Quote

• “The pessimist sees difficulty in every

opportunity. The optimist sees the
opportunity in every difficulty”
 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A literature review is the process of

locating, obtaining, reading and
evaluating the research literature
in your area of interest.
 Literature review
Literature review covers two areas:

(1) the writings of recognized experts, and

(2) previous research

both of which have a significant bearing on

or relation to the problem under study
The purpose of literature review
1. A critical review of the literature is
necessary to help a researcher develop
a thorough understanding of and insight
into previous research that relates to
his/her research question(s) and
objectives.
2. To help the researcher further refine the
research question(s) and objectives.
The purpose of literature review
3. Literature review will set your research in
context by critically discussing and
referencing work that has already been
undertaken, drawing out key points and
presenting them in a logically argued
way, and highlighting those areas where
they will provide fresh insights.
4. To highlight research possibilities that
have been overlooked

5. To discover explicit recommendations for

further research. These can provide you
with a justification for your own research
questions

6. To avoid repeating work that has been

done already.
6. To discover and provide an insight into
research designs that may be
appropriate to the current research
questions and objectives.
7. It can help you interpret and make sense
of your findings, and help you tie your
results to the work of those who have
preceded you.
• Simply put, the more you know about
investigations and perspectives
related to your topic, the more
effectively you can tackle your own
research problem
 Literature Sources
Literature sources are generally divided into
three categories:

1. Primary sources (published & unpublished)

2. Secondary sources
3. Tertiary sources
Primary sources
• The original reports of the original work or
experience
.

– Examples include published sources such as

reports (academic report, government report,
market research report, etc). They also
include unpublished manuscript sources such
as letters, memos, interview, committee
minutes, etc.
– Primary sources are the most authoritative
because the information has not been filtered
or interpreted by a second party.
Secondary Sources

• Are interpretations of primary data.

• Text books, journals, magazines, etc are the

subsequent publication of primary data.

• Secondary sources provide scholarly

summaries of research

– These publications are aimed at a wider

audience. They are easier to locate than
primary literature .
Tertiary sources
• Also called search tools, are designed
either to help locate primary and
secondary literature or to provide an
introduction to a topic.

• Examples include internet search

engines, abstracts, bibliographies,
catalogues, encyclopedia, etc.
 BE CAUTIOUS USING
INTERNET SOURCES!!!

• Currently, the Internet is unregulated

(unlike Secondary and Primary sources)

• The Internet is good for fun and ideas:

– But be cautious!!
Literature sources available
 Using Journals Rather Than
Magazines
Journals and magazines are both periodicals.

– Periodicals are publications issued on a regular basis.

– Journals are periodicals containing articles often written

by scholars/professionals

– Journals may be classified as

• refereed academic journals or
• professional journals.
• Refereed academic journals are
evaluated by peers before publication to
assess their quality.

– They normally contain detailed research

reports, book reviews, issues in
methodologies, etc.

– Examples include journal of magt. studies,

journal of accountancy, journal of business
strategy, journal of magt., etc.
• Professional journals are produced for
their members by organizations such as
the Institute of Chartered Accountants, the
American Institute of Marketing, Chartered
Institute of Bankers, etc.

– The professional journals contain a mix of

new-related items and more detailed articles.

– Articles are often of a more practical nature

and more closely related to professional
needs.
 Journals Vs Magazines
Journals Magazines
1. Written by a scholar 1. Written by variety of
in the field. authors.
2. Scientific research. 2. Mostly opinion-based
3. Uses language of 3. Elementary language
the discipline. geared towards
audience with minimal
4. Written to appeal to education.
specific audience. 4. For wider audience.
 Journals Magazines
5. Authors write for academic 5. Not so.
honor.

6. Contains longer articles (7+ 6. Shorter articles – ½ page to 5

pages). pages.

7. Carefully reviewed by peers 7. Articles chosen by

before publication.
8. Mostly found in the
libraries/academic settings.
9. Contain graphs/charts.
10. Reference citations provided
editors/authors employed by
the magazine.
8. Found everywhere.
9. Contain lots of graphics and
coloured pictures.
10. Sources are rarely cited.
Guidelines on Literature Review:
1. When planning your literature search you
need to . . .
– have clearly defined research
question(s) and objectives;
– define the parameters of their search;
– generate key words and search terms;
and
– discuss their ideas as widely as possible.
Guidelines on Literature Review:
2. Identify the relevant data sources.
Data may be obtained from published
and unpublished works available
primarily in the libraries and offices.

3. Develop a systematic procedure and

note-taking skill in collecting literature
survey data.
• The following are three useful
suggestions

– Make each note on a separate sheet

of paper or card.
– Make your entries complete and
accurate
– At the time you make the note,
recorded all the information you
may possibly need.
 Strategies for Taking Notes
a)Direct quotation.

• The researcher may use direct quotations

only when he/she is convinced that the
original author has said something so well
or so vividly that he cannot possibly
improve upon it.

– Quoting means to repeat another

source word for word, using
quotation marks
• .
• A direct quotation may also be
necessary when the researcher wishes
to introduce some statement by an
authority as evidence in support of
some contention of the researcher’s
own.

• However, the overuse of direct

quotations from secondary sources
indicates that you do not have a clear
focus or understanding of the research
problem
b) Paraphrase.
• A paraphrase requires the researcher to
restate, in his own words, the thought
and meaning, of someone else.

• Paraphrasing means to use the ideas from

another source but change the phrasing into
your own words
c) Summary note.
• A summary note can be taken when
the researcher makes a quick
overview of factual data that has
marginal value. The summary note
represents borderline information for
your study. It condenses into a brief
note the key ideas of a source
– Summarizing means to take ideas from a
large passage of another source and
condense them, using your own words
d) Personal notes.
• The researcher may also write his
personal note card for each of his
own ideas, which are not merely
borrowed viewpoints.
• During your research, make plenty of
personal notes to record your own
thoughts on the issues. Build your
own discourse on the subject.
 Guidelines . . .
4. Write a concise review of related
literature.
• The review of related literature should
not be a verbatim copied literature.
• Data should be presented by topic or
variable based on the objectives of the
study.
5. Only studies which are related in
purpose, method, or findings to
current study should be included in
the review.

6. Use scholarly journal articles rather

than magazines. Journals offer
more reliable evidence than
magazines.
7. The review should be logically
arranged by topics or themes.

• It should present an authoritative

discussion on the problem and
various updates.
• Text should be written in the
past tense, citing author and
date of publication.
8. The writer must learn to blend
reference material into his/her
writing with unity and coherence.
– The researcher must evaluate, organize
and synthesize what others have done.

• Thus, quotation, paraphrase,

summary must explain and
develop the research
topic/problem (unity).
• Documentation style should be
based on the American
Psychological Association
(APA) style.

–Use in-text Citations

–Document accurately
The APA Format . .
• Allows readers to cross-reference
your sources easily
• Provides consistent format within
a discipline
• Gives you credibility as a writer
• Protects yourself from plagiarism
 APA Style:
There two areas of APA documentation

• Parenthetical (in-text) Citations

• Reference Page
When Should You Use Parenthetical
Citations?

• When quoting any words that are

not your own

• When summarizing facts and

ideas from a source

• When paraphrasing a source

When using the in-text citation . . .

• Give only information needed to identify

the source on your reference

– Follow the author-date method and (if need

be) the page (s) of the reference

• Do not repeat unnecessary information

 Handling Quotes in Your Text
• Author’s last name, publication year, and page
number(s) of quote must appear in the text.
 Example
• Ferguson and Ferguson (2001)
contend that “strategy sets the
framework for the evolution of the
organization in light of
anticipated . . . but does not
provide detailed targets and
guidelines for its individual parts”
(p. 52).
• “In 2015, Ghanaians spent more than 3
million Cedis on fried rice alone.”
(Mensah, 2016:65).
 Illustration of In-text Citations
While a well-designed strategy is generally accepted
as being central to the success of a business
organization, it is also beneficial to the non-profit
organizations in effectively coping with the
challenges of our competitive world. The word
“strategy” comes from the Greek world “strategos,”
which means a general and the leader of an army
(Tsikkiros and Pashiardis, 2002). When used in the
contest of the organization as a whole, “strategy
describes the way that an organization purses its
goals, given the threats and opportunities in the
environment and the resources and capabilities of the
organization” (Byal et al., 1996:5). Beamish (1996)
also described organization strategy as the pattern in
the organization’s important decisions and actions,
which consists of a few key areas or things by which
the firm seeks to distinguish itself.