Bar_Diagram.

xls
 CASE STUDY
Consider the Etruscan skull size data
 Measures of Central Tendency
(Measures of Location)
Various measures of central tendency are
 Arithmetic Mean
 Median
 Mode
Geometric Mean
 Harmonic Mean
 ARITHMETIC MEAN
Methods of Finding Arithmetic Mean:
 Direct Method
 Short-cut Method &
 Step Deviation Method
 Data-Type I (Individual Observations or Raw Data)
When the observed values are given individually such as
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … … . 𝑥𝑛 .
Direct Method:-
𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3 ………+𝑥𝑛 𝑥
Arithmetic Mean = =
𝑁 𝑁
Here 𝑁, the number of observations.
Problem 1:-
The expenditure of 10 families in rupees are given below:

Family A B C D E F G H I J
Expenditure 30 70 10 75 500 8 42 250 40 36

Calculate the arithmetic mean.

Sol:-
Let 𝑥 be the Expenditure; 𝑁 = 10
Family Expenditure (Rs.)
A 30
B 70 𝑥 1061
𝑥= = = 106.1
C 10 𝑁 10
D 75
E 500
F 8 The arithmetic mean is Rs. 106.10
G 42
H 250
I 40
J 36
Total
𝑥 = 1061
Short-cut Method:-
Arithmetic mean may be obtained also as
𝑑
𝑥 =𝐴+
𝑁
Where 𝐴- assumed mean or arbitrary origin &
𝑑(= 𝑥 − 𝐴) are the deviations of the
observations (𝑥) from assumed mean (𝐴) and 𝑑 is
total of the deviations 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑥 − 𝐴 .
Problem 2:-
Refer Problem 1
Sol:- 𝑥- Expenditure; 𝐴 = 100
Family Expenditure 𝒅= 𝒙−𝑨
(Rs.) 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
A 30 -70
𝑁 = 10; 𝑑 = 61
B 70 -30 𝑑
C 10 -90 𝑥 =𝐴+
𝑁
D 75 -25
61
E 500 400 = 100 +
F 8 -92
10
G 42 -58 = 100 + 6.10
H 250 150
I 40 -60
= Rs. 106.10
J 36 -64
Total 𝑑 = 61
Problem for Practice
The monthly income of 12 families in a town is given
below:
S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Income 280 180 96 96 104 85 80 94 100 75 600 200
(Rs.)

Step Deviation Method:-

𝐶 𝑑′
𝑥 =𝐴+
𝑁
′ 𝑑 𝑥−𝐴
Where 𝑑 = =
𝐶 𝐶
𝐶 is the common difference between the values of 𝑥.
Find the arithmetic mean by step deviation method
S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Marks 20 30 40 50 50 60 70 80 90 90

Marks ( x) 𝒙−𝑨
Sol:- 𝒅′ =
𝑪
𝑨 = 𝟓𝟎; 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎
𝑁 = 10; 𝑑′ = 8
20 -3
30 -2
40 -1 𝐶 𝑑′
𝑥 =𝐴+
50 0 𝑁
10𝑋8
50 0 = 50 +
10
60 1 = 50 + 8
70 2 = 58
80 3
90 4
90 4

𝑑′ = 8
Data-Type II (Discrete Series)
Observed Value Frequency
𝑥1 𝑓1
𝑥2 𝑓2
𝑥3 𝑓3
. .
. .
. .
. .

Direct Method:-
𝑓𝑥
Arithmetic Mean =
𝑁
Here 𝑁 = 𝑓
Calculate the mean number of persons per house, given
No. of 2 3 4 5 6 Total
persons
per house
No. of 10 25 30 25 10 100
houses

Sol:- 𝑥-No. of persons per house, 𝑓- No. of houses

No. of No. of 𝒇𝒙
persons per houses
𝑓𝑥 400
house ( 𝒙) 𝑥= = =4
𝑁 100
2 10 20
3 25 75
4 30 120
5 25 125
6 10 60
Total 𝑁 = 100
𝑓𝑥 = 400
Calculate the arithmetic mean
Marks 40 50 54 60 68 80 Total
No. of 10 18 20 39 15 8 110
Students

Sol:- 𝑥 – Marks; 𝑓- No. of Students. Let 𝐴 = 60.

Marks No. of 𝒅=𝒙−𝑨 𝒇𝒅
(𝒙) Students 𝑨 = 𝟔𝟎
(𝒇)
𝑓𝑑
40 10 -20 -200 𝑥 =𝐴+
𝑁
50 18 -10 -180
−220
54 20 -6 -120 = 60 +
110
60 39 0 0
= 60 − 2
68 15 8 120
= 58
80 8 20 160
Total 𝑁 = 110
𝑓𝑑 = −220
Step Deviation Method:-

𝐶 𝑓𝑑 ′
Arithmetic Mean 𝑥 = A +
𝑁

Calculate the arithmetic mean from the following discrete series:

Daily 75 100 120 150 200 Total

Wage
(Rs.)
No. of 5 12 20 14 9 60
Labourers
𝑥- Daily Wage; 𝑓-No. of Labourers

Daily No. of 𝒙−𝑨 𝒇𝒅′

𝒅′=
Wage Labourers 𝑪
(Rs.) 𝒇 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝒙 𝑪=𝟓 𝐶 𝑓𝑑 ′
𝑥=𝐴+
𝑁
75 5 -9 -45 5𝑋135
= 120 +
100 12 -4 -48 60

120 20 0 0 = 120 + 11.25

150 14 6 84 = 𝑅𝑠. 131.25
200 9 16 144
Total 𝑁 = 60
𝑓𝑑 ′ = 135
Median is the value of the middle most item when all the items
are in the order of magnitude.
Mode (Z) :-
Mode is the value which has the greatest frequency density.

Mode of a distribution is the value at the point around

which the items tend to be most heavily concentrated.

Individual Observation:-
Determine the mode:
(a) 320,395,342,444,551,395,425,417,395,401,390,400.
Sol:- Mode = 395, because its frequency, 3, is higher than others.
(b) 3,6,7,5,8,4,9
Sol:- No Mode, because all the values have equal frequency ie., (1)
I have four 10km segments in my automobile trip. I drive my car
as
• 100 km/hr for the first 10 km.
• 110 km/hr for the second 10 km
• 90 km/hr for the third 10 km
• 120 km/hr for the fourth 10 km
What is your average speed?
Spread Sheet
Geometric Mean
 Relationship among A.M.,G.M. and H.M.:
1. If all the items are equal, i.e., 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 = ⋯ = 𝑥𝑛 , then
𝐴. 𝑀 = 𝐺. 𝑀 = 𝐻. 𝑀
2. If all the items are not equal, 𝐴. 𝑀 > 𝐺. 𝑀 > 𝐻. 𝑀
In general, 𝐴. 𝑀 ≥ 𝐺. 𝑀 ≥ 𝐻. 𝑀
3. When there are only two item, 𝐴. 𝑀. 𝑋 𝐻. 𝑀 = 𝐺. 𝑀 2
i.e., 𝐺. 𝑀 = 𝐴. 𝑀𝑋𝐻. 𝑀
Formula for combined Mean:-
1. The combined mean of 2 groups with 𝑛1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 items respectively is

𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑛2 𝑥2
𝑥12 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
2. The combined mean of 3 groups with 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛3 items respectively

𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑛2 𝑥2 + 𝑛3 𝑥3
𝑥123 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3
Combined Standard Deviation:-
Sample Size Mean Standard
Deviation
I 𝑛1 𝑥1 𝜎1
II 𝑛2 𝑥2 𝜎2

𝑛1 𝜎1 2 + 𝑛2 𝜎2 2 + 𝑛1 𝑑1 2 + 𝑛2 𝑑2 2
𝜎12 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
𝑑1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥12 , 𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥12

𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑛2 𝑥2
𝑥12 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
Weighted Arithmetic Mean:-
If the values 𝑥 : 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3 … . . Have
Weights 𝑊 : 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 … …
the weighted arithmetic mean,

𝑊1 𝑋1 +𝑊2 𝑋2 +𝑊3 𝑋3 +⋯
𝑋𝑊 =
𝑊1 +𝑊2 +𝑊3 +⋯

𝑊𝑋
=
𝑊
 Moments
Moments are the mean of various powers of deviations
of the items.
If the deviations are measured from the arithmetic
mean, the moments are called Central Moments.
If the deviations are calculated from values other than
arithmetic mean, the moments are called Raw
Moments.
Note:-
• If the deviations are measured from origin (ie., zero),
the moments are called raw moments about origin.
• All four aspects of a series can be studied in
terms of moments.

S.No. Moment What it measures?

1 First moment about the origin Mean

2 Second moment about mean Variance

3 Third moment about mean Skewness

4 Fourth moment about mean Kurtosis

 Central Moments Individual Discrete Series Continuous Series
Observations

First moment about 𝑥−𝑥 𝑓 𝑥−𝑥 𝑓 𝑚−𝑥

the mean, 𝜇1 (=0) 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
Here 𝑁 = 𝑓 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓

2
Second moment 𝑥−𝑥 𝑓 𝑥−𝑥 2 𝑓 𝑚−𝑥 2
about mean, 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝜇2 = 𝜎 2 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓

Third moment 𝑥−𝑥 3 𝑓 𝑥−𝑥 3 𝑓 𝑚−𝑥 3

about the mean, 𝜇3 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
Here 𝑁 = 𝑓 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓

4
Fourth moment 𝑥−𝑥 𝑓 𝑥−𝑥 4 𝑓 𝑚−𝑥 4
about the mean, 𝜇4 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
Here 𝑁 = 𝑓 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓
 Raw Moments Individual Discrete Series Continuous Series
Observations

First raw moment 𝑥−𝐴 𝑓 𝑥−𝐴 𝑓 𝑚−𝐴

𝜇′ 1 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
Here 𝑁 = 𝑓 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓

2
Second raw 𝑥−𝐴 𝑓 𝑥−𝐴 2 𝑓 𝑚−𝐴 2
moment 𝜇′ 2 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
Here 𝑁 = 𝑓 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓

Third raw moment 𝑥−𝐴 3 𝑓 𝑥−𝐴 3 𝑓 𝑚−𝐴 3

𝜇′ 3 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
Here 𝑁 = 𝑓 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓

4
Fourth raw moment 𝑥−𝐴 𝑓 𝑥−𝐴 4 𝑓 𝑚−𝐴 4
𝜇′ 4 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
Here 𝑁 = 𝑓 Here 𝑁 = 𝑓
Note:-
• Arithmetic Mean 𝑥 = 𝐴 + 𝜇′ 1 about 𝐴.
• Central Moments are obtained by the following relations

 2    
'
2 1 
' 2

3    3   2
'
3
'
2
'
1 
' 3
1

 4    4 
'
4
'
3
'
1  6  
'
2
' 2
1  
3  ' 4
1