

Wire Diameter (inch) T^^ r

Set A B C D
O

A-STM'
0.0032' 0.010 0. 032 0.100
0.004X ..iuS 0.013': 0.040 0.126
0.005 0.016 0.050 0-160-
0.0063 0 .020 0.063 '0.20
0.008 0 .023 0.080 0.25
0.010 0 .032 0. 100 0.32 ^$.5

4T

1 A
I
ASTM PLAQUE RSTM WIRE

Fig. -4.5, Image Quality Indicators

TABLE 4.4

Level of Penetrarneter Minimum Equivalent

inspection thickness perceptible penetrameter
(% of specimen hole diameter sensitivity
thickness) per

1-1T 1 IT 0.7
1-2T 1 2T 1
I 4T 1.4
1-4T 1.4
2-1T 2 IT
2 2T 2.0
2-2T
2 4T 2.8
2-4T
4 IT 2.8
4-IT
2T 4
4-2T 44 5.6
4-4T OT .

4.14
 I
Equivalent sensitivity SE is calculated as

SE - Diameter of minimum visible hole in terms of T

2T
where.
n - penetrameter thickness expressed in percentage ofspecimen thickness
T thickness of penetrameter

is def'ned as the thickness of penetrameter expressed in percentage in which 2 T hole

Id be risible under the same-condition.

3.11.2 : Wire Type

Wire type IQI consists of a series of wires of minimum length 25 mm, mounted side by side
parallel with a distance between the axis of wires of not less than three times the wire diamc
and notless-titan -5 mm and arranged in order of increasing diameter.

Wire type of IQIs have been adopted internationally. Most commonly used are DIN type z
Ap I IntypeTQls.

3.2 Placement of IQI

As ageneral practice, IQI must be placed on the source side of the specimen . Film side 10
are also pe;nu tted in some codes only in special circumstances.

o f plaque type IQI , it is generally placed parallel to the wei j at a location of p oore l
"sitiviiy for a given technique . Wires QI is placed across the weld (Fig 4.6). When
weld with t-he.reinforcement is examined, a shim of metal should b: placed under the IQI
match the total thickness.

When the objects are too small or have a complicated. structure for IQI placement, iQI can
p!aced on a uniform block of the same material.

`,
ASTM -

I el!

o, 01

Fig. 4.6 : Placement of Image Quality Indicators.

4.15
 ^"-^; -s4^^=[FCTIQN^ OF:AS'i^'1Z
f1J

Material-Thickness , 101 Designations ani

C -Penetrameters

Source Side Film Side

I Nominal Single Wall
Material Thickness Designation Essential Wire
Range in Inches Designation Essential Wire
Dia. Hole . Dia.
Hole
inch inch

- 0.008 10 2T 0.006
Upto 0. 25 incl 12 2T
12 2T 0.008
0.25 to 0.375 1.5 2 T 0.010
17 _ 0.013 15 2T 0.010
0.375 to 0.5 2 T
0.016 17 2T 0.013
0.5 to 0.75 `20 2T
0.020 20 2T 0.016
0/..75 to. 1.0 25 2T
0.025 25 2T 0.020
^.Y.O to -1.5 30 2 T
0.032 30 . 2T 0.025
1.25 to 2:0 35 2T
0 40 "35' 2T 0.032
2.0 to 2.5 40 2.T.
0.050 40 2T 0,040
2.5 to 4:0 . 50 . 2T
50 2T 0.050
2T 0.063
4.0 to 6.0 60 2T 0.063
'80 2T 0.100
6.0. to 8.0 g0 2T 0.100
100 2 T 0.126
8.0 to 10.0 100 2T 0.126
1'20 2 T 0.160
10.0 to 12.0 120 2T 0.160
1b0.._ 2T 0.250.
12.0 to 16.0 160 2T 0.250
200 2T 0.320
16.0 to-20.0

4 IDENTIFICATIONS
Every radiograph must have permanent identification marks which identify the job, the -region
thick steel sections , thin lead letters
examined and the orientation of the film. Except on very
and:characters can be used for placement on the specimen or film to be visible on the
They should be fixed on the specimen when it is casting or weld and left in
radiograph .
position whenever used.

However, moist of the specimen will have permanent marking either by stamping, engraving or
service condition of the specimen.
painting according to what is most appropriate for the

5 : CONTROL OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY

contribute to the resultant quality of a
As given in table 4.3, there are many factors which .
factors should be carefully controlled by following a well recognised
radiograph . These:,
. Inforthation on the following points
national/ international practice usually specified is codes
is essential.

and general requirements such as very high sensitivity, high

Technique Classification
sensitivity and medium sensitivity are followed as per code.

4.16
 Material and its Thickness data is essential to select the "source , SFD and other important
radiography parameters . Whenever possible, fabrication procedure such as welding, casting.
etc. should be made available.

Film and Screen used are checked up with the recommendations of the code with respect to
the technique classification.

Film Processing should be standard as:per the recommendations of mane facturer of the
chemicals . -Shortened and prolonged development time must be avoid e^.

Density of the Radiograph should be between 2-3. Higher density malt be employed provided
high intensity illuminator is available for viewing the radiographs. Fog{deny it;- and expiry date
of the film should be checked. Fog density should not exceed 0.2.

Identification Marking System has to be* explicit to enable finding thc: exact area of the
specimen without any ambiguity. Lead. markers impression must appear on the radiograph.

Source, its active dimensions and calibration data should be verified with recommendations of;
the code.

SFI) is directly linked with specified c value It also determines the diagnostic area coverage
of the specimen.

Exposure geometry with relative position of source, specimen and films shown be given in a
sketch-for verification. 1 I

IQ', its location bears the most important information leading to assessment of the, sensitivity
of a radiograph. Observed sensitivity is calculated in terms ofth'ckness )f plaque/hole or 'f
diameter of the wire discernible-by eye.

Exposure Time should be in the specified range in the code.

Besides the above points, the radiograph. is carefully examined on both sides with reflected
light to r-weal superficial marks such as scratches, crimps and.other processi.ig marks. Use of
a magnifying glass would be helpful. Familiarity with film artifacts and their indication is also
essential to determine the genuine discontinuity as different from the spurious indication on the
film.

6: UNSATISFACTORY RADIOGRAPHS

Most common faults and their causes are listed below.

6.1 : High Density

Excessive film density can be due to overexposure, over-devciopment of film or fog. in casc
of over-exposure, the film can be viewed on high intensity illuminator. Another exposure may
be made by cutting down the exposure time by 1/3.

4.17
 ^,1ittl ti::
s recommendations
of film can- be avoided by following the manufacturer '
Over= developfient • ed tdevel rs can also cause high density
for processing . Unsuitable and wrongly intx

6.2 : Low Density

exposure. under-development , or presenn oftng the
Cause for low density may be under- can be corre
between the lead -screen and the film. Under exposu nt can be due cte oo cold developer
exposure time by 40% or more . Under developme solution. These should be according
too short development time, or weak developer
solution , Wrongly'mixed developers can also cause low film -
to the recommended specifications .
density.

6.3 : High Radiography Contrast

n
t.
It-can be due to excessive subject contrast or high film contras e oHi hknbject contr st can
us
be rectified byincreasfng the kV, use of a filterf ;at the develo
Check also atwe rig y
methods. Low contrast film can also be'used .
nsr u'ulnder posed Elmer, as
well as the practice of prolonged development times to.compo

6.4 Low Radiography Contrast pme

.nt. it
it can be due to low subject and film contrast and under develao d process can the frre under
ast an
decreasing a iergy of radiation, use of higher contr
standard cond lions.

6.5 Poor Definition

poor contact between film and screen,
geometrical exposure factors ,
Possible causes can beg The geometrical s s houl.d e
.graininess of screens and graininess of film . beb cverifieA nd
the: specified Ut value. Film and screen gra in
readjusted to meet
using fine grain film and improving the. contact between the film and the screen.

In addition, possible movement of the source, film, 'specimen should be arrested to eliminate

-movement unsharpness (Um)

6.6 : fog
inadequate film storage
including safe light ),
It can result from excessive exposure to. light (
facility or improper film processing.
brigh ness
ined for
loading and processing area should be examn ocafading l ighcoating dyest d ueotf
tt
on safe light- should also be -exan
safe light. The filter
use of high wattage bulb.
r. radi?lion or excessive heat,
;e facility may result in improper pw:ectiOr, ,,,,..
Inadequate storage Improper film processing can be corrected by mixing proper solutions,
ty. humidity and gases .

4:18

i
 controlling their temperature ,
development .procedures: light proofness or dark - room and
follow-up of correct-

6.7: Spurious Indications

Faulty film processing and careless handling

of films - before, during and
vmUld result in various types of spurious indications after the exposure -
on the film.
7: VIEWING OF RADIOGRAPHS

Conventional blatk.and white radiographs are viewed against a light source

providing the light is called as ' illuminator . The equipment
available. '. '-Various types
source; However, the most suitable illuminator is thnef which ' has higheinens
sufficient to penetrate the film densities upto d ty light
, with provisions
and mechanical arrangements for oilskin th for intensity control
g e tghted area.
7.1 : Brightness Conditions

Viewing the radiographs on the illuminator is generally carried out in a room fitted with dim
lights, free from glare, dazzle and reflections. This helps in quick dark adaptation of eyes.
reduces eye fatigue and improves visual acuity.

Reading of radiographs ar e d t' rect I y I inked w .h

to understand the c performances of eyes. Hence ii is necess }
apabtltttes, Itmitations and
sensitive the conditions under which th e eye is m ao t
.
transmitted It is observed that eyes are most sensitive, when the lumin.scence of light
through the radiograph is in the raiige 30=100 cd ✓:n2

7.2 Illuminators

Minimum illuminator brightness to view film densities 1. 2 and 3 should be 300, 3000 and ((1
30,000'cd/mz respectively. Brightness of the viewing screen
photographic exposure can be . checked with
meter., if required,
Other recommendations are as follows : by holding its sensitive element close to the screen. 1

1. Colour of light
are acceptable. shall be normally white, but colours between orange and pale green

2. Diffusion of l'tght r
through one sheet of thin opal glass is found to be adequate..
3. Uniformity of brightness
should be achieved by masking the illuminated area to the
minimum required for viewing radiographic image. The edge of the radiograph
should always
considered 1 essbed masked and if the radiograph contains regions of d
ense than. the area under examination ens: which are
, these shall a lso be m
asked.
7.3 : Viewing Conditions

7.3.1 : Ambient light ; The radiograph

is examined in a darkened room. Care should taken
so that as little light is reflected as p
oss;bi f
observer. I nom the film surface, directly towards the f

4.19.
 Gee- s'ly, the light transmitted through the radiograph on the illuminated screen is sufficient
for writing etc., but if felt necessary, the ambient lighting can be'increased provided it does
not produce: anyuspecular .,reflections of the surface of the radiograph.
C'
The luminance of white opaque card put in place of radiograph contributing to ambient light
C should not exceed 10 per cent of the luminance of illuminated film, in the area under
inspection.

C 7.3.2 : Adaptation : Eye adaptation d pends upon the light condition to which the observer is
an lobserver coming from full sunlight should allow
subjected befot a viewing. . A. a- guida ,
; from ordinary artificial
at least 10 mir:.utes in subdued lightin . before commencing viewing
room light about 30 seconds adaptati is necessary. The adaptation period should.be one
continuous period of time . If eyes ar subject to full brightness of the illuminator during the
changing of radiographs , at least 30 seconds readaptation is necessary.

7.3.3 Viewing Distance : Maximum distance should be about 40 cm.

7.3.4: Magnifying Lens :.Low powered magnifying lens (x3 to x4 ) of reasonable area is
C recommended.
r^) All film readers shall check their eye sight annually for ability to see small
.7.3.5: Eye Sight :
details at normal film viewing distance.

7.4 : Effects of Viewing Conditions or. Image Quality

Identification of a defect on a radiograph is determined by a relationship between the
defect and the minimum density difference that
radiographic contrast (4D) corresponding to th ?-,
s called as 'minimum perceptible contrast (dD min)':
allows the defect to be identified which i
The density difference is-perceptible when AD is more than e D min and not perceptible when
is viewed in a well lighted room , the AD is
tD.is less- than 4D min . -When a radiograph -
s s mailer than AD.
affected resulting in an apparent radiographic contrast ( QDa) which b ecome
When a radiograph is observed in an ordinary room,
7.4.1 Influence of Room Brightness :
compared with that in a dark room .
the density range of flaw perception is narrower ,

7.4.2 influence of Illuminator Brightness : High intensity illuminator increases the

perceptible density range.

7.5 Optimum Film Density -

e ISO 2504 has given recommendation on this point which can be summarized as follows

1. Optimum film density for viewing with maximum sensitivity is inter-related with
brightness of viewing screen.
2. Minimum observable contrast, ie., minimum density difference discernible on a film
minated screen, depends upon the brightness of light reaching the
placed = on the illu
eye of the observer.

4.20
3. It is reasonable to assume that discernibility of fine'details such as low contrast lines
If
(crack images ) also depends , in the same manner. on brightness of the image as
presented on the eye of the observer.
4. Most codes on good radiography practices specify a minimum acceptable film
This is based on the
density, usually 2 , when metal intensifying screens are used .
density/contrast characteristics of good commercial X-ray film.

5. It is necessary to consider importance of glare in addition toscr i brightness.

4.21
 Y : INTRODUCTION

Radiographic: image is formed by differential absorption of radiation , while passing through. the
I thickness or presence of inclusions in the object
specimen . Variation in density, composition ,
can be recorded on an X -ray film.

2: OBJECT IMAGE RELATIONSHIP

As mentioned above, the image of discontinuity in the object is formed due to the differential
Intensity of radiation transmitted through a thickness. ' x'
absorption of radiation in the object . -
. 1(a). Mathematically, it can be
having no discontinuity, can be graphically shown as in figure 5
expressed by equation

I = 1 0 e''" .:........(1)

where 14 . is the linear absorption coefficient of the object for the radiation.
i
d' is present in the material, the transmitted intensity under
Now, if a discontinuity of thickness '
the.portion of discontinuity would be

I = I e K(x 4). (2)

0
However, when a materiel of absorption
This is valid when the discontinuity is a void .
(2) becomes .
coefficient µ' is present in the discontinuity, the equation

a (3) ..... Fig . 5.1(b)

I = I e^(xa)-µ
two possibilities exist , either µ is
Depending upon the type of the material of the discontinuity ,
5. l(c). The
less than or greater than It'. Graphical attenuation in both cases is shown in figure
equation 3 can be rewritten as :

^xap µ'^u)t ..........(4) .

I = I0 e^

If d(1-1A ' I) = k, then the above equation can be written as

I = lo a Ptx-k)' .........(5)
5) represents the apparent increase or decrease of radiation attenuation in the
'k' in equation (
region of discontinuity.

ion wh en constan t and does not

Above equations are valid only for monochromaticadiat
f an
orr A is uous
h (contin
change with increase in thickness . This is not w ith increase i n
The values of K change
radioisotopes having more than one gamma energy.
as softer energy components are filtered off by initial thickness.
thickness of material ,
 J

(a) Attenuation of Radiation

(b) Influence of radiation quality
on radiographic contrast

10

..
d
------ X __--__-31

(c) Attenuation of Radiation under a Defect

Fig. 5.1
 rat.
The above discussion also leads to the defect Image contrastiwtttch depends uponthd(ferenoe
aeK
of attenuation co-efficient of the defect aril ie sound material More the difference; higher
would be the contrasi 'and hence, easily de'te(`t

C From known values of attenuation coefficients of the specimen and discontinuity ,- it is possible to
calculate the image contrast • percentage foiatcertain size defect present in the specimen This
can be 'illustrated by the following example.`

A steel specimen of thickness 5 cm, having•a,cavity . of 5 mm is radiographed , separately, with

iridium= 192.and cobalt-60 sources. The percentage subject contrast produced by.tlie cavity, f it
is filled with 1) lead and 2) aluminum , can be calculated from the available data abut
absorption co-efficient given in Table 5.1.

TABLE 5.1 : LINEAR ABSORPTION CO-EFFICIENT ( . cm-1)

Source Material
Lead Steel Aluminum

Iridium-,192. 1.44 0.55 0.165

Cobalt-60 0.578 0.346 0.105

-The values obtained -ate

Cobalt-60 Transmission (°Io) ridium -I 2 Transmission (%)

No cavity' 17.7 No cavity 6.4 f•.
-With lead 15.8 With lead 4.09
With aluminum 19.99 With aluminum 7.74

From the above, the subject contrast in percentage for the cavity. of 5 mm can be calculated as
given in Table 5.2. It can .be.seen from the values that the image of a cavity filled with lead will
be seen as positive image, ,whereas with - aluminum , it will be seen as negative image. On an
X-ray film, the positive image ~would be brighter and negative image would be darker.

TABLE 5.2 :'SUBJECT CONTRAST IN PERCENTAGE ':..

-.Source Cavity filled Contrast Cavity Contrast

with lead difference filled with difference
with steel aluminum with steel
(per cent) (per cent)

Iridium-192 6.4 -4.09 36.0 6.4-7.75

2.31 .1.35

Cobalt-60 17.7 - 15.78, 10.8 17.1-10.99 12.9

= 1.92
 A
3: DEFECT DETECTION

The example discussed above shows that radiation from iridium - 192 source produces a better
subject contrast , as compared to that from cobalt - 60 source.
Greater contrast helps in detection
of smaller defects.

A defect will be visible when the radiographic contrast dD is equal tc or greater than
minimum perceptible density difference (AD ,,a ,), which depends upon;

a. image size,
b. density distribution,
c. radiation energy
d. film processing,
e. viewing conditions, etc.

4: DEFECT INDICATIONS

Examples of casting and welding defects and their radiographic appearances are given in tables
5.3 and 5.4.

TABLE 5.3 : CASTING DEFECTS

Defect Cause
Cold shuts Failure of molten metal to fuse
with solid metals.
Hot tears Due to stresses near solidification
temperatures when metal is weak.
Shrinkage Lack of enough molten metal to
metal to fill up the shrinkages.
I position of feeding head.
Shrinkage Contraction of metal during .
porosity during solidification when feed
(filamentary) hole is blocked.
Gas and Blow Discrete cavities of 1.6 min dia.
hole or more due to entrapment of gas
evolved from molten metal
or mould.
Radiographic Appearance
Well-defined continuous dark
line.
Many ragged dark lines often
discrete and taper identified by their
location near change of section.
Dark areas of regular outline
tending to taper identified by
Continuous irregular dark lines
with branches. Lines may be very
fine, similar to layer porosity.
Dark areas of smooth outlines
may be circular.

Inclusions Entrapment of materials such as Dark or light areas of irregular

dross and sand. shape with sharp edges and
folded appearance.
Cracks Uneven distribution and local Light and dark blotches, snow
concentration of alloying metals. flake like pattern.
 'FABLE 5.4: WELDING IS s ii -iS
-
rtr •.:4•strx r. , ,
Defect ;:;: Cause . Radiographic Appearanc'

.tic strike Due'to localized heat: r ;Star shaped cracks.

C Coalescenceof-weldmetal White.areas indicating 'excess

:beyond root. metal beyond root,.
I
Central line Valleys, in between two passes. Continuous dark lines.
crevices

Cracks (cold) Rupture of metal'under stress Dark well defined lines. -

V
below .400 F.

Cracks (hot) Rupture of metal under stress Dark lines, some tree like
above,400° F, usually associated branching.
with grain boundary.
Cracks ^.. Hardening of base metal in Dark defined lines from weld
reinforcement into base metal.
(base metal) weld area.
Incomplete Improper fusion between weld and Dark lines usually running
fusion parent metal, usually with parallel to weld.
trapped weld.
Lack-of Failure of penetration due to Dark continuous line in the
penetration poor gap, low current.- middle of the weld.
Dark round or elongated images
-Gas inclusions entrapment of gas due to • •
inclusions inadequate regulation of current with defined outline.
or wetVelectrode.
Concavity Normally in the root due to Localized dark areas in the
of sink improper movement of electrode or centre. of weld. _
too much heat in II pass over I pass.
Dark irregular shapes may be
Slag inclusion' 'Entrapment of nonmetallic solid
continuous with sharp edges.
materials.
Tungsten Entrapment of tungsten from tip , White, distinctively marked
inclusion of electrode in TIG process. in the weld.

Use of high current which burns Dark continuous. line, running

Undercut parallel along the weld.'
edges on parent metal.
 6. SELECTION OF RADIOGRAPHY. TECHNIQUES
1 : INTRODUCTION

Radiographic process involves use of penetrating radiations ,

such as X and gamma rays, ti, 1 °I
detect discontinuity in materials ,
and to record the image on an X-ray film. Proper image .t
formation on the radiograph is controlled by many factors , such as radiation source
, type of
film, effect of intensifying screens ,
geometrical factors, exposure time, film processing, etc. ! ,EI

The selection ofa particular radiographic technique is based upon sensitivity requirements
The visibility of the image of a small discontinuity, in a test.object, is possible only when a
prop er radiograph y tech nique is used.

Radiography techniques can be affected by the following parameters

1. Radiation source
.J. Films used
. Source to film distance (SFD)
4. Radiation beam alignment.

A technique is selected on the basis of the knowledge about the following factors :

1. Test Object -' Material, thickness and configuration

2. Fabrication Process

a.. Welds - Edge preparation and .we!ding process,

b. Castings - Foundry techniques , including mold
preparation, location of
vents, gates, etc.

c. Assembly - Fabrication and assembly process of components.

?. Anticipated location and nature of discontinuity.

.4. Critical and vulnerable locations.
5 Area of inspection coverage.
6. Sensitivity level required.

2: TECHNIQUE PARAMETER SELECTION

2.1 : Radiation Source

Table 6.1 gives the source selection for various steel equivalent thicknesses.

2.2 : Tye of Film

Choice of film from'class I to class IV, is made as in table 6.2 a & b. Generally, for detec-
tion of fin,_r defects, fine grain, high contrast films are used.

6.1
 High Sensitivity Low Sensitivity
Technique Technique

10 keV 10 .. 25
X-rays 50
15a kev 15
20) keV 25 75
400 keV 75 115.
MeV 125 165
2 MeV 200 250
J MeV 300 350
30 MeV 325 375
12- 62 6- 100
Iridium = 192.
25-100 • 12-112
Caesium - 137
40 - 150 12 - 190
Cobalt - 60

2.3 : Geometrical Factors

2.3.1 Dimensions of focus and source are important for determining the value of geometric
unsharpness• (UB)•
S.F.D) The selection of source to trim distance depends
2.3.2 S Circe to Film Distance ( Ug)• it is givenbyAhe
upon the n aximum value of permissible geometric unsharpness (
expression

SFD t(1 + d/Us)

(z
SFD, t, d and V9 are in same units:

Where,
SFD - source to film distance, d 'effective source size / e
in
us - geometrical unsharpness, t -object thickness..

the specimen covered in a single exposure.

SFD also controls the area of -

•.2.4::-Sensitivity
. High sensitivity technique is
The sensitivity of a radiography technique can be high or low
. Latitude
employed in all applications where rzdiographic examination is mandatory
, is a low sensitivity
in which a single radiograph covers a range of thickness
technique , - uniform
generally used for examination of assembled parts, or an object of non
technique ;
thickness.
 Thickness of
Material Iridium-192
mm) Cobalt-60
MaPneciin„ •,__ _

0- 06
'06
12 -2*5
'12 D2,D4
D2, D4 D2.D4;DSD7
D2,D4 D4;D5,D7
25 5O A4 D4.,D5 D4,
2 - 100 , D4 , D5 , D7
D4,D5,D7 D7 N. D5, D7
Over 100 D7 D7 DS; D7
D7 D7 D7

TABLE 6.2b - For X Rays

Energy :range & suggested film :types
80-120 120-150
kV kV 150-250
kV 250-400
kV

0- 06 D2 D4 . D2
06 - 12 D2 . D2
D2 , D4 , D2,D4
12 - 25 D2,D4 D2
D4 , D 5, D7 D4, D5
25- 50 _ D7 D4 D2
50 - 100
D4,D5 D4 D4
D7 D4; IYSD7
`100 - 200 D4
D7 D4
Aluminium

0- 06 D2,D4
06 - 12 D2,D4 D4
D5 , D7 D2
D4 D2 , D4
12 25 D7 D2
25 - 50 D4, DS 62
D7
50 - 100 D5, D7 D4,D5; D;' D4
100 - 200 D7 D7
D4, D5, NDT 55
D7 D7 NDT 65

0- 06
.06 - 12 D7 D4,D5,D7 D2,D4
12- .25 D4,D5,D7 D2,D4,D5,D7
25 - 50 . D7 D4,D5;D7
50 - 100 D7 D4,D5 , D7
07
 Some of-the recommended p t'tor latitude technique are given below :
_ A raf
,)
1. Use of Low Contrast Film : Using a low contrast film, the thinnest portion of the
specimen is exposed for highest acceptable film. density. Depending u pon the film
gradient, higher thickness , represented by the lower ltmif: of acceptable.filmm' density,
can be covered in the inspection .
2. Use of Harder Radiations : Use of harder radiation reduces the density difference
between the. thicker and thinner section . So, in the permissible film density range,
the: latitud e i mproves. While using X-ray machine , higher kV helps in reducing
exposure time also.

3. Use of Filter : A filter placed in the beam removes the softer components and it
improves the latitude.

,4: WELD INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

Fusion weld:; can be on flat plates-or cylindrical objects, such as pipes. The weld can also be
of butt oi.fillet type . Radiographic. inspection of these welds with sensitive'techniques reveals
flaws , such as cracks , lack of root penetration , lack of fusion ,
porosity, inclusigns, etc.
Occurrence of such defects in weld can generally be identified with joint preparations , welding
procedure , heat treatment , etc. Information on all these basic factors '
guides in anticipating the
occurrence of flaw at a location and thus', helps in selecting a particular exposure geometry.

4.1 : Technique for Fusion Welds on 'Fiat Plates

4.1.1:: Butt Welds Butt joints on flat plates are usually made with edge preparation of single
double Vor square. Welds with single and double V edge preparation are examined, with
the possible exposure geometries as shown in figure - 6 . I. Technique (a) & (c) with source
located perpendicular to the weld is ideal for detection of root flaws such as cracks , lack of
root penetration . Angular exposure (b) & (d)' is best for detection of lack of fusion between
weld and parent metal.

Inspection techniques for butt welds with ASTM image quality indicators are shown in
figure 6.2.. These.are applicable for

a) welds without reinforcement

b) welds with reinforcement -
c) welds with reinforcement and integral backing strip
d) & (e) welds with reinforcement and cladding base material

4.1.2: Fillet Welds : Fillet welds are generally made with square or bevel edge preparation.

The exposure set up for joints having 100 per cent corner penetration and 1007per cent
standing : leg penetration are shown in figure 6 .3 (a & b). The source is positioned at an angle
to enable detection of lack of side fusion and also lack of root fusion.
 1
Q

90 ° It
CA)
MEMMEM
Ru.
(b)
450

1
Q 1

X90° /
i \"v-3
(c)
(d)
El "'11,11" 1 FBI,
1. Source 3. Line of fusion or the angle of edge preparation
2. Film 4. Fusion line

Fig. 6.1 : Radiography techniques

for inspection of Butt Welds on flat plates.
10'
10
(a) 1c^ c
11111 (h)
/ t ^ 111` (c)
t
/Jr i 41 1
ri
(
^t t
1 ,1
3 /' ire,
11^ 11I `
r 1 J" I t r, I 3 ,, / 1, 1 1 1

1. Source
IMMNMW
ftg, , ^^O^,-."I Sx" 7//,
W/' ON. 2. fiiltn
3 image quality indicator
4. Shim
5.. Backing strip
Fig. 6.2 :. Radiography of Butt
-Welds with use of ASTMp
eaetrameters.
Sruare joints with four fillets
elfigure
up as shown and lap joints
inare examined
for root + vl etration with exposure
s 6 . 3(c & d).

6.5
 3: LATITUliig 'rECRT^'QUE.

Some of the recommended p t ,' for latitude technique are given below :
rtion
Using a low contrast film, the thinnest pupon the fttim
1. Use of Low Contrast Film : .
specimen is exposed for highest acceptable film.density bie flijt°'eensity,
, represented by the lower limit of accep
gradient , higher thickness
can be covered in the inspection. difference
i harer rad iation
the perm ssib eefilm density range,
(% 2: Use eHarder
e
ker and thinn er sect on. So,machine, higher kV helps in reducing
betwe the. thicth prov
the.. latitude improves. While using X-ray
exposure time alsb.
3: We of Filter : A filter placed in the beam removes the softer components and it
improves the latitude.

4: WELD INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

lindrical objects, such as pipes. The weld can also be
Fusion weld:; can be on flat plates or cylindrical reveals
inspection of these welds with sec o'e t echniques
of butt of fillet type. Radiographic. inclusions.
flaws, such as cracks, lack of root penetration, lack of fusion, p y. wdin
can generally lbei based with
Occurrence of such defects in weld or soguidespna iiticipa el the
procedure, heat treatment, etc. Informatior. on a articular exposure ^geometry_
( occurrence of flaw at a location and thus, helps'' n selecting a p

4.1 Technique for Fusion Welds on at Plates

on flat plates are usually made with edge preparation of single
4.1.1:• Butt We . eButt joints
preparation are examined. with
v; .double Vor square. Welds with single and double V edge c with source
es; as sh in figure 6 1. Tecniqu (a) & lack of
the possible exposure geometri coalvfor detection of root flaws such as cracks,
( located perpendicular to the weld
enetration. Angular exposure (b) & (d) is best for detection of lack of fusion between
root p
weld and parent metal
Ins ection techniques for butt welds with ASTM i-nage quality indicators are shown in
p
figure 6.2.. These. are applicable for

(
a) welds without reinforcement
b) welds with reinforcement ,
c) welds with reinforcement and integral backing strip
: base material
d) & (e) welds with reinforcement and cladding
4.1.2 Billet Welds :Fillet welds are generally made with square or bevel edge preparation.
per cent
core s
The exposure set up for joints having 100 per cent o etratipositoned at an angle
srce is
standing : leg penetration are shown in figure 6.3 (a & b).
to enable detection of lack of side fusion and also lack of root fusion.
 1. Source 3 . Line of fusion or the angle of edge preparation
2. Film 4 . Fusion line

Fig. 6.1 : Radiography techniques for inspection of Butt Welds on flat plates.

I^
//ji It\

rf

1
I.-Source
2. Film
3:- image quality indicator
4. shim
5. Backing strip
Fig. 6.2 :
Radiography of Butt-Welds with use of ASTM peaetrameters.

Sruare joints with four fillets and lap joints are examine
se' up as shown in figure 6 3(c P. d d for root eretration with exposufie
.).
 ///-/% i'/%%

a. 100 % corner penetration b. 100 % joint,penetration ••,

1 .

/ I

r/yki% ` iii` 1

d. Lap joint
I

. Source _ 2. Film
c. Square joint

Fig. 6.3 . Radiography techniques for fillet joints.

1@0
P1 J)1
150

p
4
I ,45

e
Corner joint with Plane corner joint with
double V 100 % penetration

(b) (c)

1. Source . - 2. Film

Fig. 6.4 : Radiography Techniques for Corner Joints.

 Corner joints ma have configuration as shown in figure 6.4. Square
joint oftside^ per P...
corner penetration is radiographed as shoivn in figure 6.4a for revealment
any. CornelLjoinis with double bevel are examined with exposure fusion,
Fig. 6.4b. A plane corner joint, having set up as
shown^ t
cent4c)
cracks with film and joint in a parallel Psition per cent joint penetration is examined for root
(Fig. 6.

4.2 : Techniques for Welded Joints on Pipes or Cylindrical ObJjects

Depending
are adopted. upon the size and accessibility of both sides of the pipe, the following
techniqu„

4.2.1 : Single Wall penetration

41
(Fig. : hi this technique, several methods of
(a) & (d).
exposure are
6.5). The ideal position to loca'e the source would be the centre of the possib'
However, if the centre is not accessible or if pipe diameter i
p 19,
i p ecylindras o r

divided into several segments and the exposures are carried out.
srr.r.av
the source can be o.ff the centre andithe ex%^osures can be taken as in (b). The welds car.
s Le
c

a. Source in centre
b. Source eccentric

%
i
\ 'I /I

/I1
It

c. Source outside, film inside

d. Source inserted in centre

1. Source 2. Film 3. Lead backing through adjacent hole

Fig. 6.5 : Radiographic Examination of Pipes with Single Waal Penetration

In the second case, the film is placed inside the pipe and the source is. placed externally as in
(c). This technique is. more sensitive for detecting root defects. - However; the'.area accessible
for interpretation will be small and the entirewed is covered by.taking several exposures.

1. Source 2. Film

Fig. 6.6 : Radiographic Examination of Pipe with Double Wall Penetration.

4.2.2 Double wall single image If there is no access to the inner side of the pipe, to keep
either the film or the source , this technique may be adopted (Fig. 6.6). This is mi sdy suitable
for the pipes of diameter above . 80-mm.. Sources can be kept on the pipe or away from'the
pipe, depending on the diameter of the pipe, SFD required and accessibility.

4.2.3 : Double Wall Double Image : This technique is adopted . for smaller size pipes of
diameter upto 80mm . The source is kept at one angle with respect to the weld, so as to avoid
overlap. of the top and bottom weld. Generally , 10 -. 12° offset angle is given for-the
exposures (Fig. 6.6). Two exposures are .taken by rotating the pipe through 90°.
 7. RADIOGRAPHIC STANDARDS AND SELECTION t
TEST METHODS
A
1: INTRODUCTION

The purpose of inspection standards and codes is to prescribe a test

procedure for ';f l
assessment of the quality of a product . The inspection
standards and codes prescribe optirr
conditions , which could produce -test sensitivity closest to the theoretical values. Ii'

Applicability of radiographic inspection for non-destructive evaluation mainly depend

the nature, size and location of the discontinuity looked for. General radiographic star.
followed are briefly mentioned below.

2: INSPECTION STANDARDS AND CODES

There are several national and international standards and codes practiced in indusi
radiography. Some of the prominent ones
are ASTM, ASME, B.S, DIN and ISO. The j^
broa
AI.y c l assified into four groups.

2.1 : Standards for Image Quality Indicators (1Q) (Penetrameters)

ASTM E-142 (USA) B.3. 3971 (UK)

DIN 54109 (West Germany) NF A 04-304 (France)
ISO-1021, 1IS G 3522 ( Japan) _.

These standards specify the type, material , size and shape of IQI and method for ralculnr"
sensitivity.

2.2 : Standards for Techniques .

The standards give information on the following points

1. General requirement and technique classification.

2. Film and screen selection and accep ..able toy density.
3. Radiograph density.
4. Identification system and location markers.
5. Source selection.
6. Source to film distance - U values.
7. Image Quality Indicators (I0I).
8. Procedure requirements.

2.3 : Standards for Specific Structures and x r € ' ; ;s

Standards in this group cover specific areas of applications, such as fabrication of pre;

7.1
 of the standards include guidelines fortest procedures and
vessels and pipeline s . Conte nt" Some of the important codes are
acceptance and rejection criteria during fabrication .

ASME Bound Pressure Vessel code Sec. III & VIII

_ !(1515).. .
Pipelines Carrying fluids
AL-S"tda 1A4^ B.S6 i i
Petrol Storage tanks B.S. 2654.

2.4 : Reference Radiographs

Sets of different types of radiographs ar available for welds and castings. their
s. Indcordi s e veal
on the radiograph.-are classified as per type 0f defects and also g
severity levels. 'Principle collection of reference radiographs include

Welds

IIW Collection of Reference Radiographs.

E-390 in three volumes upto 203 mm thick steel welds.
^," ASTM-

Castings (Steel)

AS_-_E_4 4;..for thickness upto 51 mm.

ASTM E=1& for thickness from . 51 .115 mm.
ASTM-E-280 for thickness from 115 -.305 mm.

The standards have been classified into four broad categories.

1. Standards for welds in steel plates.

2. Standards for welds in pipes and cyiindrical objects.
3. Standards for welds o f boiler and pressure vessels.
4: Standards for steel castings.

3: STANDARDS FO4 WELDS IN STEEL PLATES

S;

3.1 : Classification of ;Techniques

, the techniques are
which is applicable to fusion welds upto 50 mm thickness
In ISO-R-1106 ,
classified as-
-rays applicable to mild or low alloy steels
Class A : - General techniques for X
ray techniques for important applications needing
^Cl^s B - More sensitive X -
higher sensitivities.
-General techniques for gamma rays for general applications when shape,
Class C ders use of X-rays impossible.
thickness and accessibility ren _. x
For plate !hickness in the range 50-200 mm , iSO 2405 is applicable.

In DIN 54111 , two classes of radiography techniques are specified.

Class A - General technique.

Class B - More sensitive technique.

TABLE 7.1: SCREEN THICKNESS- BS 2600 PART-I

Thickness in mm
Energy Screen
Front Back
(minimum)

Below 120 kV Lead ---- 0.1

120 - 250 kV Lead 0.025 - 0.125 0.1

250 - 400 kV Lead 0.05 -0.16 0.1

Iridium-192
Cobalt - 60 Lead 0.05 - 0.16 0.16

Cobalt - 60 Steel or 0 .5 2.0 0.25 - 1.0

Copper

3.2 : Films and Screens

ISO R 1106

-toss A ' - No screen type films, with or without lead screens

ass B & C - Fine grain high contrast films in combinatij rn with lead screens.

According to ISO 2405, only direct types of films with medium speed fine grain and very fin.
grain films can be used. Recommendations for screens , as per BS 2600, are given ii
table 7.1.

3.3 : Source to Film Distance: (SFD)

Minimum SFD depends upon the permissible Ug values. It also decidfs the field of cover*
in a single unidirectional exposure.

In ISO 1106, the resulting.U, value should not be more than 0.4 mm for techniques A and G
and 0.2 mm for technique B.

7.3
.. 6: CIRCUMFE 1,':'L',L WELDS ON PIPES AND CYLINDRICAL
OBJECTS

Applicable codes for cylindrical shape objects are listed below.

API 1104 - Standard for welding pipelines and related facility

by American Petroleum Institute.
i
BS 2633 - Specification for Class I Arc welding of ferrite
steel pipe work for carrying fluids.

7: EADIOGRAPHY OF WELDS OF BOILERS AND PRESSURE

VESSELS

IIS/IIW 85-61 Code prescribes 3 classes :

Class I 100% radiography of butt welds.

Class II Random Radiography.
Class III No Radiography.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessels Code Section V exclusively deals with NDT requirements.

The code prescribe minimum qualification of the personnel as well as their visual activity.

8: RADIOGRAPHY OF CASTINGS

Though ASTM and ASME do not specify separate codes for radiographic examination of
castings, the :;pecifications cover important aspects of radiography procedures in' various
designations . Some of the important ones are °

- Recommended practice for radiographic testing.

E-142 - Standard for controlling quality of radiography testing.

B esides these, there are number of sets of casting reference radiographs , covering
;materials
such as steel, copper -nicke` alloy, tin, bronze, aluminum and magnesium ,. described in
different designations. BS 4080 gives procedure for radiographic examination of alt-typee of
I - _t- - - , .. . .. .. -
steel cast ngs . mportar
given below.

b. IQI Use of wire or step type IQI:..as given in BS 3971 and their acceptable
sen s iti v i ty l eve l s for di fferent thickness are specified

c. Only' direct type X-ray films td be'Used in conjunction with metal foils made: of lead,
copper, tantalum and tungsten, -the thick ness, and' the material depending upon
radiation energy employed.

d. Source of selection for different thickness ranges , as given in tables 74and1.5.

7.6 i
 While using doable film technique to cover thick and thin sections ' in a casting, the kilo'l!
or the energy of the radiation will be determined by the thicker section.

9 : ' BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS Codes and Standards I

( I
Bureau of Indian Standards has a number of standards on industrial radiography practic
some of them are given in table 7.7.

IS 2598-1966 Safety code for industrial radiography practices.

IS 2595-1693 Code practice for radiography testing.

IS 1182-1967 Recommended practice for the radiographic examination of

fusion welded butt joints in steel plates.

IS 3657-1966 Specifications for image quality indicators.

IS 4853-1968 Recommended practice for radiographic exar,:in tion of fusion

welded circumferential joints in steel pipes.

Except IS 3657, all other standards cover radiography pra :ices in a general way. l-lighi
of these specifications are as under

1. IS 2595 : This standard is prepared deriving assistance from ASTM -G-y .

includes exposure charts for X-rays, general procedures or exposure set up,
processing and radiation protection of personnel . Information on various ty
image quality indicators is appended in the standard.

2. IS 2598 : This code is formulated on the lines of ICRP recommendations illustrn'

the possible radiation-hazards from internal and external contamination, k
radiation sources . Radiation safety requirements `ar X-ray and gamma
installations ,. radiation leakages from the source housir:. and shielding method,
suggested . Personnel radiation monitoring has beer c :. xtensively covered.
standard serves as ar. ideal guide for safe radiography p:,

3. IS 3657 : The standard gives the specification for f i rication of image qu

indicators.

4. IS 1182: The standard recommends three techniques conduct of radiogral

examination such as :

a) General technique for X-rays

b) Special techniques for X- rays and
c) Technique for gamma ray examination
For standard radiation sources , the source to film disu..r;c• can be rc_ _+ off dire
from the graphs. The acceptable film density is 1.7 to 3J , techni _ (a) an
and.2 . 0 to 3.0 for technique (c).
 5. IS 4g53 : The standard outlines the procedure for the radiographic examinatinlK of
the circumferential joints in steel pipes . Most of the .recommendations are common
IS 1182. Some typical exposure arrangements are also illustrated .. z ^.

Group A : Applicable for the radiographic,e,jamination of longitudinal and circumferential

butt welds of drum shells and heads . The extent of radiographic coverage on the cylindrical
objects depends upon the diameter and the wall.thickness.

Group B : Group B is for the spot radiographic examination comprising of at least -40%, of the
whole length of the weld. Individual radiographs are not shorter ..than 25 . cm, unless
necessitated by the shape of the joint. In all cases, -the radiographic examination covers joints
of intersections of welds . Spot 'radiograph ic• examination is generally applicable for the butt
welds in furnaces, combustion chambers, etc.

10: ACCEPTANCE LIMITS

Acceptance or rejection of welds, castings or other articles based on the magnitude of the
discontinuity, as (etected by radiographic examination , is complicated and needs a background
knowledge on interpretation of radiographs . These limits are generally established with
reference data c n 'effect of flow on the strength of the. material under various service
conditions ' .

10.1: Acceptable and Unacceptable Flaws

A radiograph of a weld or casting may show certain indication due to discontinuity, which may
not lower or reduce the material strength and also: nc failure could be caused because of them.
Such flaws are considered acceptable . For example, in a casting, the defects whiOb occur on'
or near surface and likely to be removed ' in the final machining , are acceptable, Weld
indications such as central line crevices , high-low, limited tungsten. inclusion , wagon tracks
and weld spatters are considered as not harmful.

10.2: CIassification of Defects

First step, towards arriving at acceptance /rejection limits of defects would be to-classify them
in broad categories, such as surface and internal discontinuity. In case of internal;defects,it
would further be necessary to identify -their nature,. such as planar type or volume type . Next
step would be to assess their severity and arrange them in order of severity levels,and group
them together with common identifier.

10.3: Acceptance/Rejection

Procedure for acceptance/rejection involves either of the following methods

a. Use of Reference - Radiographs': Reference radiographs provide excellent ILidance

for comparing, the flaws on the radiograph, leading to their classification for
acceptability.

b. Measuring dimensions of the flaws and tallying their sum witli the acceptable_ norms,
given in the standard...
 J Acceptance Standards
10.4: TYpi!

10.4.1 .• Wells
n which
has p ublished an atlas of 'Collection of Reference Radiog splis oh f w lds', i blue, gre^
and codified in different colours,
IIW
flaw s have been grouped together ti
severity.
and red , in order of increasing
baseld on sy:ven nominal we
E390 has volumes of reference radiograp hs, Tided flaws are gig(
ASTM= in five severity levels U
There are graded flaws shown pdimensions as obser'
thicknesses. When flaws are to be evaluated on the bases O t tl.etr
for information .
the general guidelines are as follows
on the radiograph ,

X4.2: Cracks {
odes for pressure vessels , and pipelin
unacceptable, under the c
Any type of crack is
exception being crater crack upto 4mm permissible under API-1104.

Penetration
10.4.3 : Incomplete Fusion and
• r all codes applicable to pressure vessels. However, codes applicable
Not acceptable, unde
pipelines carrying fluids such as BS 2654 Part 2, API 1104, BS 2633, BS 4677, t: '• '^ .1;,
rejectable when the length exceeds the specified limit.

11,1.4.4 : Inclusion.
in a certain length and thicknes
Slag inclusions of certain dimensions are permissible
weld.
mcase of tungsten inclusion, only a small size less than 3 mm or 1/4 of thickness of

whichever is less, is permitted.

10.4.5: Porosity
Acceptable limits of porosity are determined by total permissible area cf porosity, in a t
length of weld. Porosity charts indicating the size, number and their d:istributinn patter:
th,ckness of weld, are usually available for comparison.

10.4.6: Root Cavities

Root cavitiesresulting in thickness of welds lesser than that of parent metal al 'e,

10.4.7: Burn Through

Unprepared burn through should not exceed 6 mm or thickness of pipe.

7.9

wv •^vilir
 i ). i.8 , aaerculs

Undercuts should not exceed certain per cent of.the pipe wall thickness, 'mazimum•permitted=
being 0.8 mm.

10.4.9 : Castings

ASMB Section VIII Provides guidelines

for acceptance/reje'tion limits f r steel
c f
min, using following ASTM standards

E-466 - Upto •51 mm thickness

E-185 - From 51 to 115 mm
E-280 - From 115 to 305 mm

Casting defects in. these- standards have been divided'in seven groups,
such as gas porosity,
sand and slag inclusions , shrinkages hot tears, cracks, linear discoi,
^tinuity, inserts and
mottling . These defects have been presented
in 5 classes representing increasing severity
levels. Maximum acceptable severity' limits under ASME section VIII are given in table 7.8.

TABLE 7.8

Defect type E-466 E-185 E-280

upto 25 - 25-50 I 51 - 115 115 305
Gas porosity •1 1 2 ' 2
Sand and Slag 2 3 .2 2
inclusions
.7 J2
' - . Shrinkages
Type 1 .. .1
_ Type 2 1
Type 3 3
Hot tears 0
Cracks . 0
Linear •0
discontinuity
inserts' 0
Mottling 0

For ^errous castings, weighing 50 kg and above, suggested acceptance guidelines are given in-
table:7.9.
 TABLE 7.9': ACCEPTANCE GUIDELINES FOR FERROUS CASTINGS

Unacceptable

2. Sponginess Unacceptable

3. Cold shuts Unacceptable

4. Unfused chills and chaplets Unacceptable

5. Filamentary Shrinkages Can be accepted, if indicated a^ cfantral line shrinkage.

Dangerous when extending towar surface. Each case to
be judged on the basis of its locati, in the ca., ting.

Not serious , if not interconnect . :gin be tccepted up to

20 % of the thickness section.

Being surface or sub-surface , acce .: to be decided

in relation with the amount of ma..'

TABLE 7. 10: DETAILS OF STANDAI'

ISO R 1'.06 Recommended . practice for radiographic inspectia . : sitxt welded butt
joints, for steel plates upto 50 mm (2 inches) thick.
ISO 2405 Recommended practice for radiographic inspecti : .:si n welded butt
joints, for steel plates 50 to 200 mm thick.

ISO R 947 Recommended practice for radiographic inspection : rential fusion

welded butt joints in steel pipes upto 50 mm wall this

IIW-85-61 Radiography-of welds of boilers and pressure. vessels.

B.S. 2600 General recommendations for radiographic exami _ on weld

Part - 1973 circumferential butt joints in steel pipes.

B.S. 29:0 General recommendations for radiographic examinat'. welded

1965 circumferential butt joints in steel pipes.-
B.S. 4030 Methods for Non-destructive testing of steel castings.
1966

B.S.1971 Specifications for image quality indicators '. -aphy and

1961 recommendations for their use.
B.S. 2554 Part-2 - Specification for vertical steel welded st: with butt
1961 welded shells for petroleum industry.

B.S. ^ 633 Specifications for Class I arc welding of ferrite steel ; =;ed k .r
.1965 carrying fluids.

B.S. 4677 Specifications for Class I arc welding of 1971 gust ass steel pipe
work, used for carrying fluids.
DIN 54111 German standard.

7.11
 Conventional radiography techniques use X-ray machines.upto 400 acV and gamma sources, like
iridium-192 and cobalt-60. These are useful for examination of steel equivalent thicknesses
-upto 200 mm'. When*it is required to,radiograph greater thicknesses of materials , on-line
examination of objects or have high "resolution radiography testing, advanced radiography
techniques are: used . Some of these are mentioned here.

2: RADIOGRAPHY WITH HIGH ENERGY X-RAYS .

X-ray machines producing radiations of 1 MeV or more energy are considered as 'High Energy
Sources '. The useful energy range in radiography extends from 1 MeV to about 30 MeV.
• i•

Increase in X-ray energy above 1 MeV,

1. increases the probability of scattered radiation emitted in the forward direction,

2. reduces the ratio.-of scattered to direct radiation intensity reaching the-film, for a
given object thickness,
3. increases the quantity of radiation . emitted and -

4. results in distribution of X-rays more ,pronounced Jn At a ,foc ' d direction and :

reduction in-effective field width,- at a•sclected -fllcr to focus tstat!ce

2X: High Energy X-ray, Equipment

X-ray equipment
The - performance characterh.tics which should be considered for high energy

1. maximum X-ray energy,

2. focal spot size,
3. X-ray output,
4. effective field size and
5. flatness of X-ray field.

The equipment now available for radiography work are listed in table 8.1.

2.2 :. Applications

Some applications of high energy X-ray radiography are

1. examination of thick materials like casting , heavy weldments. etc.,

2. examination of objects which scatter low voltage radiation , like jet aircraft engine.
turbine blades,

v4, ^
I
 3. examination of dense materials, like-.uranium alloys,
4
4. projective magnification .: Because of small focal spots, width of the order of I mm
in-betatrons , this technique can be used for detecting small flaws.
In this technique , image of defect is projected bigger than its natural size, by
{ keeping the film cassette at a distance behind the object. By this technique,
sensitivity is improved , since the comparative size of defect image to film
unsharpness increases . In addition, proportion of scattered radiation reaching
the film reduces. a •
5. Stroboradiography and Flash radiography : Since high energy X-rays f om linac and
betatrons are produced in series of short high intensity pulses, it is possible to
inspect vibrating and rapidly moving systems and the techniques are called
stroboradiography and flash radiography, respectively.

3: REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY

This is an NDT method that produbes image of object, using penetrating radiation, which can be
viewed as the object is being.irradiated. This technique.was originally called Fluoroscopy.
The image can be viewed either directly or converted into video signal and seen on a TV
monitor. Principle of this technique is shown in figure 8.1.
(.
1. Test Specimen
2. Fluorescent Screen
3. Photo-cathode
4. Electron Paths
X-rays
5. Viewing Screen
6. TV Camera Tube
7. Viewing Screen
a. Image Intensifier Tube with CCTV System

1. Test Specimen
2. Thin Metal Electrode
3. Photo-conductive Layer
4. Opaque Interphase
5. Electroluminescent Layer
6. Transparent Electrode
4 6
7. Support Plate
b. Solid State Intensifier

1. Test Specimen
2. Photo-conductor
3. Screen Grid
4. Viewing Screen

c. X-ray Vidicon

Fig. 8.1. Real Time Radiography

8 .3
3.1 : Advantages

1. Accept/Reject decisions can be made immediately without delay.

2. Object can be moved in the desired direction during inspection.
3. Automatic handling of systems is possible.

4: MICROFOCUS X-RAY RADIOGRAPHY

With conventional radiography equipment, when inspecting small diameter pipes, panoramic t
exposures are not possible , as U becomes more than the permitted limits. In addition, the
image magnification is not possibfe due to the same reasons.. Hence, small discontinuity in the
objects, may not be visible.

Microfocus X-ray units which have focal spots of the order of 10-100 microns are very useful for
examination of such objects. Principle of projection radiography, using microfocus X-ray units
is shown figure 8.2.

`^t- Focal
flit spot
/ 1t\
/ I t1\
11\ \

Object -4

Film. I t \ \ Magnified image

of defect

Fig. 8.2 : Microfocus X-ray Radiography

8.4

C
t
C ''TRAINING COURSE ON

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

AND SAFETY - (RT-1)

(VOLUME 2)

Compiled by
M.J. SUBRAMANYA AND S.P. AGARWAI,
Radiological Physics and Advisory Division, BARC

RADIOLOGICAL PHYSICS. AND.-ADVISORY DIVISION

BIJAB 'HA ATOMIC RESEARCH CENTRE
MUMBAI 400 085
x'1997
 1. Basic Mathematics

2. Basic Radiation Physics

3. Interaction of Radiation with Matter

4. Radiation Quantities and Units

5. Biological Effects of Radiation

6. *Operational Limits

7. Radiation Detectors and Monitors

8. Radiation Hazard Control

9. Radiation Accidents in Industrial Radiography

10. Regulatory Aspects of Radiation Protection

11. Practi(al in Radiation Safety

1
 •1. BASIC 'MAT HEMAT1CS
, say, for determining the radiation
In industrial radiography, we need' to do certain calculations
C exposure to-6e given for getting a good radiograph; for finding cordoning off distance, etc.
These are simple calculations involving some.basic-mathematics..
C
C POWERS i. -

We know that 1 kilogram (kg) means 10 00

1 kg = 1000. gm

It can also be written as - 1 kg = 103 gm = 1000 gm

Also 1000 milligram = 1000 mg = 1 gm

Similarly, 1000 milli R/h = I R/h

103 mR/h = 1 R/h

By these; we understand
103 , =10x lOx 10 1000 ----______ (Kilo)

Similarly,
102 = lOx 10 = 100 ---- --------- --
106 = 1O x to x 10'x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1,000,000 (Mega)

109 = lox lox lox lox lox lox 10x lox 10( Olga)

103 is called 10 cube or 10 raised to power. 3.

42 is called 4 square or 4 raised to power 2.

102 is called square of ten or ten square

104 is called inverse -square of ten

1 1 _ 1
that is 10-2 = 102 , 10 x 10 loo

MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION

If y = 0.5
20y=20x0:5= 10

If 6x=210

x = 210 = 35
 A. If one mango costs Rs . 2/- what is the cost of six mangoes?

Cost of one mango = Rs. 2/-

Cost of- six mangoes 2 x 6 Rs. 12/-

Similarly, we can work out the following

4

If radiation level at a place with one curie source is 12 mR/h, what would be the level at the
same place with 8,Ci source?

The answer would be 12 x 8 = 96 mR/h.

B. If one dozen oranges cost Rs. 24 /-

what is the cost of one orange?

12 oranges cost Rs. 24/-

one orange costs Rs. 24 = Rs. 2/-

In a similar way, if the exposure rate at 1 meter from an I 'd' I Um-,Y,1 source mR/h,
what is the activity of the source if on e cur i e i ridium
-192 gives 500 mR/h at1 meter ?
I
Given : Exposure rate at 1 meter
= 2000 mR/ h from the source

Known : Exposure rate at 1 meter

due to 1 Ci iridiumr-192 = 500 mR/h

Activity of th e source = 2000

500= 4 Ci

DECIMAL REPRESENTATION

a. Quarter kilogram can also be called 1

/4 kg or 0.25 kg or 250 gram.

0.25 kg = 0.25 x 1000 gram = 250 gram (1 kg = 1000'gram)

b. If the distance between A and B is 254 cm, what is the distance in meters ?
254
100 = 2.54 meters [Since 1 meter = 100 cm]

C. 0.057 = 57
1000

d. 0.5 R/h = 0.5 x l0fi0- mR/h = 500 mR/h

e. 2500 mR = 2500
1000 R = 2.5 R

1.2
 h. 15cm= m=0.15m
1VV

TYPICAL PROBLEMS
.
la. If a man travels 2500
meters in 30 minutes what is the'speed per minute and per hour ?

In 30 minutes tie travels 2500 meters

In 1 minute he will travel 2500 = 250

30 _ 3 meters/min

In 60 minutes (1 hour) he will travel 23 x 60 = 5000 meters/hour

= 5 kilometers/hour

lb., If a man standing at a place for 15 minutes receives 50 mR exposure, what is the expo-.
sure rate per hour or radiation level at that place ?

_ Exposure in 15 minutes = 50 mR

Exposure in I :minute = IS mR

Exposure rate or radiation level = s x 60 mR/h =-200 mR/h

2a. If a man drinks 0.5 litres milk per day. How much milk will drink in 2 months ?

1 month = 30 days

2 months = 30 x 2 = 60 days
in 1 day hedrinks 0.5 litres milk

In 60 days he will drink = 0.5 x 60

5
-1 0x 60 30 litres milk.

2b. If the
radiation level at a particular distance from a nne c^wr?e.iridium -
20 mR/ h, what is the radiation level at the same distance 192 source is
source? . from. a'curie. iridium-192

Exposure rate with I Ci iridium-192 = 20 mR/h

Exposure rate with *15 Ci iridium-192 = 20 x 15 mR/h =.300 mR/h
 3. If a job requires 60 minutes for a single operator, how many operators Fare
each operator spends only 5 minutes on the job ? needed so

With 60 minutes, the job requires only one operator. With 1 minute permitted for
operator, the job requires 60 operators. or

If 5 minutes is permitted for each operator, than

60
= 12 operators are required.

4. If a person works for 40 hours in a radiation field of 5

exposure he shall receive ? mrejm/h, how much radiation
(A '1s: 200 mrem)
5. If for a radiation worker dose limit (maximum) is 2000 units/year, he should
more than units in a month. not receive
(Ans: 166 units)

SQUARE ROOTS

A. To find the square root of a number by the method

of factors.
Example:

5 25 :3x5x5x5x5
3 5625
= 3x5x5
3 1875
= 75
5. 625
Therefore the square
root of 5625 is 5 125
equal to 75
5 1 25

B. To find tie square root by method of long division

1. Find the, square root of 6561

81
8 I 6561
+8 - 64
161 ' 161
^- 161

I 0. . The square root of 6561 is 81.

1.4
 125

L- 15625
+1 -1

22 056
+2 - 44

245 1225
- 1225
0 The square root of 15625 is 125.
 2. BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS
. Hydrogen , oxygen, iron,
All materials in the universe are made of different elements
iridium , gold, lead are - some of the elements we are familiar with.
charged central portion
Atom is the smallest part of an element. An atom has a positively
electrons going around the nucleus, in
called ' nucleus '. It also has negatively charged
protons which are positively charged
different orbits . The nucleus has two types of particles -
which do not carry any charg An atom, is electrically neutral as the number
and neutrons
of protons in its nucleus is equal to the number of^electrons in the orbits. structures of some
atoms are shown in figure 2 . 1. The r &L-Q f- 2 Lin-an atom is kncLiacn.as its gtvm* ic

number M . Every atom of a particulars element has a definite number of protons eg.,
aluminum has 13, cobalt has 27, iridium has 77 protons.

Hydrogen (lp) Helium (2p+2n) Carbon (Gp+6t:)

Fig. 2.1 : Atoms of Some Elements.

The mass of an atom is almost completely concentrated in the nucleus, as electrons have
negligible mass. A proton or a neutron is about 1800 times heavier than an electron. Mass
_ nber of neutrons--M) in its
number (A) of an atom is the number of protons (Z) plus the nu
-nucleus, ie., A = N + Z. Atom of any element X ispresented
re as

A A - Mass number
X
Z Z - Atomic number

3H
1H
1 Tritium
Hydrogen

Fig. 2.2 : isotopes of Hydrogen.

2.1
(' The chemical behavi oLan element . is de endent urel on the atomic - number,. Any. atom or
.^_ . but haven different number of neutrons (N) is
nuclide haven me number bfprotons W
Isotopes of hydrogen are s hown in figure 2.2.
called an isotope of the element .

191Ir, 192Ir and 193 Ir are isotopes of iridium . Similarly,

77 77 77 a

27 Co, .27 Co and 27 o are isotopes of coba t._

The s tability of an isoto pe, depends upon the

Some isotopes are stable others are unstable
relative number of neutrons and Drotons in its nucleus A:'. unstable nucleus becomes stable
by fitting radia ionssuch as alpha par ticle beta arti This process is known as
Theref re, unstable isotopes are known as radioactive isotopes (or
radivact
radioisotopes In the above examples,

3 92. 1' 58
r,
1H' 1' 77 27 Co
e
Radioactivity is a spontaneous process. It is not affected by-external influences
the element ets
temperature, pressure; .dilution, etc. On emission of alpha or beta particles
to transform (disintegrate
converted intnew element. 'Thus, a radioisotope is said
into a new element along with the emission cf one or two types of particulate
or decay) . Quite often, this is followed by the emission of electrQmaanetic radiation
radiations calied ll
gamma radiation. Emission of. different types of radiation are shown in figure 2.3. A
radioisotopes mentioned above, except 3H, emit gamma radiation.

Alpha particle
(a protons &
P. neutrons

Radiation.
Fig-.:23 :;' Emission of Different Types of
naturaUX
nerall among Heavier elements . They are called
Radioactivity exists in natuce , g,e 238 are some of. the naturally
40, carbon - 14, uranium -
occurring radioisotopes . . Potassium-
elements can be made radioac^t' ve by bombarding them
occurring radioisotopes . Many other
 with charged particles and neutrons . These are called
Cobalt-60, iridium - 192; caesium - 137 are some artificially made radioisotopes.
of the artificially made radioisotopes.

Thllllilllili
llItIlillll! Illlil
1liIIIIIIIllII1i JIIIIIIIjjj
Iilll'I !33I II tli Iiiljfli
IillJl flhf I illi+E I!I^Ill
it I I.
II ^1 ( l! r^!
^^^I ^III^j ll ^

Initiallg r- Af ter
1 Halflife 2 Httlflives 3 Halflives
1
Number of
radioactive i N
atoms

Activity (Bq) , A
4 8
Source size r No No No
change change change
Radiation 1 No No No
energg change change change

Fig. 2.4 : Reduction in Radioactivity with Time.

Rate of transformation
(transformation / second or disintegration / second) gives the amount
of radioactivity or strength of the source. Activity is expressed in units of
Curie (CY). Becquerel (Bq) or

A source, of activity 1 Becquerel will

undergo I transformation / second
. Please Ch se e apter 4 on
A source of activity Radiation Quantities and Units.
1 Curie will undergo
3.7 x 10i0 transforations ; second

2.3.
ENERGY OF RADIATIONS ;
All radiations have energy. Energies of'various radiations (a, B, r) are usually specified in
electron volts.

One electron volt is the energy given o a sijigle election as-it moves across a potential
difference. of one volt.

1 eV = 1 electron volt. = 1. 6 'x 10'12 erg

1 keV 1 kilo electron volt = 1. 6 x 10'9 erg
I MeV = 1 million electron volt = 1.6 x 1V erg

Data regarding the most commonly used radioisotopes in industrial radiography is given in the
'Fable 2.1.

ABLE 2.1 : RADIOISOTOPES COMMONLY USED

IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
Radioisotope Half life Main Gamma Energy
(MeV) .-

Cobalt-60 5.3 years I.17 & 1.33

Iridium-192 74.5 days 0.24-0.67

(0.4 KeV Average)

PRODUCTION OF X RAYS
X and gamma radiations are similar in nature, biological effects and' action on photographic
are
film. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus of a radioisotob whereas, X-rays are
(target). `a
produced outside the nucl hen high energy electrons interact with' atoms
these electrons interact with the field near The nucleus: they are stopped •or def! d with lesser
energy. * The energy difference between, the incident electron and the deflected electron is
given out in the form off:X-rays.. The energy of X-rays depends upon the closeness of the
aced wi continuous energ ,ith
are pr oddi
electron path to. the, target_nuc)yA. tenncce...X-rays
H
.. equal to the energy' of the .inc^ ent electrons X-ray production increases with
a maximum
increase in atomic numbet of the target atom.. It also increases with increase'in the incident
electron energy.

In an X-ray machine, the•electrons, emitted by the heated filament '4re_made to strike a

target placed, at higher voltage with respect to the filament. As a result of
tungsten
interaction between the electrons and target. atoms , X-rays are produced.

For more details on X-rays, refer to chapter on X-ray Technology.

 SUMMARY
I. ATOM is the smallest part of any element.

2. Atom consists of NUCLEUS at the centre and ELECTRONS around the nucleus.
I
3. The nucleus consists of PROTONS and NEUTRONS.

4. Any atom of an element has a definite number of protons in its nucleus. _

5. The number of protons

in the nucleus of an atom is called its ATOMIC NUMBER (Z).

6. The number of protons plus the number of neutrons

in the nucleus of an atom is called its
MASS NUMBER (A).

7. ISOTOPES are atoms

with same atomic number, but different mass number

8. Alpha or beta radiations are emitted when an atom is UNSTABLE.

9. The isotopes which emit radiations are called RADIOISOTOPES.

10. A different elemet•it is formed after the emission of a radiation.

11. Some isotopes emit gamma radiatiens;..after the emission of alpha.or beta radiations.

12. All radiations have energy.

13. ALPHA RADIATION has two protons and two neutrons and is
least penetrating. positively charged and is

14. BETA RADIATION is an electron with negatively charge.

alpha radiation. It is more penetrating than

15. GAMMA RADIATION has no charge or mass. Hence, it is highly penetrating.

16. HALF LIFE of radiation source is the period in which its activity reduces to half of its
initial activity.

17. X-rays are similar to gamma rays, except their origin and method of production.

18. All the above radiations can ionize and excite matter and hence, are called IONIZING
RADIATIONS.

19. IONIZING RADIATIONS cause bioiogicai damage.

20. It is necessary to protect ourselves from such hazards.

2.7
 .j

3. INTERACTIQN OF RADIATION WITH MATTER

!.

C , interactions take place between the radiation and

When X, t3, z radiations fall on a material
r absorption and scattering ( moving in a different
the electrons ' in the material . This leads to transmitted (pass
direction) of radiation . A part of the incident radiation may also get
through).

The amount of-radiation .transmitted through the material depends upon.

a. type of radiation (X, 8, r)

b. energy of radiation (eV, keV, MeV)
c. type of material and its thickness (air, iron, lead)
d iation
Beta radiations can be completely absorbed in any medium . Fo' ex m
completely ple, betas o f alums with
Emax (maximum energy ) 1.7MeV can be absorbed
the case of X and gamma radiations complete absorption is not possible: For example,
But in .
60 gamma radiations still get transmitted through 8 centimeters of lead.
one per cent of cobalt -

for X and gamma radiations in any medium: These

There are three main types- of interactions
are

a. photoelectric effect
b. Compton effect
c. pair production

But, for energies we normally come across in industrial radiography, only the first. two
interactions are important.
and an orbital
is an interaction between a gamma ray (photon)
The photoelectric effect
The gamma radiation looses its complete energy to the electron and the electron is
electron .
removed from its orbit. This electron is called pho ol1n` ise^redominagt.i?th_
s
particle easily gets absorbed in the medium. Thi 4---Pt with ,i
eraction
ncrease, in ato llm^
wu^^ ^^^^^. a^^ .•• .o, ._
energies and it decreases uranium , tungsten, etc.
of the object. Hence, higher atomic number materials, like ea , aluminum,
absorb gamma radiations better than lower atomic number materials,. likeplastic,
iron, etc.
The
radiation interacts with a free eecttrOIn. i
In Compton effect, gamma (ee am maeradiation
.gives part of its energy to'the electron and travels in a different
is predominant at
decreased energy. The electron moves in another direction. This effect
r a^^1 it is nnr t4-nP .nrlPnt on the atomic
number of the material,

'These two interactions are shown in I igurc.3. I .

. oct -negative charge . In other
When an electron is removed from its orbit, the atom looses as
ly charged or ionized . • H en ce , this process is known
words, the atom gets positive

420
 ionization . When an electron is raised from an inner orbit -,o an outs orbit. the elc:cron gets
extra energy. In other words , the atom gets exciu.d. Hence, this process is •; alled excitation.
Alpha, beta and gamma radiations can directly or indirectly cruse ionization and excitation in
material with which they interact. Hence, these radiations are called ionizing radiations.

Phot nelectric effect Compton scattering

photoelectron a compton electron •

scattered
photon

Fig. 3.1 : Photoelectric and Compton Interaction.

The intensity of radiation reduces on passing through any material. In case of gamma
radiations., the attenuation follows an exponential law :

I = I0 e^'

where, I0 is the intensity of the incident radiation beam, I is the'intensity of the `^

after passing ti^rough a thickness x of the materiel and p is known as line
coer'ficient. It is defined as the'fractional decrease in intensity per unit the:'
material. If the energy region of 100 keV to 1.5 MeV is considered, the attenuate
decreases with increase in energy and it increases with increase in atomic
absorber material. Hence, lower energy radiations are better absorbed and
number material are good absorbers.

Half Value Thickness (HVT)

The thickness of the material, usually called absorber, (eg., steel , lead, depleted
needed to reduce the intensity of radiation to half its initial value is known as t
thickness .(HVT).

The HVT depends on the energy of radiation and the nature of the absorber.

In the case of X-rays, the HVT value for any kV depends to some extent on
inherent filtration of the X-ray tube. However,'the value of HVT for a given r.
taken as constant for heavily filtered beam.

As higher atomic number materials provide better shielding than lower at_
i
3.2
 material,-for a given energy, HVT value is lesser fo: higher atomic number material.

One BVT of any material_reduces the intensity to half of the original ' intensity. Two HVT
reduces the intensity to 16 x,'h.. _ (1h)2; ie., 1/4 .of.the original intensity. In general , 'n'. HVT
C reduces. the intensity to ('h)°. (Recall the decrease of.radioactivity4-with time)"

The reduction in radiation intensity with abs rbers c'f different half value thickness is shown in
figure 3.2.

Radiation
tntenaltg
1/2

1/4
. ......... .... ........... . .....
I/8

t No. of Half Value Lagers ->

Source

MN1\N}NN\\}\\}NNNN^IN\W\'

x
Detector
2 3
No. of HVT 0 1

Radiation I I I I
2 4 a
intenaitg
100 GBq Ir-192 11.4 rGU 5.7 mGg 2.85 mGg 1.43 mGg .
at 1m

Fig. 3.2 Reduction in Radiation Intensity with Thickness.

 TABLE 3.1 : HVT AND TV T VALUES FOR
X AND.GAMMA RADIATIONS
Material

Concrete Steel Lead Uranium

HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT

Radioisotope cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm

Iridium-192 4.6 14 1.25 4.0 0. 48 1.6 .0.31 1.0

6.6 21.8 2.0 6.6 1.2 4.0 0.7 2.2

Cobalt-60

HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT

X-rays mm. mm mm mm mm mm

100 kV 16 55 1.2 3.8 0.25 0.84

150 kV 22 70 2.3 7.6 0. 29 0.96

200 kV 26 86 3.8 12.7 0.42 1.4

250 kV 28 90 5.4 17.7 0.86 2.9

300 kV 30 100 6.5 21.5 1.7 5.7

Tenth Value Thickness (TVT)

Tenth value thickness is the thickness of any material needed to reduce the radiation intensity
to one tenth of its initial value . Similarly , Two TVT reduces the intensity to 1/10 x 1/10 =
the intensity by a
(1/10)2 ie ., 1/100 of the original intensity . Generally, 3.3 TVT reduces
factor of 10, hence

1TVT=3.3HVT

are given Table 3.1.

HVT and TVT values in different materials, for X and gamma raiiations ,

Example 3.1

The radiation level at a place, due to an iridium-192 source is 10 mR/h. What is the thickness
of steel required to reduce the level to 2.5 mR/h?

Radiation level at the place = 10 mR/h.

One HVT reduces the level to 10 = 2 = 5 mR/h.
One more HVT reduces the level to 5 -. 2 = 2.5 mR/h

Two HVT of steel for iridium -192 = 2 x 1.25 cm = 2.5 cm.

3.4

y'L.p Lx.' h 'fN^ Q{' '^.,.^•ryY 'L 5.:4 ^I < ^'^Y}`Tr'y `I `^. ^y ^°}'H
 9. Alpha,
beta
radiations areand gamma radiations can cause ionization or excitation .
called IONIZING RADIATIONS Hence. these'

10. Higher atomic number material, like lead , uranium

than lower atomic number material , like plastic , absorb X and gamma radiations better
, aluminum.
11. HALF VALUE THICKNESS
(HVi) of any material reduces the radiation intensity at a
place to half of the original intensity.

12. TENTH VALUE THICKNESS (TVT) of

place to one tenth of the original intensity. any material reduces the radiation intensity at a

3.6
 Ex-ample 3.2

What is
the thickness of lead required to reduce the radiation intensity at a place, due to
cobalt-60 source from 1000 mR/h 5

Radiation level at the place

= 1000 mR/h.
One TVT reduces the level ,to 1000 _ 10 = 100 mR/h'.
One more TVT reduces the level to 100 _ 10 = 10 mR/h.
One HVT added to this reduces the
level to
10 -: 2 = 5 mR/h.

Two TVT and one HVT of lead for cobalt - 60 radiations

= 2 x 4 + I x 1 . 2 cm = 9.2 cm.

Examale 3.3

The radiation intensity at a place from a 200 kV X-ray beam is 5000 mR/h. This has to be
reduced to 2.5 mR/h. What is the thickness of concrete required to achieve this?

Radiation intensity at the place

= 5000 mR/h.
3 TVT reduces this level to 50)0 _ (10.x 10.x 1U) -. 5 nmR/h.
One HVT added to this reduces the level to
5 _ 2 = 2.5 mR/h.

3 TVT and one HVT of concrete for 200 kV X-ray beam

=3x86+ I x26= 284 mm =28.4 cm.

SUMMARY

1. Beta radiations can be absorbed completely. But X and gamma radiations cannot be
absorbed completely.

2. Interactions of X and gamma radiations, in any material, are similar.

3. X and gamma radiations undergo three types of interactions in any material: Photoelectric
effect, Compton effect and Pair production.

4. For energies of interest in industrial radiography, only photoelectric effect and Compton
interactions are important.

5. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT is important at low energies. It decreases as energy of

radiation increases. It increases as atomic number of the absorbing material increases.

6. COMPTON EFFECT is important at medium energies. It decreases with energy. It

does not vary with the atomic number of the absorbing material.

7. IONIZATION is a process, in which electrons are knocked off (removed) from an atom.

8. EXCITATION is a process, in which electrons are raised from an inner orbit to an outer
orbit.

3.5
C
 4. RADIATION.QUANTTFLES & UNITS

Units are necessary. for quantitative description of any physical processor phenomena.
radiological physics, units are required to measure

a. Radioactivity,
b. Exposure,
c. Dose,
d. Equivalent Dose.

RADIOACTIVITY
of transformations it undergoes
Radioactivity of a source is measured in terms of the number
in one second.

The unit of radioactivity is Becquerel.(Bq)

the unit of activity
One Becquerel corresponds to one transformation per second. Formerly,
was Curie (Ci) corresponding to 3.7 X 1010 transformations per second.

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 transformations/sec

3.7 x 101°Bq = 37 x 109 Bq := 37 GBq

Submultiples of Curie viz., 1 mCi'(1/1000Ci) and 1 ACi (1/106Ci)are occasionally used.

EXPOSURE

In order to obtain information about quantity of X or gamma radiation present at a point of

is used, which is based on the ability of radiation to produce
interest, the concept of exposure
ionization in air.

which is defined as the quantity of charge

The unit of exposure is Coulomb per kg (C/kg;,
produced by ionizing radiation. in 1 kg of air.

(R) which was used for X or gamma rays upto

The earlier unit of exposure was Roentgen'
3 MeV. This wAs defined as the amount of exposure due to X or gamma radiation o energy.
upto 3 MeV which would cause ionization resulting in 1 electrostatic unit of charge of either
sign in I cc of air at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure).

1 R = 2.58 X 10-4 Coulomb/kg (C/kg).

DOSE.
to matter by the ionizing r:.: iation,
The dose from ionizing . radiation is the energy imparted ,
per unit mass of the irradiated. material at the place of interest.

k
I I

The unit of dose is

Joules per kilogram (!/kg)
The special
name for the unit,of dose is
Gray (Gy)
If one joute
I Grade of energy is
is imparted by any radiation
in one kilogram
of any material, the dose
The concept of dose applies to An
is a measure •y
of energy a medium, all types of radiations and all energie;. The
I deposited by radiation in the irradiated material. dose
radiation - physical, chemical and biological depend upon the dose. All effects of
Formerly, the unit
of dose was
material. One rad rad. corresponds to 1
00 ergs/ g of irradiated
I Joule = .107 erg I
Therefore,

1 Gray = 1 Joule/kg
= 10 erg/kg
= 104 erg/g = 102 rad
Hence,
1 Gy = 100 rad or I rad = 0.01 Gy.

Dose rate in terms of Gy/h, Gy/year, rad/h or -rad/year, e

In the case of exposure, etc., are also occaslona!!y used.

for
the radiation quantity instead practical
exposure. convenience,
the concept of airused to specify
kerma is
Kerma
is theradiation.
the ionizing total kinetic energy of all the charged particles released
in 1 kg of the medium by
Air kerma
The unit of gives an idea
air kerma is about the energy transferred to air.
Joules per kilogram (Gy).
I air kerma Gy = 114 R.

The usefulness of air kerma can be extended to the determinatr,

specified distance from a radiation source in terms of mG 'on of the radiation output at a
y per hour.
EQUIVALENT DOSE .

The biological
That damagedamage
is, the biological suffereddue
by to
theI tissue
G y exposed to different radiations may
due
1 Gy of gamma dose. y of alpha dose would be different y be different.
types of radiation is different This is because the energy loss per unit path lan, -
greater ionization particles, because of their larger charge and mass, cause
per unit path length than gamma radiations, which mediate through singly

4.2
C
charged electrons, _..Hence, one:Gy of. alpha dose is approximately 20. times more effective in
causing biological :damage, compared to one Gy of gamma or X-ray dose . To account for
c this variation among different types of radiations, a term known as the Radiation Weighting
Factor (WJ is used to modify the doses due to each type. of radiation. Thus, Equivalent Dose
is obtained by multiplying 'd9se' by the radiation weighting factor corresponding to the
radiation of interest.

t The unit of equivalent dose is also Joules per kilogram

The special name for the unit of equivalent dose is Sievert (Sv).
Equivalent Dose in Sv = Dose in Gy X W.

Formerly, the equivalent dose was called Dose Equivalent and its unit of was rent and WR
was called Quality Factor (QF).

1 Sv = 100 rem or 1 rem = 0.01 Sv.

Equivalent Dose is a measure of biological damage caused by radiation.

r
Radiation weighting factor for X-rays being on, equivalent dose in Sv can be considered as
equivalent to dose in Gy. Therefore,- for Xand gamma rays,-- .

I Sv 1Gy
1 rem = 1 rad

KILOVOLTAGE (kV)

The potential difference applied between the cathode and the anode-of an X-ray machine is
expressed in terms of kilovoltage ( kV). It determines the maximum energy of X-rays
produced by the equipment . For example, when the potential difference applied is 300 kV,
energy of X-rays produced varies from 0 to 300 ke7. Higher the -applied potential
difference , higher is the energy of the X-rays emitted and : higher is the penetration. In an
X-ray equipmer . t, the energy of X-rays can be varied , depending upon the thickness of the
. object to be radiographed , by altering the applied potential difference.

MILLIAMPERE (mA)

Milliampere (mil.) of an X-ray unit indicates the current flowing through the it-lament circuit.
The intensity of X-rays at a given applied voltage is proportional to the current flowing
through the filament. The •intensity of X-rays at 10- mA is twice the intensity at 5 mA. The
exposure to be given for a radiograph , at a given potential is indicated in terms of mAs, ie.,
the product of filament current and duration of exposure (sec). The exposure due ,C ^ A
current for 2 minutes is equal to that due to 5 mA current for 4 minutes ( 1200 mAs). The
total use of X-ray equipment or work load is expressed as mA - minutes or mA-seconds.

c.

c
 SUMMARY
,QUEREL is
=cad. the new unit of radioactivity. It corresponds to one transformation
P^

CIE was the earlier unit of radioactivity It corresponds to 3.7 x 1010 transformatior°

11kquantity XPp'i is based on the ability of radiation to produce ionization in air.

4 i1LOMB ER EILOGRAM is the present unit of exposure.

5WENTGE (R) is the earlier unit of exposure.

69 WE is energy imparted by radiation in unit mass of matter.

'210ULES PER KILOGRAM (J/k g)rs

metal name given for this unit, the present unit of dose. GRAY
(Gy) is the
LIP41) was the earlier unit of dose.

It UNALENT DOSE signifies the biological damage caused by ionizing radiation.

I&aha and neutrons cause more biological damage than gamma radiations. -

IL NATION WEIGHTING FACTOR (W

iation. to
R) is used to modify doses due t
each type of

11 Radiation Weighting Factor was earlier called QUALITY FACTOR Qn.

13. JOULES PER KILOGRAM (J/k

S>EVERT g) is also the present unit of e ^o
(Sv) is the special name given fog this unit. quiva^ .nt dose.

IA,. IQLOVOLTAGE (kV) is the voltage applied between the c

X-ray
machine. athode and the anode of an

IS.X-ray
MILLIAMPERE (mA) indicates the current flowing through th
machine. e filament circuit of an

4.4
 I 5. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
CELL
C
Cells are the basic units of living organisms . All tissues are made of cells. Adult human
body consists of about 1014 cells. Cells of different organs carry out the functions specific for
those organs . For example , nerve cells are responsible for transmitting electrical impulses
from one part of the body to the other ; liver cells are responsible for metabolizing the food 'we
l
take and preparing nutrition for all other tissues in the body; red blood cells carry oxygen and
nutrition to all tissues.

Cells of different tissues have different siies and shapes. However, in general , they all contain
a central nucleus' (with the exdeption :of red blood cell), surrounded by a viscous-fluid called
cytoplasm . The nucleus contains chromosomes which constitute an array of genes. The
chromosomes control all the functions of the cell and hence , of the tissue. The cytoplasm
contains various membrane systems and other components that are necessary for the function
of the cell.

Cell Division

Cells originate or multiply from preexisting cells by the process of cell division . For example,
a human being, like any other animal, develops from a single cell, which is formed by the
fusion of .two gcrm-ceiis, one from - the father and the other from the mother. Duringthe nine
month period o :' pregnancy, this cell undergoes a number of divisions. The new cells in turn
specialize to form various organs of the fetus (unborn baby). After birth, cell division
continues until ^ he organs attain adult proportions . Cells in many tissues of the body have life
span shorter than that of the body, as a whole ., For example , intestinal cells , blood cells,:skin
cells, etc., have life span ranging from a few days to a few weeks. They wear out and die.
They are continuously replaced for the proper function of the tissue. Hence, even in an
adult , cell division continues in some tissues. Tissues undergoing cell division are. more -
sensitive to radiation than others.

From the point of view of radiation hazard , cells. can be classified into two groups : a) Somatic
Cells, b) Germ Cells. Germ cells are the ones involved in reproductive process . T1iey are
sperms in the male and eggs in the female . All other cells in the body are somatic cells.

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

When radiation passes through the body, it transfers some of its energy to the cells in the form
of ionizations and excitations , which in turn lead to a number of chemical changes.
Generally, these chemical changes are harmful to the cells. Depending upon the seriousness
of the harm, a cidier dies or gets modified . All the biological effects of radiation arise
from these two effects on cells - Cell Death or Cell Modification.

Radiation can cause breaks in chromosomes . Majority of these breaks get rep^.ired, but
certain breaks may lead to loss-or rearrangement of genetic material which can,,be se::. under a
 microscope . Such events are called
Chromosome Aberrations.

Biological effects of radiation can be classified into two groups, depending upon the t
cells damaged. They are somatic ype
effects and heredita effects.
As the name itself suggests,
somatic effects arise from damage to somatic cells and they occur in the tissues of the exposed
person (eg., effects on skin , blood ,
lung, bone, thyroid, etc.). Hereditary effects arise from
damage caused to the germ cells and occur in the progeny of the irradiated person.

Somatic effects can l e furth, :

r divided into early and late effects.
Early Somatic Effects

Whenever the body is expc

.ed to radiation : some cells are killed
low doses, since only a few cells are : up and some are:
mod i fied. At
killed, the body can cope with the loss and hence no
immediate effects are. seen .
However, as dose increases ,
this results in radiation sickness , more and mote cells get killed and
a few hours of irradiation . However. nausea (feeling like vomiting), vorniting, fatigue, etc., within
hours . As dose increases -these effects are transient and disappear after a few
further, the effects appear quicker,
At sufficiently are more severe and last longer.
organs, intestine high doses, the damage
, etc., is so severe , caused to important organs such as I lood forming
the
and high fever would occur , leading to death patient will not be able to recover. Ant:mia, infection
in the range . Fifty per cent of the persons exi osed to a dose
3 - 5 Gy, die within a period of 60 days. This is
hi.;her doses , death occurs earlier.known ^0^60
as LD_ At still

Instead of the whole body, if only a part of the body is exposed, the damage is confined to the
.exposed part. Depending upon the part of the body exposed, different local effects at different
doses are produced. Skin is the most frequently exposed organ. Doses less than 5 G
cause only a transient (temporary) erythema which lasts for 1-2 days. Higher doses ofy the can
order of 10 Gy can cause reddening of the skin, fixed erythema and very high doses cause dry
or wet desquamation depending upon the severity of loss of epidermal basal cells, within 3-6
weeks (10-25 Gy). Doses higher than 25 Gy
lead to late phase of erythema during 8-16 weeks,
finally leading to death of the tissue. If hairy parts are exposed, in addition to erythema, hair
falls off, leading to epilation. Another sensitive organ is the reproductive organ - testes in
male and ovaries in female. Due to death of the germ cells sterilization results. This may be
temporary or permanent depending upon the dose. When eyes are exposed, the cells in the
lens are killed leading to the opacity of the lens, which is called cataract. Unlike her effects
which appear within a few days -or weeks after exposure, cataract formation takes a mean
latent period of 2 to 3 years.

In brief, radiation exposure may lead to various types of early somatic effects depe;;,jing upon
whether
effects whole or only part of the body is exposed. The characteristic of the eariv somatic
are:

a. they do not occur below a certain dose (threshold dose),

b. severity of the effect increases with dose and

5.2
 1'
c. they appear within a short time after exposure (except cataract).
Table 5 .
1 shows some of the early somatic effects and their threshold doses . It is generally
assumed that the exposure takes place within a short time - minutes to hours (
acute exposure)
If the doses are .protracted ( chronic exposure),
then the threshold doses will be -much higher,'.
since the effectiveness - of radiation decreases due to the recovery process.

TABL 5.1' SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF

RADIATION EXPOSURE

Dog(- Significance
1-2 mSv/y 100-200 mrem/y Whole body Background radiation level at sea level
(outdoors)
I
1 mSv/y 1(0 mrem/y Whole body Limit for non- radiation workers.
5 mSv/y 500 mrem/y Whole body Average occupational exposure..
10 mGy . ' 1 rad Whole body Risk'of cancer mortality,
about 5 per 10000 exposed
20 mSv/y 2 rem./y Whole body Limit for radiation workers.
150 mSv/y 15.rem/y Eye Limit for- t,ye lens.
500 mSv/y 50'rem/y.. . Partial body Limit for skin and extremities.
100' mGy I0 rad ' Whole body Detectable increase in
chromosome aberrations.,
No detectable injury or sickness.
1 Gy 100 rad Whole body . Threshold for radiation sickness
[Nausea, Vomiting, Diarrhea (NVD)j
(5-10 %.of exposed individuals).
1 •Gy , 100 rad Reproductive Temporary sterility in men.
system
2.3 Gy 200-300 rad Whole body Threshold for epilation'
Threshold for induction of cataract.
Radiation sickness in most individuals.
Early erythema induction.
3-5 Gy ' 300-500 rad Whole body LD 50/ 60 for human beings.
> 6 Gy . > 600 rad. Partial body Threshold dose of skin erythema.
Permanent loss of hair.

The threshold doses for early effects are generally, much higher than doses received by
persons during normal working conditions .
Hence, when proper working conditions are
practiced, these early effects of radiation do not occur . Compare the limit for radiaion
 exposure with the threshold dose for various acute effects in table 5. L However, accidents
such as holding sources by bare hands, hiding stolen sources in pockets.-etc, leading to severe
skin burn and tissue damage have been reported.-

Late Somatic Effects

The most important late somatic effect is cancer. When the irradiated cell is modified rather
than killed, it may develop into cancer, after a prolonged delay. The delay may vary from
5 years (blood cancer) to 30 years or more (lung cancer). Unlike the case of early effects, the
probability of cancer resulting from radiation increases with every increment of dose, probably
without any threshold. Radiation is not the only agent which induces cancer. A number.of
chemical agents (such as tobacco and its fumes, as in beedi and cigarette smoke) and biological
processes can also induce cancer. Compared to these, radiation is a week carcinogen.
However, cancers induced by radiation are indistinguishable from those induced by other
agents.

Hereditary Effects

Hereditary effects may result when the irradiated germ cell is modified rather than killed and if
it also participates in the reproductive process. Under such circumstances, the damage caused
to the genetic material in the modified germ cell will be transmitted to the subsequent
generations. -As in the case of cancer, there is probably no threshold dose for hereditary
effects. Even though radiation is found to induce hereditary effects in experimental animals,
there is no conclusive evidence of the same in man. Furthermore, natural incidence of
hereditary defects in man is quite high. Mutations in germ cel,s could lead to a variety of
skeletal abnormalities leading to malformations, neonatal cataract and a variety of gen,;;tic
diseases associated with mental retardation (eg., Downs Syndrome). Fetus and a,re
generally known to be more sensitive than adults to all effects of radiation.

In normal radiation work, it is necessary to ensure that the risk of radiation induced cancer and
hereditary defects are kept at acceptable limits.

SUMMARY
1. IONIZING RADIATION can CAUSE DAMAGE to living beia ^gs, hence one should inn
careful while handling radiation sources.

2. Chromosomes are the most important parts of the cell.

3. SOMATIC EFFECTS appear in the EXPOSED INDIVIDUAL.

4. HERE DITARY EFFECTS appear in the FUTURE GENERATION (ch

grandchildren) of the exposed individual.

5. ACUTE DOSE means LARGE DOSE in a SHORT PERIOD. I

6. CHRONIC DOSE means DOSE received over a LONG PERIOD.

5.4
 7. Same DOSE received over a SHORT PERIOD cause . MORE-DAMAGE than that
e receives over a tong perry
f
8 . Large d ose rece i ved by apart of the body might cause injury only to that part. But,' the
same dose to the whole body might be more serious.

9. IMMEDIATE EFFECTS are caused due to LARGE ,DOSES over a SHORT

DURATION. They occur within a short period,,eg ., decrease in white blood cell count;
.skin erythema, etc.
10. IMMEDIATE EFFECTS occur ABOVE certairl, THRESHOLD DOSE .

I L If 100 persons receive a dose of 3 to 5 Gra }^ (300.0 500 rad), 50 persons would die within
60 days. This is called LETHAL DOSE 10/60 (LDsot6o for human beings.
)
I
I

6. OPERATIONAL LIMITS ,
Every
profession has its own risks and benefits. While radiati
of benefi c i a l purposes , on can be utilized for a number(
it can produce early and late harmful effects in the exposed persons.
Hence, it is necessary to set up safety standards in the use of radiation. The International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) sets guidelines in this respect in the fi of
annual dose limits
easily prevented by to individuals. Since the early effects have dose thresholds, they can be (
setting
the dose limits below
the threshold. On the other hand late effects
such as cancer and hereditary effects have no threshold, which means that there is no dose
below which they can be completely prevented. Hence, in setting up the dose limits, it should
be ensured that the risk of cancer and hereditary defects do not exceed certai
limits, n acceptable

TABLE 6.1 : DOSE LIMITS

Application
Dose Limit
Occupational
Public
Whole boo .
(effective dose) 20 mSv per year, averaged I mSv in a
over defined period of
5 years, with no more than year, averaged
50 rraSv in a single year over 5 years
^{^ .%.^L q
Parts of the body
(equivalent dose)
Lens of the eye 150L :nSv per year i_titi ^^v^E2
Skin* 3 lS mSv in a yr
500 mSv
Hands and feet** 500 mSv 50 mSv "

Averaged over areas of-no more than any 1 cm2 regardless of die area exposed.

Accordingly, the ICRP has

(including pregnant womensuggested
workers the annual occupational dose limits to radiation ,vo;kers
), as shown in Table 6
well as for some specific . 1, for whole body exposure, as
organs .
20 millisievert per year . The average effective dose ( whole body)
should not exceed
Since, it is desirable to keep the risks well below the acce
limits, the ICRP recommends that the dose limits should be considered as the upper limitsp table
the and
actual doses received must be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable
(ALARA).
In addition to workers who handle the radiation sources, members of the
exposed to radiation . Hence , public may also et
separate limits for general public have also )een su
These are also shown in Table 6.1. The limits for general public as a group ggesgted.
for workers , since this group a
) i- lower than that
consists of more sensitive section of populzdon
b) does not derive direct benefits from the use of radiation and c ( children
assessing exposure is done. ) no individ )'
. The-ALARA
public. principle is also applicable in the protect i
on fof I
The dose limits given in Table
radiation . 6. 1 do not include medical exposure and L_
uacKbround

6.1
 ^'3^JMl^Ft'.^i'Lb^ .^.^ _ YID... _ - ^ ^,
!^./`1TO.V^-T •1^ 4-^`•^^^^`..

PERSPECTIVES ON OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE. LEVELS

C
Radiation is a part of our daily life. We are constantly exposed to cosmic radiation, the
earth's minerals (uranium, radium) and even to radioisotopes within our own body (carbon-14,
potassium-40).' Fence, the food we eat, the air we breathe, the water we drink and the house
we live in, contain traces of radioactivity. These constitute Natural Background,
Radioactivity. 'The average annual dose resulting from natural radioactivity is estimated to be
about 2-3 mSv:

The dose limits for radiation workers is about 10 times higher than the dose due to normal
natural background radiation. But, the average occupational dose is of the same order as the
natural background. This corresponds to about 100 mSv over ones lifetime. If 1000 persons
receive 100 mSv over their lifetime, 4 persons may suffer from cancer.

It should be noted that care, rather- than fear, is needed while handling radiation sources and
the associated risk should be viewed in relation with other risks. The procedures available to.
control exposures to. ionizing radiations are sufficient, if used properly, to make sure that the
risk due to radiation is small compared to many other risks to which we are all exposed.

SUMMARY
1. Any profession has some risk associated with it.

2. Certain amount of risk is tolerated, as we get benefit.

3. In radiation work we are concerned with both acute and chronic exposures and the associ-
ated hazard.

4. No dose is safe dose.

5. While setting operational limits, the well being of the radiation worker and his future
generation are considered.

6. There are separate operational limits for the whole body and the individual organs.

7. These limits do not .include medical exposure and exposures due to natural background
radiation.

8. Radiation exposures are cumulative (they add up) in their effect.

9. The annual operational limit for whole body is 20 mSv (2 rem) for radiation workers and
1 mSv (100 mrem) for non-radiation workers.

10. Unnecessary radiation exposure should not be given.

11. Radiation exposure should be kept minimum.

 C
I

7. RADIATION DETECTORS AND t

MONITORS
INTRODUCTION

Use of radiation sources is

associated with a certain amount of radiation hazard. With prop'
care, this can be minimized. Radiation hazards may be broadly classified as external hazards
and internal hazards. External hazards occur when the source of radiation is outside the boe
and internal hazards arise when the source of radiation gets into the human system. Hazard
evaluation is necessary in order t adopt suitable measures to control radiation exposure. Thy,
problem of internal hazard does nDt arise in the use of X-ray equipment.

It is considerably easy to eatima^re the external radiation hazard and there are a number o"
devices suitable for this purpose. Thesz devices incorporate radiation detectors to sense the
presence of.radiation, so that radiation level or dose to individuals can be evaluated. The)
function on the basis that radiation can cause ionization in a medium, i.e., produce charged
particles from originally neutral atoms and molecules. The detectors are linked with a display
unit to indicate the detector response.

Radiation monitoring devices differ from each other in the medium in which the ionization
takes place and in the method by which this ionization is detected and measured. The
following are the media generally used for radiation detection.

1. Gases - Ionization chamber, Geiger Mueller (GM) counter

2. Scintillation detector
3. Photographic emulsions (Film)
4. Solid state detectors (Thermolurainescent dosimeters)

The selection of a particular type of detector depends on the purpose for which it is needed.

'wwwwwwin,+

Radiation
Outer electrode

Fig. 7.1 : Gas Filled Detector System

GAS FILLED DETECTORS

Radiation produces ionization in a

gas medium and the ions so produced are collected as
current or pulses.

Gas filled detectors are generally, of cylindrical shape, with two electrodes, a central elect,> e
and an outer sheath, separated by an insulator (figure 7. 1). A positive voltage is applied to

7.1
 (

the central electrode, with respect to outer sheath. On exposure to radiation, ionization takes
.C place in the gas medium, ie., electrons are knocked off the gas molecules. The ionized gas
molecule is called the positive ion. The positive ions and the negative electrons, thus formed,
respectively move to the outer (negative) and central (positive) electrodes. These ion pairs are
collected and the resulting pulse/current is measured. These gas filled detectors function
differently, at different voltages applied to the central electrode. There are five 'different
regions of response. Of these, two regions are of interest to us.

a. Ionization Chamber Region: In this low voltage region (- 200 volts), the number of
ion pairs produced and collected are same. For radiation monitoring, the ionization chambers
are filled with air, generally, at atmospheric pressure. The effective atomic number of the
wall material would be close to that of air. Hence, such an ionization chamber would give
energy independent response. Beta Gamma Exposure Rate Meter (SM 140) of Electronics
Corpbration'of India Ltd., Hyderabad, incorporates an ionization chamber as a radiation
detector.

Pocket dosimeter is another device which has an ionization chamber. It has a built-in
capacitance which can be chz.rged by an external voltage and when exposed to radiation, the
ionization in the chamber decreases the voltage across the capacitance.. The reduction in the
voltage across the capacitance is a measure' of the amount of ionization and hence the quantity
of radiation exposure.

b. Geiger. Mueller (GM) Region : This occurs at a higher voltage 1300-1400 volts),
wherein multiple ionization takes place in the gas medium. As a result, the number of ion
pairs collected are much more than that collected in the ionization chamber region.
GM detector functioning in this region, is. the most widely used detector of ionizing radiation,
because it has high sensitivity.

In a GM counter, the central electrode is a fine wire (0.2 mm to 0.1 mm diameter) of tungsten
and the outer electrode is usually of metal. The filling gas is generally argon with quenching
gases; like .ethyl alcohol or.halogen vapour, to suppress secondary discharge. Depending
upon the gas used and the pressure, the voltage difference between the two electrodes may
anywhere be between 300 volts. to 1400 volts. There are GM detectors of different shapes and
sizes, depending on the purpose of use and radiation level to be monitored.

GM detectors may fail to respond when the radiation level is very high.

Many radiation monitors incorporate Glvl detectors.

SOLID. STATE DETECTORS

a. S:;intillation Detectors : In this, the medium for detection is a scintillator. When

radiation interacts with the scintillator, the absorbed energy is instantaneously converted into
light flashes. A large portion of the light flash from the scintillator is transmitted to
photomultiplier, where electrons are produced, multiplied and detected as a large electrical=
pulse. Thallium activated sodium iodide - Nal(TI) scintillator is used for gatmmnaradiation^

7.2
 k' s:

detection. These detectors are used for monitoring very low radiation levels..

b. Thermoluminescent Detectors : In this solid state detector, the radiation energy.,.

absorbed , by the detector material , is retained for a long time. On heating this material,
visible light is emitted , whose intensity is proportional to the radiation energy absorbed and
thus, the dose . Dysprosium activated Calc t> u1pha e-((aSOa:D _y) js a very useful
thermoluminescent detector used for personnel . monitoring purpose..

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS

Photographic film consists of a sensitive layer of silver halide crystals in gelatin spreadI on
cellulose acetate base. The thickness of the emulsion layer ranges from 10 - 25 0m.
Radiation, incident on the film causes ionization in the silver bromide crystal . Silver clumps
containing several silver atoms are formed on the surface of the crystal. During development,
each exposed grain is reduced to metallic silver. The unaffected, undeveloped silver halide
crystals are dissolved by immersing the film in fixer solution. The processed film shows
blackening and the amount of blackening expressed in terms of optical density is related to the
quantity of radiation a^soroed in the film. The optical density is measured using an
instrument known as Densitometer.

Photographic films are used in industrial radiography for revealing defects in castings, welds,
etc. Photographic films are also used for personnel monitoring, by loading personnel
monitoring films in film cassettes containing different metallic filters, designed for monitoring
different types of radiations.

PERSONNEL MONITORING

Personnel monitoring is the evaluation of radiation doses received by the personnel working
with radiation sources and X-rays. The most commonly used personnel monitoring device is
t
the film badge which consists of a photographic film (PM film) kept in a cassette containing a
set of filters (Fig. 7.2). Using film badges doses from 0.1 mSv to 10CSv (10 mrem to
10000em) of different types of radiations can be evaluated. The film serves as a permanent
record and if worn on chest, gives the most representative value of the whole body dose under
normal working conditions. =films can be used. to assess the radiation dose received from
exposure to beta rays, X-rays, € amma rays or thermal neutrons.

The dose received by radiation worker can also be determined by the use of thermoluminescert
dosimeter (TLD) badges. This consists of three CaSO4:Dy TLD discs embedded in a metallic
framework and enclosed in a multifilter cassette (Fig. 7.2). The TLD badge can be used to
monitor beta, gamma and X-rays. The TLD badge can cover a wide range of doses
from 0.1 mSV to 100Sv (10 mrem to 1000 rem).

Radiation dose to personnel can also be assessed by using pocket dosimeters (Fig. 7.3).
Pocket dosimeters are very useful in certain operations, where the radiation levels vary
considerably and may be quite hazardous. They give an on-thc-spot information of radiation
dose, as the dose recorded can be read directly by the person. Pocket dosimeters in the

7.3
range of 200 mR, 5 R, 10 R,,etc., are available.

11ft^t}Gitinl^t^nc^uv^^^^^+•:
V11111 t t -
I

1-Open window 2 =Plastic

3-Cadmium 4-Thin,copper
5-Thick copptr 6-Lead

Film Badge TLD badge

Fig. 7.2 : Personnel- Monitoring Badges.

R. Charging rod
B. Insulator ring
C. Fixed quartz fibre
D. Movable fine metal
coated quartz fibre
E. Transparent scale
F. Lens

Fig. .7.3 : Pocket Dosimeter

AREA MONITORING .

The assessment of radiation levels at different locations in the vicinity of radiation sources
and X-ray equipment is generally known as area monitoring.. On the basis of the
measurements taken, one would be able to determine the adequacy/inadequacy of. the existing
radiation protection measures.

Normally, are i monitoring systems should be able to determine radiation levels in the range of
0.2 mR/h to 5 R/h and also have audio indication. Lower range in the instrument is 'useful, in
assessing radiation level at occupied areas and for general radiation survey around X-ray
installations.

The most commonly used radiation monitors (eg. MINIRAD, MR 4500) have miniature. GM
counters, making them useful over wide range of exposure-rates. MINIRAD monitor can
measure upto 5 R/h and MR 4500 can measure upto 50 R/h 'making it useful in radiation
 emergencies . Both these instruments can be used
for area monitor in ; as well as fort
monitoring , leakage radiation level around source housings, X-ray equipment.

Other monitoring instruments in use :

BETA-GAMMA EXPOSURE-RATE METER (SM-140) is an ionization

chamber type,
survey meter marketed by M/S Electronics Corp. Of India Ltd., (ECIL), Hyderabad. It has a
400 cc ionization chamber and can measure exposure-rate from SO mR/h to 5 R/h due to X and
gamma radiation in three ranges . The chamber is provided with a window and by opening the
window, beta radiations can also be monitored. This instrument is useful for general purpose
monitoring and for checking the radiation levels around radiation source housings and X-ray
equipment.

RADIATION SURVEY METER (MR-121) also marketed

by M/S ECIL, Hyderabad, is a
GM counter type survey meter. It has a long glass
walled GM counter and can cover
exposure
-rates from 0. 1 mR/h to 20 mR/h due to X and gamma radiations in three ranges. It
can also respond to high energy beta radiations
. It is very useful for low level area
monitoring. This instrument, however, has a
drawback that it does not respond at high
radiation levels.

The area monitors mentioned above, are a few typical ones. There are many other radiation
monitors which can cover the range of interest and serve the purpose of area monitoring.

'T'ABLE 7.1 : SOME INSTRUMENTS USED FOR AREA MONITORING

Instrument Type of Range of Remarks

Detector Measurement

MR - 121 G.M. Counter 0 - 20 mR/h Fails at higher

radiation level
SM - 140 Ion Chamber 0 - 5 R/h
MINIRAD G.M. Counter 0 - 5 R/h
MR 4500 G.M. Counter . 0 - 50 R/h

In addition to these area monitors, a zone monitor, located at a suitable place inside the
exposure room, would help in warning people when the radiography equipment is being
operated, so that they can avoid entering the exposure room. A zone monitor, generally,
contains audio and visual indication, which gets switched 'ON' when the radiation level at the
location of the zone. monitor, exceeds a certain preset level.

CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE OF. RADIATION MONITORS

Radiation monitors should be kept in good working condition. They should be periodically

7.5
r c.; confirm that reliaable readings are indicated. They should also be checked after any
( servicing or repairs. The most simple method of checking the instrument performance is to
use the instrument just after it has been calibrated by the manufacturer and record for future
reference .the exposure-rate at a specific distance from a check radiation source of known
activity. Performance checks can then be made at any time by comparing the recorded
reading with check readings made at the same distance from the source , after making
necessary correction for radioactivity decay. If the check reading, after corrections, varies
considerably, the instrument should be sent for servicing Add recaMibration. In addition, the
operational and handling instructions should be scrupulously observy :d to ensure prolonged and
trouble-free performance of the instrument.

SUMMARY

1. Radiatio.i detectors function on the basis that radiation can cause IONIZATION
2. Commonly used radiation monitors (eg., MR-121, MINIRAD, MR-4500) have GEIGER
MUELLER (GM) COUNTER as the radiation detector.

3. SM-140 radiation monitor consists of an IONIZATION CHAMBER,

4. MR-121 radiation monitor fails to respond at higher radiation levels.

5. In SCINTILLATION DETECTOR, radiation energy is* converted into light flashes,

which in turn are converted into electrical pulses by a photomultiplier.

6. In THERMOLUMINESCENT DETECTOR, absorbed radiation energy is retained for a

long time. On heating, this absorbed energy is released in the form of visible light.

7. In PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM radiation ionizes silver bromide crystal and these are
reduced to metallic silver on processing. The processed film shows blackening.

8. OPTICAL DENSITY expresses degree of blackening on the processed film.

9. PERSONNEL MONITORING : Assessment of dose received by radiation workers

10. Film badge has many filters , to help in assessment of dose due to X-rays, gamma rays,
beta rays and thermal neutrons.

11. TLD badge can be used to assess personnel dose due to beta, gamma and X-rays.

12. POCKET DOSIMETERS are for on - the-spot information about the dose received.

13. AREA MONITORING : Assessment of radiation levels at different locations.

14. It is essential to periodically check the proper functioning of radiation monitors.

7.6
 8. R A.DIATION HAZARD CONTROL .
Use of gamma or X-ray equipment in
industrial radiography poses external radiation haza.
X-,rays are emitted only when an X-ray machine
is switched 'ON'. Hence, we are said
from radiation hazard , when the machine is switched
'OFF'. But, in gamma ray equipme)
ev(.n in the 'OFF' condition,
there is a certain amount leakage radiation coming out of tb"
source housing.

Radiation hazard from any radiographic source depends upon

a. energy of the gamma radiation,

b. radiation output,"
c. half- life of the radioisotope.

Each radiography source emits gamma radiation of one or more energies

. The energy of tl'i
gamma radiations emitted by cobalt -
60 source is different from those by iridium - 192 sours...
(Table 8.1).

TABLE 8.1: CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME R,,DIOGRAPHIC

SOURCES
Radiography Physical Half-life
source Gamma energy Exposure ra e
form (MeV) at 1 metre
R/h/Ci mGG y /h/Gbq
Iridium - 192 Metallic 74 d - 0.4 (Avg.) 0.5 0.12
Cobalt-60 Metallic 5.26 y 1.17, 1.33 1.32 0.31

I Gy (air kerma) = 114 R 1 GBq = 0.027 Ci

Cobalt-60 source has gamma radiation of two energies 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. Gamma
radiation energies from a given radioisotope are the same whether it's activity is 1 GBq,
000 GBq or of a;-,y other value. Gamma radiation of higher energy has higher penetrating
power.

The radiation level or the exposure-rate at a particular location increases with increase ir,
activity of source.

EXPOSURE RATE CONSTANT

Radiation level
at I metre d'stance from a source of unit. activity (GBq or Ci) is called the.
Exposure Rate Constant
of the source. It is a constant for a particular source. Radiation.
level (R/h) -at 1 metre from a l Ci radioactive source is known as the Ru M (Roentgen/Hour at
I Metre) of the source.

R 1
Uss of garama or X-ray._ equipment in. industrial radiography poses external radiation hazard.
X-rays are emitted ^ only when an X-ray "machine is switched ' ON'. • Hence , we are safe
from radiation hazard, when the machine is switched 'OFF'.' But, in gamma ray equipment,
even in the '.OFF' condition, there :ih°:a certain amount leakage radiation coming out of the
source housing.

Radiation hazard from any radiographic source depends upon

a. energy of the gamma radiation,

b. radiation output;.. '
c. half-life of the radioisotope.

Each radiography soutce emits gamma radiation of one or more energies. The energy of the
gamma radiations emitted by cobalt-60 source is different from those by iridium-192 source
('Fable 8 IN

TABLE 8.1 .' CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME RADIOGRAPHIC

SOURCES
Radiography Physical Half-life Gamma energy Exposure rate
source form (MeV) at 1 metre
R/h/Ci mGy/h/Gbq

Iridiutn-192 Metallic 74 d 0.4 (Avg.) 0.5 0.12

Cobalt-60 Metallic 5.26 y 1.17, 1.33 1.32 0.31

1 Gy (air kerma) = 114•R 1 GBq = 0.027 Ci

Cobalt-60 source has gamma radiation of two energies 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. Gamma
radiation energies* from a given radioisotopeare.the same whether it's activity is 1 GBq,
1000 GBq or of any other value. Gamma radiation of higher energy has Higher penetrating
power.

The radiation. level or the exposure-rate at a-particular location in..reases with increase in
activity of source.

EXPOSURE RATE CONSTANT

Radiation level at 1 metre distance from a source of unit activity (GBq or Ci) is called the
Exposure Rate Constant of the source . It is a constant for a particular source . Radiation
level (R/L) at 1 metre from a 1 Ci radioactive source is known as the R11M Moentgen /Hour at
1 Metre) of the source.

8.1
 Radiation output at I mete (
100 cm ), from a given source
= Exposure Rate
Constant x activity of the source
Thus,
('
the radiation level at 1 metre from a 7 Ci iridium-192 source is
KttM of iridium- 192 . x 7 0 .5x7 = 3.5R/h
Similarly
, the radiation level at 1 metre from a 200 GBq cobalt
.r -I
,60 source is
= Exposure rate constant of cobalt-60 x 200
mGy/h = 0.31 x 200 = 62 mG
y/h
If the radiation level at 1 metre is known
, the activity of the sou ..a
if the radiation level at 1 metre from an iridium
- 192 source is 1.5 R/h, then
0.5 x Ci = 1.5 R/h

Activity of the iridium-192 source = 1.5

=3Ci
0. 5
Similarly, if the source is cobalt
- 60, and the radiation
source, then level is 100 mGy/h at 1 metre from

0.31 x GBq 100 mGy/h

Activity of the cobalt-60 source 100

= 330 GBq
0.31

TABLE 8.2 : RADIATION OUTPUT OF SOI E INDUSTRIAL

X-RAY MALI q
Mak e & Type Max WmA Filter Focal
Spot Radiation
mm mm
2 output
R/min at 1 m
Philips MCN-421 300/
10 2.2 Be 4.5 X 4.5
350/10 2 . 2 Be 392
420/10 4.5 X 4.5 408
2 . 2 Be I @ 4.5 X 4.5
Siefert 440
320/ V * 7.0 Be I 4.5 X 4.5 59
7 . 0 Be 1.5 X 1:5
320/13 7 . 0 Be 4.0 X 14 24
58
So n
ex 100 / 5 2.0 Al
200/ 5 1 . 5 X 1.5 8
2 . 0 Al 2.0 X 2.0
_ 300/5 58
3.0 Al 3.2X 3.2 150
Note how radiation X-ray output
a. increases almost proportionately with mA (*)
b. increases more than proportionately
c. decreases w ith increased filtration (@)with kV (/{)

8.2
 Radiation hazard from an X-ray equipment depends on

X-ray output (Rlh) depends not only on the kV and mA of the X-ray equipment, but also on
various other factors such as construction of-the tube, size of the target, type of rectification;
inherent filtration, etc. The radiation output from an X-ray equipment is very high as
compared to the radiation output from gamma sources, normally used in industrial-
t radiography. Table.8.2 gives an idea about the radiation output of some common industrial
X-ray equipment.

CONTROL OF EXTERNAL HAZARD

The three basic factors by which external radiation hazard can be controlled are

a. time
b. distance
c. shielding

It is essential, from radiation protection point of view, that the time spent near gamma or
X-ray equipment during radiographic exposures should be minimum. The radiation dose
received by a radiographer depends upon the total time spent by him near a source. _

T
Exposure
Source :100 GBq Iridium-192
Distance : one metre

5.7 mGg

2.85 mGg

15. 30 45

Fig. 8.1 : Radiation Dose with Time

In view of high radiation output from an X-ray equipment, even a few seconds of exposure to
direct X-ray beam will result in very high dose to the exposed person.

8.3
 If an operator takes 1 minute while working with a source and is.exposed to 10'mR aiiotl%er
`tioperator who takes 2 minutes to do the same job.would be exposed to.2 x 10 = 20 mR. If he
only 1/4 x 1D-=:2.5 mR.
were to take 1 /4 minute, he would have been exposed to

LESSER THE TIME SPENT NEAR T)E SOURCE,

^O
OR X-RAY EQUIPMENT (DURIN
LESSER WOULD BE TOE RADIATION DOSE

In order to minimize the time of exposure

a. all the operations should be planned in advance.

on a trial basis without radiation and in
b. all the operations be performed, initially should
case of gamma rays with a non-radioactive dummy source . The time taken
be noted.
c. the work may be shared by two or three operators, if The total workload (number of
exposures) is large. Evaluation of dose received by each operator should be' done
by using pocket dosimeters, especially during field radiography.

exposure of 2 mR
Example 8.1 : Each radiography shot with an X-ray equipment results in an
to the operator. How many operators are necessary to take 120 such- shots in a week?

Weekly permissible limit for each operator = 40mR

Exposure to operator during one shot = 2mR
Number of sho s one operator can take = 40/2 = 20
Total number of shots to be completed = 120
Number of operators required for the job = 120/20 = 6

spends 10 minutes in a radiation field

Example 8.2 - An operator wearing a pocket dosimeter
of 150 mR/h. What is the exposure recorded by the dosimeter?

Radiation field = 150 mR/h

Radiation exposure for 60 minutes = 150 mR
Radiation exposure for 10 minutes = 156 X (10/60) = 25 mR
Radiation exposure indicated by the pocket dosimeter = 25 mR

Distance :
Larger the distance, lesser is the radiation level. The most effective and economic method of
reducing external radiation hazard is to increase the distance between the radiation source and
persons.

a. Use long cables between X-ray unit and the control panel

b. In case of remote operated cameras, work at maximum distance

from source head.

8.4
 MAINTAIN MAxmUMDISTANCE FROM SOURCE OF R,AiD'.T ON
The- radiation intensity or radiation level from a given source decreases as we move away from
the.source. It is governed by the following inverse square law.

I^Di = l2Di _
where h radiation level at a distance Di "metres from the source.

I2= radiation level at a distance D2 metres from the source.

.4 5
Distance (D) meters -> 25
1
16
D2---->

Source
100 GBq Ir -182 - >

Exposure - rate _> 0.71 0.46

11.4 2.85: 1:27-
(mGB/h) (11.4/4) (11.4/16)

Fig. 8 . 2 : Depiction of Inverse Square Law.

the radiation level would be one fourth of the earlier level.

It means, if we double the distance ,
lcvcl is 125 mR/ h (l1),
At 2 m distance (D,) from a gamma radiography source, if the iauid Ofl
/ h, since
at 5 m distance •( D2) the-radiation level (l2) would be 20,mR

8'.5
 125 22=I2x52

I _ 125 x 4: _
20 mR/h
2 25

Example 8.3 :i Determine the radiation level at - 6 distance of 5 metres from a 74 GBq (2 Ci)
iridium-192 sorrce?

ActivityJ of thr, source = 74 GBq (2 Ci)

RHM fbr iridium-192 = 0.5 R/h at 1 m

Radiation level at 1 m (D) from a

2 Ci source ( Id = 2 x 0.5 = 1 R/h

1 2 is the radiation level at 5 metres (D2)

Since, 1x1 =I2x52

I
= 25 R/h = 40 mR/h

Example 8.4 : The radiation level at 4 metres from a gamma source is 500 mR /h. What is the
distance required to reduce the radiation level to 20 mR/h ? _

I1 =500mR/'h,Di =4m,I, =20mR/hD2=?

Since, I1D^ = 12D2 ,
500 x 42 = 20 x D2
or D2 = ,/400 = 20 m = 20 metres

Example 8.5 : What is the distance in metres required to reduce the radiation level from a
150 GBq iridium - 192 source to 2 microGy/h?

Exposure rate constant of iridium-192 = 0.12 mGy/h = 126 microGy/l:

Activity of the source = 150 GBq
Radiation level at 1 in = 150 x 120 = 18000 microGy/h

Thus, we are given that

Di = 1 m, 11 = 18000 microGy/h D2 = ?, 12 = 2 microGy/h
18000x 1 =2xD2

18000
o^.,D2
2 2- = 9000

or D„ _ 49006 = sf90 x 4100 m = 9.5 x 10 = 95 metres

 is 20 R per
Example 8.0; Radiation level at 50 cln distance from an X-ray equipment
minute . What is the radiation level at a•.disfance .of 10 metres?

It = 2O R/min L), = 50 cm
1 2 =? D2=10m
I
ID2=
1 i '2 D2
2
20xO. 5xO.5 =12xlOx10

I _ 20 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.05 R/h = 50 mR/h

I2 10 x 10

to reduce the radiation level from

Example 8.7 : What is the distance in metres required
40 R/h at 1 metre to 100 mR/h?

I1 = 40 R/h = 40000 mR/h DI = I m

I2= 100mR/fi Dz =?
I1D1
D2 = I2D2
2

2 _ 40000 = 400
D2 100

D2 = f 400 = . 20 metres

Shielding : .

When maximum distance and minimum time do not bring down the radiation level to an
steel or lead are used as a shield between the
acceptably low value , materials like concrete ,
source of radiation and the operator.

Shielding Thickness Calculations : Shielding is provided in order to reduce the radiation

intensity to the required value. The shielding thickness required can be calculated from
transmission ratio . it is the ratio of the radiation level with the shield to that without the
shield.
Radiation level with shield
Transmission ratio
Radiation level without shield
t
The required shielding thickness is the number of half value thickness or tenth value thickness
(or combination of both) to provide the nearest transmission ratio. (See table 8.3)

SHIELD YOURSELF FROM SOURCE OF RADIATION

number and the energy of the
The shielding properties of any material depend upon its atomic .

8.7
 Example 8.8
: Calculate the lead shielding, thickness required to
from a 14 C: iridium-192 source to 3.5 mR/h at 10 metres. reduce the radiation level

Radiation level at = RHM x activity of the source in Ci

10 m metres
10z _ , I
0.5 x 14 '
0 .5 x 14
JZ/h
10 x 10 '-I
lox xI 1000 rnR/h = 70 mR /h.

This is the radiation

level at 10 metres
will reduce the ra^iation from
o 70the source
- houtwithout
an
1 HVT' level t shielding
of shielding will reduce the radiation level to1 0 7 mR/
h. Additional thickness of
thickness required is 2 = 3.5 mR
/h. Therefore ,
the tots!
=ITVT+IHVT
=1.6cm+0 .
48cmoflead
= 2.08 cm of lead
= 2 cm (approx.) of lead

TABLE 8.3 : HVT AND

T'A'T VALUE S FOR
X AND GAMMA RADIATIONSS
Material
{
Concrete Steep
Lead • Uranium l
Radioisotope fiVT TVT HVT. TVT HVT
cm cm cm cm TVT HVT TVT
cm cm cm
Iridium-I92 1.6
14 1.25 40 0.48 1.6 0.31 1.0
Cobalt-60. 6. 6 21.8 2.0 6.6 1.2 4.0 0.7 2.2

X-ra ys HVT TVT HVT TVT H

mm mm m VT TV T
m mm mm mm
100 kV 16 55 1.2 3.8 . 0.25 0.84
150 kV 22 70 2.3 7.6 0.29 0.96
200 kV 26 86 3.8 12.7 0.42 1.4
250 kV 28 90 5.4 17.7 0.86 2.9
300 kV 30 100 6.5 21.5 1.7 5.7
 %
the exposure room by :leans of. >:t^erhead in ucii radiography enclosure s, the
radiation dose to the crane operator should be within the specified limits. 'Further , in such
:
installations ; the skyshine radiation level (the contribution due the radiation scattered by
air and other intervening materials above, such as beams , roof etc. ) around the enclosure in the
workshop should also be considered during planning.

4^t
' r!? ?f`t{ ><: r.

Fig. 8.3 : Enclosed -Insiallation ' - ...

(Radiography Room with sliding door Entry System)

r.0mmmoolm"
Exposure Room
Collimated Exposure

Control
Room Dark Room

Fig. 8.4 Enclosed Installation

(Exposure Room with Maze Entry System)

The "maximum activity of the source that can be handled in such open top installations is
mainly decided by the skyshine considerations . The. construction material used for such
 installations . may be either brick or concrete. These ins'
talla'tions should preferably be
located in the least occupied areas. Expert advice on the p l an ni ng o f such radiography
installations is given by the Radiological Physics and Advisory
Division (RP&AD), Mumbai 400 t ^o.

Fig. 8.5 : Enclosed Installation (Pit type - Open top)

Safety in Enclos•ad Radiography Installations

The following are some of the salient points which need to be considered while planning
radiography enclosures as well as, during the use of radiography sources inside such enclosed
installations.

1. Prior to undertaking construction , approval of the proposed

layout of the
radiography enclosure should be obtained from Head , RP&AD.

2. All walls, floors, ceilings and doors shall have sufficient shielding so as to minimize
radiation levels, below the recommended dose limits. The shieldirg material
chosen should be structurally strong and should be properly supported.

3. All exposures should be given from a separate control room, situated outside the
exposure room.

4. The exposure room should be kept locked

, when not in use.
5. Entry of unauthorized persons
into these areas should be strictly prohibited.

6. The entrance door to the exposure room should be locked during exposures. A
suitable electrical or mechanical interlocking system for the door
may be
incorporated so that the radiation beam cannot be made 'ON' when the door is
open.

7. Underground conduits should be provided, for cables, between the control room and
 . 4. it.
C
the exposure room. There shall not be any ihrOugh and through ojicninl. or hole in
any of the walls of exposure room.
S.

w
8. If there is ' ;j lead glass viewing win m its eaaall valence, so that it provides
exposure room, it is essential to co i 9
adequate protection. It is also necessary to confirm that there is no radiation
streaming through the fixing frame of the viewing window.
Exhaust
9. There should not be anwin odows on the walls o the
n walls adjoining unoccupie I arueas!a a height of at
openings should be provided
least 2.5 metres above the floor level. These ventilators r exhausts or any such
bl baffl s _ i
nnenin9s in the walls should be provided with sutta e
d r as well as inside the
10. A red warning light shall be providedb theentrance
a ove
made 'ON' whe ever the radiography
exposure room and this light shall be
equipment is energized . Radiation warning signs with 1 gends "RADIATION -
or its equivalence in local language ) shall. be
DANGER - KEEP AWAY" (
conspicuously painted on the entrance door.
, so as to indicate
11. A radiation zone monitor should be installed at a suitable location ' ON' or safe
the radiation levels during exposures and also to positively indicate the
position of the source.
top of
, red the
12. In the case o f exposures as a warning tto th crane
ould be madel' ON' during g
walls and should
operator.
13. All operations with the equipment should be done from the control room.
14_. An emergency switch to turn the X-ray equipment 'OFF' and a means of
communication shall be provided inside the exposure room. which can be made use
of by'persons who are trapped there by mistake. It should be possible to energize
the X-ray equipment from the control panel, only after pressing a reset switch
provided inside the exposure room.
15. Setting up of objects; films, etc. for radiographic inspection should be duly
completed, before starting the exposure.
16. Wherever possible, the radiation beam should be directed towards areas of
minimum occupancy. The beam should never be pointed towards doors, windows
or the control panel. Any restrictions on the beam directions which are assumed
vhile planning the installation should be strictly followed.' This information
should also be prominently displayed in a poster in.the radiography area.

17. All safety accessories, tools and handling devices required for routine or
emergency use in the exposure room must be readily available in good working
condition.iri the control room.
18. All important information pertaining to radiation safety, such as radioisotope,
activity, maximum ratings of the X-ray equipment, the directions towards which
the primary beam can be pointed and the maximum weekly work load, etc., shall
be conspicuously exhibited inside the exposure room, as well as in the control
room..
19. If, more than one radiation machine is used in the same room, it should be ensured
that only one.of them is operated, at a time. .

8.13

ti.
 Field Radiography Installation

In some cases, it may not be' possible to restrict the radiography work within the exposure
room, eg., huge objects, radiography at erection sites, etc. In such cases radiography work in
the field/plan area is permitted subject to the approval of the site by the RP&AD, BARC.

Safety in Field Radiographic Installations

1. There should be a site incharge looking after the radiation safety.

2. Exposures shall be performed only when minimum number of people are present
around the radiography site. (for example; third shift (during night) or holidays).

3. Certain area around Vie source, should be cordoned off using ropes and radiation
warning symbols. The radiation level outside the cordoned area should be within
the dose limit of non-radiation, workers.

4. The exact area to be cordoned off will depend upon the nature and activity of the
source, type of exposures (collimated or panoramic), work load and the nature of
occupancy around.

5. The cordoning distance during field radiography, should be computed such that the
radiation level beyond the cordon is less than 20 ,cSv/wk (2 mrem/wk).

6. Proper collimators should be used to limit the radiation beam to the job to be
radiographed.'

7. The collimated beam or in case of X-rays, the primary beam, shall be directed
only towards unoccupied areas or adequately shielded areas.

8. Entry of unauthorized persons into these cordoned areas during exposures should be
strictly prohibited.

9. Radiation warning sign "RADIATION DANGER- - KEEP AWAY" in English as

well as in local language should be posted around the site.
10. Setting up procedures required for radiography shall
radiographic exposure. be completed prior to start of

11. Maximui7 length of the cable, provided between the control panel and radiography
equipment, shall always be mad(. use of.

12. Whenever possible, the control panel of the X-ray equipment should be
positioned behind some temporary shielding barrier. A temporary shield,
preferably lead, should also be provided behind the object, in the direction of the
primary beam.

13. The primary X-ray beam shall never be pointed towards the control unit.

14. Pro )erly calibrated radiation monitors, shall always be used, to confirm that
rad ation levels, in controlled areas, as well as along the cordon,
spec ified limits. are, below

15. A I,roper log-book should be maintained

in which information of day- to-day use
of adiographic sources and
recorded. the radiation levels around cordoned off areas are

8.14
 • •I rc ortcd to
of ;6uri
16. Any radiation a ccident
and also to Head,* .. 460-085.
RP&AD. Mumbat14U0
...harp
(.
TRANSPORT OF RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES

Following procedure should be adopted for the transport of radiography sources.

•
1. Make sure that the saurce has eturned to the camera
left inside the guide tube.
2. Monitor the guide tube to entire that the source is not would not be released from the
to a ure that the source assembly
3. Lock the camera ,`
camera .
nitor (eg. MR 4500, SM
. Monitor the camera with •a suitable radtatt h S ° the camera . If any
to determine if there are any spots
atch 400 on
without obtaining specific
085
4140D or Minirad ), des
hot spot is detected, the came ra should BARB M po
prior permission from Head, R P&AD,
wooden box,
, place the camera in a sturdy supplier .
5. If the camera is free from hot spots ich it was originally received from the supp
x in wh
preferably in th e
Make sure that thewanbox bo good }

6. Close the box and lock it.

eling and forwarding the
e dure
7. Act as directed in the ' Proc dure for arks below .
packages containing radioactive materials' given
and Forwarding Packages Containing Radioactive
, Labeling
ProcedureMarkinfor g
Materials .
'surface of th e
1. Monitor the radiation level gat the external dac Minirad)
e and record the maximum
radiation monitor (eg., MR 4500,urface
SM 1 of the package in mR/h. This should not
radiation level at the external s
exceed the limit of 200 mR/h.
etre from the external
stance mum valuea se the
2. Measure the radiation levels at a di he maximum value . This max i
the package in mR/h and record
k
transport index (' '.I.) of the 6ackage. I
the levels given in table 8.4.
3. Now determine the category of the package by affix the labels of the
4. Having thus determined tf.e category of the package, ., on the external surface of the
category on at least two opposite 's ides
determined
package. legibly.
. external surface of the package clearly and
5. Write the following details on the
a. complete addresses of the sender and the receiver of the package,

b. gross weight of the package,

c. the ' legend 'RADIOACTIVE',
d. the legend 'Type B'.

8.15
 Fig. 8.6 : Transport Lable.
TABLE 8.4

Limit on the radiation Limit on

level at the external Transport
surface of the package Index
(inR/h)

Category I W HITE 0.5

Category II - YELLOW 50 1.0

Category III - YELLOW 200 10.0

6. Bind a strap around the package as proof against tamper.

7. Obtain the following transport documents from the site incharge.

a. Consignor's declaration in the format given below:

'I hereby certify that the package containing radioactive material has
been properly packed, marked and labeled and as such the consignment
is in conformity with the relevant regulations for Safe Transport of
Radioactive Material'.

8. Forward the package to the carrier along with the above transport documents.

8.16
 at the site during exposures. • A person must be
5. Never leave the - source unattended
exposures to have a.constant watch so that the sources arg
present at the site during
not picked up by others:
or
6. Never do the radiography work at crowded locations. Do it either during -night
on holidays or when there is :eery little occupancy around.
7. Never forget to cordon off the area with ropes. Radiation warning symbols or red
lights should also be provided along the cordon to warn people.
8. Never allow anybody to enter these cordoned areas during exposures.--

9. Never attempt to take out the source assembly from the camera.
exposures.
10. Always try to use the minimum required source activity for panoramic
LESSER THE SOURCE ACTIVITY, LESSER WILL, BE THE DOSE RECEIVED
IN ANY GIVEN PERIOD.
11. Try dummy operations prior to giving the actual exposures in order to reduce the
time of operation' with radiation source.
LESSER THE TIME SPENT NEAR THi, SOURCE,- LESSER -WILL BE THE
DOSE.
12. Always keep maximum possible distance from the source during exposures.

LARGER THE DISTANCE, LESSER WILT, 3E THE RADIATION DOSE.

course, u work heck `verything
13. *NEVER USE A DE7+ECTTIV) AMER (,Itfor giving exposures
of .
before starting the day's

14. NEVER FORGETO BDGEo

source is entitled OR K.
DURIa FILMITL
Anybodya rad whoEAnRei M
handles g ha.D
badge.
15. USE OF RADIATION MONITORS IS A MUST. Never plan radiographic work
without a suitable radiation monitor_

16. The control badge provided at eah site.

frog m the area whererethen radiography sor. ces are
in a radiation free zone - away
used/stored.
17. In case of accidents such as damage to the camera or source assembly Cr lost of
source assembly, cordon-off the area and report. the matter, immediate.iy,
superiors and subsequently, to Head, Radiological Physics and Advisory Division,
BARC, Mumbai 400 085.
18. INFORM CO-WORKERS ABOUT RADIATION HAZARDS AND SAFE WORK
PRACTICE. I

8.19
 9. RADIATION ACCIDENTS IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

Use of radioactive sources in industrial radiography has been increasing steadily during the last
few decades .
Radiation sources of activity of a few curies to a few hundred curies are used in
industrial radiography .
In spite of all the precautions taken during use, some abnormal events/
radiation accidents ,
may happen which may result in higher dose to concerned people and to
others in the vicinity.

An accident to industrial radiography, can be described as an evlnt or series of events which

leads to loss of normal control,of the source.

I
Total radiation safety is achieved by built-in safety in the equipntent/inrtallatior; accompanied
by good administrative control.. review.of radiation accidents indicates that human error and
'equipment error are the main causes of these accidents.

The main factors which contribute.to the human error are

1. inadequate training,
2. failure to monitor,
3. failure to maintain the equipment,
4. ignorance about operation and handling and
5. takiig things for granted.

Of these, the last factor, the tendency of the operators to overlook some of the basic
requirements for proper work practice during routine work, has been the major cause in
maximum number of accidents in industrial radiography.

The following are some of the events which may lead to radiation emergencies.

1. Loss of source during storage, use or transport.

2. Source assembly falling out during transport and use.
3. Source assembly getting detached from drive mechanism.
4. Source assembly getting stuck in the guide tube.
5. Rupture cf source capsule (this may also lead to contamination).
6. Damage to source housing (radiography camera/lead pot).

The following are some of the accidents which have occurred in our country.

1. DETACIIli'IENT OF SOURCE PIGTAIL

1.1. After completion.. of exposure with a remote operated camera, the operator, when he
retracted the c ible, did no[ see the rear end of the pigtail assembly. Even then, without
properly cliecl inc, with a radiation monitor, he rolled the guide tube and carried it on his
shoulder to the dark room, where some radiography films and personnel monitoring badges
were kept. Incidentally, the guide tube had the source and this was detected only on the next
day with the ht lp of radiation monitors. The dose to the operator could not be determined by

9.1
 as it got exposed along with many radiography films in the dark room. The
on the part of the operator to check the
accident occurred due to faulty coupling and negligence
C integrity of coupling before use. In addition ,
he neglected to use a radiation monitor to

C confirm, after use, proper return of the source into the camera.

C Cause of accident : Failure-to monitor, poor maintenance

1.21. In a similar accident elsewhere, the presence of the pigtail assembly in the guide tube was
of the drive cable. This
det4cted by routine monitoring, immediately after the retraction
averting further damage and excessive
hell ed in taking necessary action promptly and also in
do to the operators and others in the vicinity.

f 1. c'rive cable of a cobalt-60 camera was kept coupled to the.source assembly.. Once
3. The
during use, the source assembly got detached from the drive cable and remained in the guide
tube. The operator thought that the source is safe inside the camera as he. could rotate the
shutter drum, after retraction of cable. He failed to confirm this, with a radiation monitor.
After some time, that too after completion of job for the day, the source assembly fell out of
efforts to put the source assembly back
the guide tube, whedit was uncoupled. He made some
into the camera. He received, considerably high dose..This_accident.occurred because. the
coupling between the source assembly and the drive cable was not checked periodically. No
monitoring was done with survey meters to confirm the position of the source.

2. LOSS OF SOURCE DURING USE

I 2. 1. In an incident, after completion of the days work, the source assembly of a shutter
operated camera was kept in a 'transport container (lead pot) and this.was nog brought back to
source s'tcrage room. This resulted in the theft of the transport container.with the source. T
thief, not knowing that he is handling hazardous material, left the source assembly in the
driver's cabin of a lorry and sold the transport container to a scrap dealer. The source
assembly was located only after two days. The above incident took place, mainly, because of
negligence on the pa: t of the radiographer in not keeping the source housing in the source
storage room, after completion of radiography work.

Cause: Source not stored at proper place after use.

3. DAMAGE TO SOURCE CAPSULE

3.1. When a radiographer drove back the drive cable, after radiographic exposure, he detected
higher radiation level at the gear box. He felt that the source assembly has got stuck up in the
guide tube and thought, that he can bring it back by operating the driving system a few times.
Later, a technician opened the gear box to check whether the-cable had been Completely
retracted or not. Actually, the source capsule had got ruptured and the source pellets had go-,
dispersed to different parts of the equipment, because of repeated operations of the driving
system. One pellet was even found on a road nearby. Management.of the situation required
elaborate procedure. The above incident resulted not`only in. high radiation dose to concerned

9.2
 UZU
I

people,
but alsa led to contamination of the radiography equi ment
Cause;
Poor d--sign of source A
capsule .
4. TRANSPORT Operator failed
to apply his common sense.
INCIDENT

4.1 A radiography camera was transported in a wooden box

camera and without properly packing the box.
few days and dio the ratcoutrah properly
t locking the
g P y camera was found in shutter op. l;ition, the
The wooden b:- a Jhed witha atic,^n after a
ith r radiation level
Cause; Failure to monitor and not following
Packing Procedi.:
Many more incidents have
preventive
avoided, maintenance and failure ofope
if radiation the operators t to mon q
monitors are used re earl , ^e main cause is poor
radiation sources for radio g Y There +erexposures could be
70 accident grap h y. ar _ `i1 institutions who use
ignorance s,
, which have Occurred in the count^1Ven above
y These acct Yprcal ones of around
negligence and carelessness .
urrtd mainly because of
Can these not be avoided '?

Many such accidents can be easily avoided, if the operators

a d s;;; ^ cs,yrk practic
The hazard associated e.
with suchci
with radiation'sources, use rad; acdents would be less serio^
t atton monitors properly
, duri
ng r„.T People working t
The following are ,^1k.
a few
accident and associated hazaroints which help in minimizing t :
=Oc; of a radiation
1. Proper training,

2. Awareness of haz;.rd.

3. Proper record of sources and exposures given.

4• a. Regular maintenance and checking of equipment.

b. Confirming proper coupling es
and rectifying, if defect is
c. Periodical checking of coupling system, guide tube dri,
S. Availability of proper handling equipment.

6. Adopting routine monitoring procedure

cameras, to confirm sate return of the sourcearticularly i;
C viiCfateC
It should also
be noted that, if, inspite
of all precautions, any unu:
occurs, e .

9.3
 lr 1

t!ho I t.%^ :;te p;.nicky. - The operator should stop work with the equipment, cordon the
area and report the matter to his higher authorities and Radiological Physics & Advisory
Division (RP&AD), Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400 085.

The site incharge /R.S.O. should monitor around the place of accident and analyze the
situation . No attempt should be made without calm thinking and proper planning . If he has
necessary tools, radiation monitors, pocket dosimeters and if he is familiar with the equipment
and confident of handling the situation with least exposure to himself and to others in vicinity,
he ma}^l do t. In such a case, he should inform RP&AD, BARC, Mumbai 400 085, about the
{ accidett and write in detail about the situation and the procedure adopted in handling it and
the do recei ied by those who handled it. If he feels that: he would not be able to handle it
.and th situation is complicated , he should cordon the requisite area , provide necessary
shielding arot::id the source and inform RP&AD, for further action.

Meddling with the equipment or in other words, groping in the dark when an unusual
incident occurs, would make the situation worse and complicate the management of the
accident.

REQUIREMENTS TO HANDLE RADIATION EMERGENCY

SITUATIONS

* Training and experience.

* Thorough knowledge of equipment.
* Understanding of the situation.
* A safe and systematic approach.
*,.Sensible and intellectual interrogation of personnel involved in the incident.
* Pro.er mobilization and utilization of men and material.
* Cool and calm thinking and planning.

POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
** Only certified and trained person are permitted to work with radiography sources.,

** Radiation source is a hazardous material.

During radiation' accident,

a; there is likelihood of over-exposure to radiation and

b. members of public including children are likely to be exposed to radiation.

Possible injuries to an individual in a radiation accident are

a. severe radiation burns to individual organs, particularly fingers,

b. prolonged medical treatment,
c. amputation of affected parts,
d. late effects of radiation,
e. death, if dose is very high.

iirr . OFFENDER IS LIABLE TO BE LEGALLY PROSECUTED.

9.4
 10• REGULATORY ASPECTS OF RADIATION 4.VOTECTION

Work with radiation sources may involve exposure of workers ant ic.
with radiation should be controlled by the Government. Such con-, Therefore, work
rules and regulations are made by the Government. The Governme<. be effective only it
Protection Rules, 1971. These rules prescribe that a licences .be issain Rad y any
person, pr;or to handling radioactive materials b any
b
. The rules are en o;- _-
Regulatory Board AERB , l the Atomic th e Atom
Energy
ic
The chairman , AERB is the Compete r ..:..
rules, a surveillance order was issued in 1980, with particu;ar Under trial
vasty'
radiography. The salient features of this order are given below. nce to industral

1. Only approved equipment (ie., camera) should be used for radiography.

2. Radiography cameras should be operated only by qualified,

personnel.
3. For each radiography site, the licensee should appoint a qualiii...,.. trained site in-
charge.
 11. RADIATION SAFETY PRACTICAL - 1
A. Verification of Inverse Square Law

1. EQUIPMENT :

Radioactive source, survey meter, metre scale, marker

2. THEORY :

Radiation intensity decreases with increase in distance from the source. It follows
inverse square law, which states that "Radiation intensity is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the source." Mathematically, it can be expressed as

where, I is the radiation intensity and d is the distance from the source. Similarly, if I1
and 12 are radiation intensities at distances d1 and d2, 'respectively, from the source,
then

2
L1d12 = 12d2'

3. PROCEDURE (including safety precautions)

a. Wear personnel monitoring (film/TLD) badge.

b. Take a survey meter, which is in proper working condition.

c. Place the source container in such a way that the radiation beam can be made.'ON'
horizontally, towards unoccupied area.

d. Mark four points at different distances from the source location.

e. Place the survey meter at the first distance, in such a way that the meter can be
read from a distance.

f. Turn the beam 'ON' and note down the meter reading. After noting down the
reading switch 'OFF' the beam.

g. Repeat steps 'e' and 'f' for other distances.

h. Note down these readings in a table, as shown below.

i. Take care to see that minimum time is spent near the source and hands are not put
in the radiation beam.

j. Calculate I x d2 for each, distance and note down the values in the table.
 4. OBSERVATION

Source
: Activity:
on dater
Survey meter used and its serial no.:

I S.No Distance
I ^ Exposure r ate I I d-
metres (d) in mR/h (I)
I I
I
I I I_ I
I ^ j ^ I
I I IJ
5. RESULT/ CONCLUSION

Observe whether i x d2 is
fairly constant at different
inverse square law is verified. If variations distances
. If the value is cones
contribution of radiation arenearby
observed, it would generally^ta^^
be
scattered by objects.

11.2
 _. ^v!(^ r .... _ r •1"^^a r

i7iiJ^n''L^k ^ r ......

B. Determination of Activity of a Given Radiation Source

1. EQUIPMENT :

Radioactive source, survey meter, metre scale, marker

2. THEORY

Radiation output from a given gamma radiation source of unit activity is constant. This
constant output at one metre 'is known as RHM. RHM is defined as exposure rate in
R/h at 1 metre from a gamma source of 1 Ci activity. By measuring exposure rate at a
certain distance from the source, activity can be calculated as per the following relation:

AxRHM
Exposure rate = d2 [ A is activity of source in Ci I

Exposure rate x d2
A = Ci
RHM

3. PROCEDURE ( including safety precautions)

a. Wear personnel monitoring (filrri/TLD) badge.

r
b. Take a survey meter, which is in proper working condition.

c. Place the source container in such a. way that the radiation beam can be made 'ON'
horizontally, towards unoccupied area.

d. Mark four points at different distances from the source location.

e. Place the survey meter at the first distance, in such a way that the meter can be
read from a distance.

f. Turn the beam 'ON' and note down the meter reading. After noting down the
reading ;witch 'OFF' the beam.

g. Repeat -;teps 'e' and 'f' for other distances.

h. Note down these readings in a table, as shown below.

I. Take care to see that minimum time is spent near the source and hands are not put
in the radiation beam.

Calculate I x d2 for each distance, divide this by RHM for the source and note down
the values in the table.

11.3
 4. OBSERVATION

Source
: Activity:
on date:
Survey meter used and its serial no.:
r--
I S No Distance
I Exposure rateIx2
d
I I metres ( d) in mR
/h (I) IA
RHM

`I I I i
I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I

I I
I III I
i
J

Average
ge A Ci
5. RESULT/CONCLU
SION
Activity of the given
source is
Ci.
xkz"i log 11 11111i I

C. Determination of Half Value Thickness (HVT)

1. EQUIPMENT

Radioactive source, survey meter, metre.scale, lead sheets/steel sheets, marker

2. THEORY

When gamma rays pass through matter, some of them undergo absorption.
Transmitted radiation intensity decreases with increase. in the thickness of the absorber.
The thickness of the absorber which reduces the radiation intensity to half of its original
.value is known as Half Value Thickness. Similarly, the thickness of the absorber
which reduces the radiation intensity to one tenth of the original value is known as
Tenth Value Thickness.

1
2 3
No. of Half Value Lagers ->

.T-w'
 The curve given above is obtained after Plotting radiati intend
thickness of the abso on
rber. From this curve ,
we can find out the HVT of the absorbers to
3. PROCEDURE (including safety precautions)

a. Wear personnel monitoring

(film/TLD) badge.

b. Take a survey meter, which is in proper working condition.

c. Place the source container in such a way that the radiation beam cE n be made 'ON'
horizontally, towards unoccupied area.

d. Fix a suitable distance between snurce position and survey meter so that absorbers
can be conveniently placed in between.

e. Position yourself in such a way that survey meter can be read from a distance'

f- Take readings by inserting absorbers one by one and record them in a table.

g. Take care to see that minimum time is spent near the source and hands are not put
in the radiation beam.

4. OBSERVATION

Source : Activity: on date:

Survey meter used and its
serial No.:
S.No Absorber
thickness (mm) ^ EiinpmR/h rate

5. CALCULATION :

A graph is plotted. Absorber thickness corresponding to 50 per cent reduction in the

intensity is read on the graph. Multiply this HVT value by 3.3 to get TVT value.

6. RESULT/CONCLUSION

From the plotted curve, HVT value for gamma radiations of

-------- material is found to be - source in
mm h e TVT value is found to be
mm.

11.6
 D. Safety Procedure for Open Field Radiography
1 . EQUIPMENT

Radiography camera, survey meter ,. warning symbols , fencing rope, radiography

accessories.

2. THEORY :

All radiation safet y procedures should be followed during setting up of radiography unit.
All procedures should he such that under the given conditions, radiation exposure to the
individual and to the public should as low as reasonably achievable and chances of any
overexposure or radiation incidents are reduced.

3. PROCEDUF E (including safety precautions)

a. Wear Personnel monitoring (filmfTLD) badge and pocket dosimeter.

b. Take a :survey meter, which is in proper. working condition.

c. Before opening the storage pit, monitor radiation levels.

d. Check the locks and radiation levels on the camera.

e. Carry radiography camera on a trolley to the site.

f. Cordon.off required area with fencing rope.

g. Connect smallest guide tube possible. The source assembly (pigtail) should be in lock
position.

h. Set up radiography joint with film and penetrameter.

i. Positior. the collimator in such a way that the radiation beam would be towards
unoccupied area. .

j. Spread out maximum length of drive cable and couple it with the source assembly
properly. -

k. Put the camera in operate position.

1. Ensure that no one is in the cordoned area.

m. Drive the source in minimum time.

n. Monitor radiation level at the gear box.

o. Spend minimum time near the gear box.

p. Drive source back after completion of exposure.

q. Check proper return of source into the camera with survey meter.
 I

1
I

E. Checking of Shielding Adequacy of Radiography Camera

1. EQUIPMENT

Radiography camera, survey meter, metre scale, marker

2., THEORY :

Shielding provided in the radiography camera should

meet with maximum permissible
leakage limits .
Table shown below indicats the permissible radiation leakage limits for
different types of cameras.

Exposure rate in mR/h

_
On external 15 cm from 1 m from
Surface External External
Surface Surface

200 50 2
200 100 I 5
200 100 I 10
_j

By scanning the external

surface of the c^,mara in a systematic way, shielding adequacy
of the camera
is checked. As per the standard each measurement is iveragc i
an area of 10 sq. cm.

3. PROCEDURE ( includitig safety precautions) :

a. Wear Personnel monitoring (film/TLD) badge.

b. Take a survey meter, which is in proper working condition.

c. Make different segments

on the surface of the camera and mark points for taking
measurements.

d. Measure radiation level at each of these points.

e. Record all readings in a table as shown below

11.9

-eW
 ^cTr= 1 ^1t7^ r ^t jn gi..^"may. a .

4. OBSERVATION :

Radiography camera model and SI.no.:

Source Activity: on date:
Survey meter used and its serial no.

A• B C D E

FRONT
BACK

Reacings (mR/h)

1 2 3 4 5 1 6 7 A
Segment

L
A II -- I I

B I
C
I)
-i---
I = I I
F I I
Rear
L ^ I

1 Front I
I J 1. _

5. CALCULATION :
Permissible leakage limit
Capacity of the camera = x Present activity
Observed max. leakage

6. RESULT/CONCLUSION :

The camera shielding is adequate from radiation safety point of view, The maximum
activity^.whicch can be loaded in the camera is Ci.

11.10