or half-lines, l and l , having the same endpoint O.

If A and B are poin

B
If we introduce a rectangular coordinate
1 2
system, then the
and l2, as in Figure 1, we refer to angle Thus,
standard
many posi- ). An ang
AOB (denoted l 2 different
!AOBangles ha
Angles
tion of an angle is obtained by considered
Oalso be taking theasvertex at Terminal
the
line originsideand
such angles letting
aare the cotermi
called
ltwo finite segments with common endpoin
Angles
initial side l1 coincide with In A
thetrigonometry
positive x-axis. 1
we often If interpret
l1 is rotated
sides in
angles
vertex.
lie aoncounter-
the same
as rotations straight
of rays. Start
clockwise direction to the terminal
fixed position
ray l1, having l2, then
endpoint O, and therotate
angle is considered
it about O, in a lplane, to a p
1
Figure1 1
Figure Figure 2
positive. If l1 is rotated in a clockwise 2direction,1 the angle is negative.
specified by ray l . We call
Figure l 2 the initial side,If we
Initial
l2 theintroduce
side Wea rectangu
terminal side, and
tionofofrotation
an angleis isnot obtained by
often denote
l2 angles by Coterminal
vertex ofangles
lowercase Greek. The
!AOB letters amount
suchorasdirection
# (alpha), " (beta), ! restricted
l1 way. We might let l make several revolutions
lFigure initial side l coincide
in leither
2 1 direction with th
abou
e (gamma), % (theta), $ ( phi), and
Terminal so on. 2 1 3 contains
side to position l2, as illustrated sketches
Terminalclockwise
side of two posi-
direction to theinterm
B fore coming by the curved arrows Fi
tive angles, # and ", andThus,a negative angle, ! . If the
many different angles have the same
terminal side
positive. of
initial Ifand
an angle
is rotatedsides.
l1 terminal in a Ac
O in standard position is insucha certain quadrant,
angles are we say that
called coterminal the
angles. Aangle
often denote
straight is angles
in that
angle l byan
is lowerca
angle
A l l 1
quadrant. 1In Figure 3, # is in quadrant III, " is in quadrant I,
sides lie onInitial
the same
1
side straight line but extend andInitial
(gamma), !inisopposite
in quad-
(theta),
%side $ ( phi), anf
directions
a quadrantal angle if its terminaltive
rant II. An angle is calledvertex. sideangles,
lies on # and ", and a neg
a co-
Figure 2 ordinate axis. If we introduce
l 2 a rectangular coordinate in standard
system,position
then theisstandar
in a cer
l1 Coterminal angles Terminal
tion of side quadrant.
an angle is obtained by taking the vertex In
at Figure 3, #and
the origin is inlett
q
e is calledina aquc
l2 initial side l1 coincide with the positiverant II. AnIf angle
x-axis. l1 is rotated
direction to the ordinate axis.
Terminal side
Figure 33 Standard positionclockwise
Figure of an angle l1 terminal position l2, then the angle is con
positive. IfInitial
l1 is side
rotated in a clockwise direction, the angle is negati
Positive angle often denote
Positive angleangles by lowercase Greek
Negative letters such as # (alpha), " (b
angle
l1 Figure 3 Standard position of an
Initial side y (gamma), % y(theta), $ ( phi), and so on. Figure
y 3 contains sketches of tw
tive angles, # and ", and a negative angle, !. Ifangle
Positive the terminal sidePositiv
of a
l2 in standard positionl 2 is in a certain
l 2 quadrant, we say y that the angle is
Terminal side a quadrant. In Figure 3, # is in quadrant III, " is in quadrant I, and ! is in
l1 rant II. An angle is lcalled
1 a quadrantal angle ifl1its terminal side lies o
a
x ordinate axis. x x l1
l2 l1 b g
Initial side x
l2 b
Figure 3 Standard position of an angle

Positive angle Positive angle Negative angle

y y y
One unit of measurement for angles is the degree. The angle in
Onestandard po-
unit of measurement fo
l2 l2
 SOLUTION The angle $ is shown in standard position in the first sketch in
Figure 5. To find positive coterminal angles, we may add 360° or 720° (or any
other positive integer multiple of 360°) to $, obtaining
349
Angles
6 .1 A n g l e s
60° ! 360° # 420° and 60° ! 720° # 780°.
Figure 44
Figure
These coterminal angles are also shown in Figure 5.
y y y y y
To find negative coterminal angles, we may add "360° or "720° (or any
other negative integer multiple of 360°), obtaining
360% 90% 540% 150%
60° ! !"360°" # "300° and 60° ! !"720°" # "660°,
x x x "135% x x
as shown in the last two sketches in Figure 5.

Figure 5
Figure 5
y y Throughout our y as $ # 60° specifies yan angle u
y work, a notation such
whose measure is 60°. We also refer to an angle of 60° or a 60° angle, in-
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
stead of using the more precise (but cumbersome) phrase an angle having
u # 60% 420% measure 60°. 780% "660%
x
A right angle is half xof a straight anglex and"300% has measure x90°. The fol- x

lowing chart contains definitions

E X A M P L E of
1 other
Findingspecial types
coterminal of angles.
angles
If $ # 60° is in standard position, find two positive angles and two negative
angles that are coterminal with $. L
Terminology Definition Illustrations
SOLUTION The angle $ is shown in standard position in the first sketch in
acute angle u Figure 5. To0°
find ! * 90°
* positive 12°;we
coterminal angles, 37°may add 360° or 720° (or any
other positive integer multiple of 360°) to $, obtaining
obtuse angle u 90° * ! * 180° 95°; 157°
complementary angles a, b '60°(!)360°
$ # 420°
90° and20°, 60° 720°83°
70°;! 7°, # 780°.

supplementary angles a, b coterminal

These '( ) $ 180°
angles are also shown115°, 65°;
in Figure 5. 18°, 162°
To find negative coterminal angles, we may add "360° or "720° (or any
other negative integer multiple of 360°), obtaining

! !"360°" # "300° 60° ! !"720°" # "660°,

If smaller measurements60°than the degree are required,and
we can use tenths,
hundredths, or thousandths of degrees.
as shown in the lastAlternatively, we can
two sketches in Figure 5. divide the degree
 Angles

Degrees : Full circle = 360 Radians : Full circle = 2⇡ rad Gradians : Full circle = 400 grad

100 grad
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⇡
150 grad rad
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2 <latexit sha1_base64="GgMbFkHovzoYQ3SODAAf6syf10U=">AAACCnicbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69rBbBU0lKQY8FLx4r2A9oQtlsNu3SzSbsTsQScvbiX/HiQRGv/gJv/hs3bQ/a+mDg8d4MM/P8RHANtv1tldbWNza3ytuVnd29/YPq4VFXx6mirENjEau+TzQTXLIOcBCsnyhGIl+wnj+5LvzePVOax/IOpgnzIjKSPOSUgJGG1VM3VIRm2E14njVy7AJ7ABmriIgMKxLklWG1ZtftGfAqcRakhhZoD6tfbhDTNGISqCBaDxw7AS8jCjgVLK+4qWYJoRMyYgNDJYmY9rLZKzk+N0qAw1iZkoBn6u+JjERaTyPfdEYExnrZK8T/vEEK4ZWXcZmkwCSdLwpTgSHGRS444IpREFNDCFXc3IrpmJhswKRXhOAsv7xKuo26Y9ed22at1VzEUUYn6AxdIAddoha6QW3UQRQ9omf0it6sJ+vFerc+5q0lazFzjP7A+vwBITOaeQ==</latexit>

50 grad
3⇡
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rad 90 ⇡
rad
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<latexit sha1_base64="3TuPqvNubenTe++cWDfH0RYMfns=">AAACI3icbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LJaCp5JoQfFU8OKxgv2AJpTNdtMu3WzC7kQsIf/Fi3/FiwelePHgf3Hb5qBtHww83pthZp4fC67Btr+twsbm1vZOcbe0t39weFQ+PmnrKFGUtWgkItX1iWaCS9YCDoJ1Y8VI6AvW8cd3M7/zxJTmkXyEScy8kAwlDzglYKR++dYNFKEpvsJuzLO0nmEX2DPISIVEpFiRQVaqGmuN3C9X7Jo9B14lTk4qKEezX566g4gmIZNABdG659gxeClRwKlgWclNNIsJHZMh6xkqSci0l85/zHDVKAMcRMqUBDxX/06kJNR6EvqmMyQw0sveTFzn9RIIbryUyzgBJuliUZAIDBGeBYYHXDEKYmIIoYqbWzEdERMamFhnITjLL6+S9mXNsWvOQ73SqOdxFNEZOkcXyEHXqIHuURO1EEUv6A19oE/r1Xq3ptbXorVg5TOn6B+sn1+6QKRF</latexit>
4 4
135
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<latexit sha1_base64="E6QXHPgOou5io7cJek6ftDjpUDA=">AAAB8nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69BIvgqSRa0WPBi8cK9gPaWDbbTbt0sxt2J0IJ/RlePCji1V/jzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZemAhu0PO+ncLa+sbmVnG7tLO7t39QPjxqGZVqyppUCaU7ITFMcMmayFGwTqIZiUPB2uH4dua3n5g2XMkHnCQsiMlQ8ohTglbq+pdXj1mPck2n/XLFq3pzuKvEz0kFcjT65a/eQNE0ZhKpIMZ0fS/BICMaORVsWuqlhiWEjsmQdS2VJGYmyOYnT90zqwzcSGlbEt25+nsiI7Exkzi0nTHBkVn2ZuJ/XjfF6CbIuExSZJIuFkWpcFG5s//dAdeMophYQqjm9laXjogmFG1KJRuCv/zyKmldVH2v6t/XKvVaHkcRTuAUzsGHa6jDHTSgCRQUPMMrvDnovDjvzseiteDkM8fwB87nD6ApkMY=</latexit>

45
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0 0 rad 0 grad
200 grad ⇡ rad 180
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<latexit sha1_base64="+wrUM/HxXIai2go+kRquH1DjQV4=">AAACFXicbZDLSsNAFIYnXmu9RV26GSwFF1ISKeiy4MZlBXuBJpTJZNIOnUzCzIlYQl/Cja/ixoUibgV3vo1JmoVt/WHg5zvncOb8Xiy4Bsv6MdbWNza3tis71d29/YND8+i4q6NEUdahkYhU3yOaCS5ZBzgI1o8VI6EnWM+b3OT13gNTmkfyHqYxc0MykjzglECGhuaFhR1gjyAjFRKR4pEi/qxad2K+yAs8NGtWwyqEV41dmhoq1R6a344f0SRkEqggWg9sKwY3JQo4FWxWdRLNYkInZMQGmZUkZNpNi6tmuJ4RHweRyp4EXNC/EykJtZ6GXtYZEhjr5VoO/6sNEgiu3ZTLOAEm6XxRkAgMEc4jwj5XjIKYZoZQxbO/YjomilDIgsxDsJdPXjXdy4ZtNey7Zq3VLOOooFN0hs6Rja5QC92iNuogip7QC3pD78az8Wp8GJ/z1jWjnDlBCzK+fgHR0p6M</latexit>

360 2⇡ rad 400 grad

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225
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315
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5⇡ 7⇡
rad 270 rad
4
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4
3⇡
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250 grad rad 350 grad

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2
300 grad
 Thus, for each !, the six ratios are unique w
metric functions that ! is the acute angle of the right triangle in Figure 1, then, by definition, th
tions of !. cThey are b called the trigonome
n this text: b as the sine, a b cotangent, s
Trigonometric Functions of Angles sin ! $ cos !6 .$2 uT r i g cosine, tan tangent,
! $
o n o m e t r i c F u n c t i o n s o f A n g l e s 359
$ 1 & cos*We ! will refer to these six trigonomet-c breviated sin, c a cos, tan, cot, a sec, and csc,
6 . 2 Tr i g o n o m e t r i c
$ 1 & sinric ! functions
Figure 1
as the trigonometric where thecsymbolsin !, !isFigure
$ specifies used
thec 90°for
angle. the ratios a
Sixratio b!c
can be ,obtained
which theWs
using
Figure 6 csc ! $ sec $Figure 72 cot ! $ .
$ sec ! & 1 functions.
c
Here
Figure
b are some other,the
1 less b ueswhere
lengths a, b, and c of the
of the sides other five functions
a of the triangle: b are denotedgl
b the b c% a $ c specifies
a symbol c the 90° angle. Six si
u ! is the acute angle of the right triangle in
$ 2 vers !common 6 . 2atrigonometric u nfunctions gthat
T r i g o nco m eThe
t r i c Fdomain
c t i o n s oof
f A neach of the six , ,
trigonometric , , ,
a b, bandfunctions is the settriangle
of al
1
b
l e s 359 the clengthsc a, ac ofb%
bthe sides of the
we will not use acute in this
angles. text: Later We in this
can showsection weratios
that these will extend
depend only on the domains
!, and b onbthe
not a tosizelarger setsco
bof the atrian-
Figure 2 u u
where the symbol $ specifies the 90° angles,
angle. Six
a and in can
ratios thebenextgle, assection,
obtained using intoFigure
indicated real2.numbers. sin ! have
Since the two triangles $, equal, angles,, cos they ,!
are $ ,
c% vers
he lengths a, b, and c of the sides of the!triangle:
$ 1 & cos ! a% c
similar, and therefore ratios of corresponding sides are proportional. c c For example, aT
a b
b%If ! is the angle in Figure 1, we refer to the sides of the triangle of length
$ . c
b a
, covers , a,
b
, 2b,
! a
and
,$
c
1 c
, c& assin the !adjacent side, Webcan
opposite
b%show
$ , side,
a that a% these
$ and
b ratios
b%
, hypotenuse,
dependrespectively
only on !,tio a
Figure c%incsc a ! a% $2. Since the sec
p cu c a b a b gle,c as indicated
c% c Figure two ! $ as
triangl
exsec
a% We shall
!on$!, sec use adj, opp,
!on& the1sizeThus, and hyp to denote
each !, thesimilar,
the
six ratiosand
lengths
aretherefore
of the b
sides.
ratios of corresponding
We may then
sides
We can show that these ratios depend only
c% and not of thefortrian-
*Wethiswillnotation,
refer to these uniquely determined
six trigonomet-func and hence are func- br
gle, as indicated in Figure 2. Since therepresent the
two triangles havetriangle
b%equal as
tions
angles, in
of
they
! Figure
. They
are are 3. With
called the trigonometric the trigonometric
functions* and are designated
cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecantthe
The domain of each of a sixa%trigo
hav
1
! $sides vers ! asFortheexample, ric functions as thebtrigonometric
b% si
tions
imilar, and therefore ratios of corresponding may2 arebe expressed
proportional. as
sine,follows. functions, ab- b
functions. $ , Here $ , ue
arethis
*Web will b%referauto these
a% six b trigonomet-
b%
breviated sin, cos, acute
tan, cot,angles. Later
sec, and csc, in
respectively. csome Thec%other,
section
symbolc less
we
sin !#,will
"c% or a
$ , as$the trigonometric
ricc functions , $ . sin !, is used for the ratio b!c , which the
common sine function associates
trigonometric functions with !. Val- !
that
Figure 3 c% c c% a% a
functions. Here are some other, less
a% angles,
Thus,we
ues of the other five functions and
for in
areeach the
denoted !,use next
inthe six
similar section,
ratios
fashion. to
uniquelyifnum
real
aresummarize,
To det
will not in this text:
Thus, for eachFigure
! , the 8common
the Trigonometric trigonometric functions that
six ratios are uniquely determined and is
hence
! the
opp
areacute
func-angle of
tionsIf !ofisadj
the right !.the
triangle
They angle
in Figure
are calledin Figure
1, then, by 1, we referfut
definition,
opptrigonometric
the
ions of !. They are called we will trigonometric
thenot functions*sin
use in this text: and!are$ designated cos ! $ vers tan ! $
! $ 1 & cotangent,cos
b !
fs the
ansine,
Acute Angle
cosine, hyp
tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant hyp
functions, ab- a,
sin b,
as
! $
b sine, cosine,
and
the c
hyp as
cos !the
$ adjacent
a tangent,
tan ! $adjside, opposite
secant
vers !opp 1 & cos ! The symbol sin "!#, or c
breviated cos,copp,
sin,adj,
covers tan,
! $cot, 1 & sec, a and
sin ! tocsc, respect
ght Triangle
breviated sin, cos, tan, cot, sec,*We and csc,$ respectively.
will refer to these six trigonomet- hyp We shall
c use
hyp c and hyp
adja denote
in !, is used for the ratio b!c,covers 1 & function
sin ! associates sin
! $!!,$is used sec !for
$ the
which
!ratio $ !, which
!b!c &. 1 the sine fu
!the
$ sine ! $with !. Val- represent
ric functions as the csc trigonometric sec
csc
the exsec
triangle cot $!as
cot$
sec
in Figure
u are denoted in simt
3. With
opp b a b
ues of the other five functions are denoted in similar
exsec ! $ sec ! & 1
functions. Here
fashion.
are some
To summarize,
other, less
if
ues of theadj other five functions 1
opp
! is the acute angle of the right triangle in Figure
adj common 1
hav ! $ 2 vers !
1, then, by definition,
The domaintions of eachmay of the be hav ! $ functions
expressed
six trigonometric vers
as !is the set of all
follows.
thatLater in this section we will extend the domains to largerin
is the acute angle of the
! 2right triangle Figure
b
trigonometricb functions
a acute angles. sets of ac
sin !Figure cos ! $ tan ! $
c 3 we will not c use in thisatext:
$ angles, and in the next section, Figureto real
3 numbers. b a an
If ! is the angle in Figure 1, we refer tosin the!sides
$ cos
of the triangle !
of $
lengths
ice for remembering csc ! $ hyp
c
secThe
! $ formulas
c
verscot! !$$in 1a&the a, preceding
. cos b, !and c as the definition
adjacent side,can be side,
opposite applied cto any right
and hypotenuse, triangle
c
respectively.
e definition is Definition b
without of the
opp
covers
a
attaching Trigonometric
! $ 1 & the !
b We shall use adj, opp, and hyphyp
sin labels a, b, c to the sides.sin Since!to denote the lengths opp
$
opp thec lengths of the
cos !of the sides. We may then a,a
c side
$
The domain of each Functions of an Acute
uof the six trigonometric Angle
functions is represent csc ! $ sec
the set ofthealltriangle as in Figure 3. With this notation, the trigonometric func- W
! $
CAH TOA, of a triangle are positive
exsecthe! domains
$ sec !totions
real
1may
&larger
numbers, the values of the six hyp
b trigonometricafunch
cute angles. Later in this section
adj we will extend setsbeofexpressed as follows.
u re
 essary to"extend # cot !
cos ! the definition of the trigonometric functions. We make this
cancel sin !

extension by using the standard position of an angle ! on a rectangular

E R 6 T H E T R I G O N O M E T P(x,
R I C y)
FUNCTIONS " sec ! # cot ! reciprocal identity L
coordinate system. If ! is acute, we have the situation illustrated in Figure 11,
r Trigonometric Functions of Angles
where we have chosen a point P"x, y# on the terminal side of ! and where
Figure 11 In Section 7.1 we will verify many other identities using methods similar
Figure 12 y d"O,
to those usedP# " r " 52
in Examples andx 26.# y 2. Referring to triangle OQP, we have
y
y 9
Figure Since many applied y problems involve angles that are not acute, y it is nec-
essary to extend the definition of the trigonometric functions. We make this
u extension by using the opp y
standard position adj! on a xrectangular
of an angle opp y
P(x, y) sin ! " " , cos ! " " , and tan ! " " .
O P(x, y) y Q(x, 0) x coordinate system. If ! ishyp acute, werhave the situation illustrated
hyp inr Figure 11, adj x
xr 368 C H A P T E R 6where
T H E we
T R Ihave
G O N chosen
O M E T R aI Cpoint C T I Oy#N Son the terminal side of ! and where
F U N P"x,
r y d"O, P# " r " 2x # y . Referring to triangle OQP, we have
2 2

u We nowu wish to consider angles of the types illustrated in Figure 12 on

u Q(x,120)
Figure opp y adj x opp y Q(x, 0)
Q(x, 0) O O
the! "next
sin "page
Or
, (orcos !any
" other " angle,
, and either
tan ! " positive,
O
" . negative, or zero). Note that
Q(x, 0) xx hypy Figure 10 x
hyp r y adju x x y
x r
in Figure 12 the value of x or y may be negative. In each case, side QP (opp in
Figure 12)to has angles! of
length y !the
, sidetypesOQ r 12 on12) has length ! x !, and the
(adj ininFigure
Figure
P(x,We
y) now wish consider illustrated
the next page (ory anyyother angle, either positive, negative, yor zero). Note that P(x, y)
hypotenuse
P(x,
in Figurer y) OP has length r. We shall define the six trigonometric functions so
12 the value of x or y may be negative. In each case, side QP (opp in
Figurethat their
12) has u values
length agree
! y !, side with
OQ (adj those12)
in Figure given previously
hasulength whenever the angle
! x !, and the is acute.
Q(x, 0) Q(x, 0)
hypotenuse OP has length r. We shallifdefine the sixdenominator
trigonometric functions so then the corresponding
Q(x, 0) It is Ounderstood that a zero
x given previously O occurs, O u
that their values agree with those r whenever the anglexis acute. x
functionthat
It is understood value is undefined.
if a zero denominator occurs, then the corresponding r
function value is undefined. y y P(x, y)
P(x, y)

of the Trigonometric Let ' be an angle in standard position on a rectangular coordinate system,
ons of Any Angle and let P"x, y# be any point other than the origin O on the terminal side of '.
If d"O, P# $ r $ 2x2 & y2, then
y the Trigonometric
Definition of Let 'xbe an angle in standard position y on a rectangular coordinate system,
sinFunctions
'$ cos ' $ tan ' $ "if x ! 0#
r of Any Angle and let
r P"x, y# be any point2 other2 than
x the origin O on the terminal side of '.
If d"O, P# $ r $ 2x & y , then
r r y xx
csc ' $ "if y ! 0# sec ' sin $ ' $ "if x ! 0# cot cos'' $ $ "if y ! 0#. tan ' $ y "if x ! 0#
y x r ry x
r r x
csc ' $ "if y ! 0# sec ' $ "if x ! 0# cot ' $ "if y ! 0#.
y x y
 angles. In calculus and in many applications, domains of functions consists of % r$ % 1!t" % t.
Figure 1 To find the values of trigonometric functions of real n
Functions real numbers. To regard Figure
the 2domain y
of a trigonometric
Thus,
tor, function
wet use
maythe as mode.
be radian a subset
regarded either as the radian measure
$ % t, t " 0
of !, we may use the following definition. length
Weofmay
the circular
interpretarc AP on U. functions of real
Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers s% t trigonometric
mbers P(x, y) y Nextaconsider
by using unit circle nonnegative
anyU—that real number
is, a circle t. If
of radius
radian measure t as having been generated by rotatin
1, w
w
O of a rectangular coordinate plane. The circle U is th u% t
xabout
2
& yO 2 in the counterclockwise direction, then t is th
% 1. Let t be a real number such that 0 ! t !
O A(1, 0) x A travels before reaching
angle (in standard position) itsoffinal position
radian measure . In p
P!x,t.y"One
t trated
in a case
Figure for t !P!x,
1, where ; however,
2#y" if t of
is the point 2#, then A mo
" intersection
igonometric The value of a trigonometric U
function at
u% t
a real number
eral the
and
t
times is its
unitincircle
value at
a counterclockwise
U and where s direction before
is the length reach
of the c
l Numbers an angle of t radians, provided that value exists.
A(1, 0) to P!x, If ty"! 0, thenthetheformula
. Using rotations %of OA
r$ foris in
thethe clockwis
length of a
O x tance A travels
and $ % t, we see that before reaching P!x, y" is #t #, as illustra

U 30 6= sin
sin 30y)
P(x,
s % r$ % 1!t" % t.
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Figure 2 Figure t3may be regarded either as the radian measure

Thus,
376 CHAPTER 6 THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Using this definition, we may
$ % t, t " 0
interpret a notation such
length as
6 . 3 T r i g o n o m e t r i c F u n c t i o n s o f R e a l NNext
sin
$ % t, tof!the
2 as either the
0 circular arc AP on U.
e r s 377
u m b consider
y yany nonnegative real number t. If w
sine
Figure
Figure 111 of the real number 2 orTo the
findsine of anof angle
the values of 2 functions
trigonometric radians.
radian ofAs
real in
measure t Section
numbers 6.2,
with been
as having a calcula-
generated by rotatin
if degreey trigonometric
measure is functions
used, we ofshall
tor, we write
use the radiansin
real numbers 2°. With
mode.
together with thethis
aboutunderstanding,
O in the counterclockwise direction, then t is th
definition of the
s% t We may interpret trigonometric functions
A travelsofbefore
real numbers
reachinggeometrically
its final position P!x, y". In F
trigonometric functionsbyofusing
anyt angle (givenU—that
a unit circle in Section
is, a 6.2),
circle we see that
of radius 1,for
with
t !center at the origin
P(x, y) trated a case
P(x, y)
2#; however, if t " 2#, then A m sin 2 ! sin 2°.
u% t O of a rectangularu % coordinate
yt y plane. The circle
eral is athe
timesU in graph of the equation
counterclockwise direction before reach
sin
2 t 2 sin " !
!
x & y % 1. Let t be a real ! !
A(1,number
0) y. such thatIf0t ! t0,!then2#,the
androtation
let $A(1,
denote
of0)OAthe
is in the clockwise
angle (in standard
r
position)
1 of radian measure t. One possibility is illustrated
O A(1, 0) x O x tance A travels before reaching P!x,x y" is #t #, as illustra
O
in Figure 1, where is the point of intersection t
u %terminal
P!x, y"
Using the same procedure for the remaining five trigonometric functionsofgivesthe side of $
U and the
us the following formulas. U unit circle U P(x,
and y)
where s is the length of U the circular arc 't'from A!1, 0"
to P!x, y". Using the formula s % r$ for Figurethe length
3 of a circular arc, with r % 1
and $ % t, we see that $ % t, t ! 0
s % r$ % 1!t" % t. y

Definition of the
Figure 2 If t is a real number andThus,
P!x,t y"
may is be
theregarded
point oneither as the
the unit radian
circle measure
U that of the angle $ or as the
corre-
$ % t, t " 0
Trigonometric Functions sponds to t, then length of the circular arc AP on U. The preceding discussion indicates how we may a
in Terms of a Unit Circle y Next consider any nonnegative realnumber
numbert t.a If we regard
unique pointthe
P!x,angle of We shall call P
y" on$ U.
y
P(x, y)
sin t ! y radian
cos measure t !unit circle
t ! x t as having beentangenerated x U!that
by!ifrotating 0"thecorresponds
line segment to OA
t. The coordinates
about O in the counterclockwise direction,to xfind
thenthet issix
thetrigonometric
distance along U
A(1, 0) that
functions of t. Thus, b
1 A travels before
1 reaching its final positionx P!x, y". In Figure
O 2 we have illus-
x
t csc t ! !if y ! 0" trated ! for t !if
seca tcase x ! 0" cot t ! !if y ! 0".
! 2#; however, if t " 2#, then A may travelt around U sev-
u %
y x y
u% t eral times in a counterclockwise direction before U reaching P!x,'t' y".
A(1, 0) If t ! 0, then the rotation of OA is in the clockwise direction, and the dis-
O x tance A travels before reaching P!x, y" is #t #, as illustrated in Figure 3.
 the sine (or cosine) of an angle of x radians is the same as the sine (or cosine)
of the real number x. The variable y denotes the function value that corre-
sponds to x. The repetitive variation of the sine and cosine functions is periodic in the sense
The table in the marginoflists
y ! sin x, 0 # x # 2p
thecoordinates
followingofdefinition.
several points on the graph of
382y ! Csin
H AxPfor Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers
T E 0R %6 xT%H E2$T. RAdditional
on special angles, such as
I G O N O M points
1 be determined using results
E T R I Ccan
FUNCTIONS
p 2p x
sin $$"6% ! 1"2 and sin $$"3%"1! 23"2q & 0.8660.
nition of Periodic Function A function f is periodic if there
We can exists
use the samea positive
procedurereal
to number k such
sketch the graphthat
of y # cos x. The table
x y !thecos
To sketch x for 0 % x % 2$, we plot the points given by the table
graph
in the margin lists
and remember that sin x increases on !0, $"2#, decreases on !f#t $"2,
coordinates
" $k$ # f#t$ of several points on the graph for 0 $ x $ 2 !.
# and
!0$, 3$"2#, and increases
1 on !3$"2, 2$#. This Plotting
gives us the these
sketchpoints leads
in Figure 8. to the part of the graph shown in Figure 10. Re-
for every
Since the sine function is periodic, t in theshown
the pattern domain
peating of pattern
this
in Figure f.8The least such
to theto
is repeated rightpositive realleft,
and to the number k, if itof length 2 !, we ob-
in intervals
! 22
the right and to the left, in exists,
! 0.7 intervalsisofthe period
length tain of f.gives
the
2$. This sketch us in
theFigure 11.
sketch in
4
Figure 9. 2
Figure 9
!Figure 12 Figure 10
Figure 8 0
2 y
y You already haveya common-sense grasp of the concept of the period of a
3! 22 function. For example, if you were asked on a Monday “What day of the week
" ! " 0.7
4 y ! sin will it be in 15 days?”yyour
2 x, 0 # x # 2p # cosresponse
x, 0 % x would
%1 2 p be “Tuesday”
y ! sin xdue to your under-
G O N O M E T R I C F1U N C T I O N S 1
standing that the days of the week repeat every 7 days and 15 is one day more
! "1
2p x
q usepthe same procedure "2p "p 2p x p 2p 3p 4p x
"1 We can to sketch the graph of yq# cospx. The "1
table
5in! the margin 2 coordinates of several points"on1 the graph for 0 $ x $ 2 !.
2lists
" ! " 0.7
Plotting
4 these2 points leads to the part of the graph shown in Figure 10. Re-
peating this pattern to the right and to the left, in intervals of length 2 !, we ob-
3tain
! the sketch in Figure 11.
0 Figure 11
2Figure
Figure9 13
Figure 10
y
7! y 22 y
! 0.7
4 2
y # cos x, 0 % x % 2 p 1 y # cos x
2 !1 1 1 y ! sin x

"2p q "p p 2p x p " 22p

p 3p
"p 4p x p 2p 3p 4p x
"1 "1
"1

Figure 11
The part of the graph of the sine or cosine function corresponding to
y
0 $ x $ 2 ! is one cycle. We sometimes refer to a cycle as a sine wave or a
cosine wave.
sketch the graphs of the remaining three trigonometric functions. For exam-
ple, since csc x ! 1!sin x, we may find the y-coordinate of a point on the
graph of the cosecant function by taking the reciprocal of the corresponding
Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers
y-coordinate on the sine graph for every value of x except x ! " n for any in-
teger n. (If x ! " n, sin x ! 0, and hence 1!sin x is undefined.) As an aid to
sketching the graph of the cosecant function, it is convenient to sketch the
graph of the sine function (shown in red in Figure 17) and then take recipro-
Figure
cals 14points on the cosecant graph.
to obtain
Figure 17 y ! csc x, y ! sin x
without bound as x approaches " n for any integer n. The graph has vertical
asymptotes x ! " n, as indicated in the figure. There is one upper branch of
the cosecant on the interval "0, "# and one lower branch on the interval
"", 2"#—together they compose one cycle of the cosecant.
Since sec x ! 1!cos x and cot x ! 1!tan x, we may obtain the graphs of
the secant and cotangent functions by taking reciprocals of y-coordinates of
points on the graphs of the cosine and tangent functions, as illustrated in Fig-
ures 18 and 19.
Figure 15
Figure 18 y ! sec x, y ! cos x

y y

1 1

# 2p #p p 2p 3p 4p x # 2p #p p 2p 3p 4p x
#1 #1

6 . 3 Tr i g o n o m e t r i c F u n c t i o n s o f Re a l N u m b e r s 387
Notice the manner in which the cosecant function increases or decreases
without bound as x approaches " n for any integer n. The graph has vertical
asymptotes x ! " n, asFigure in theFigure
indicated16 figure.19There
y "is cot , y " tan
onexupper x
branch of
the cosecant on the interval "0, "# and one lower branch on the interval y
"", 2"#—together they compose one cycle of the cosecant.
Since sec x ! 1!cos x and cot x ! 1!tan x, we may obtain the graphs of
the secant and cotangent functions by taking reciprocals of y-coordinates of
points on the graphs of the cosine and tangent functions, as illustrated in Fig-
ures 18 and 19.

Figure 18 y ! sec x, y ! cos x 1

y
!2p !p p 2p 3p 4p x
!1

# 2p #p p 2p 3p 4p x
#1 A graphical summary of the six trigonometric functions and their inverses
(discussed in Section 7.6) appears in Appendix III.