You are on page 1of 235

HYDRAULI

C CONTROL

SY TEMS 
DES.
GN

Fe
ngy
u Yang

LANZHOU 
UNI
VERSI
TY 
PRESS
PREFACE

  
HYDRAULI C 
CONTROL  SYSTEM DESI GN fil
ls 

he educ
ati
on ga
p bet
we en 
pra
cti
cal 

exts 

hat
empha
size hard
ware 
and a
ppic
l ati
ons 
at 
the 
expense o
f t
heoy, 
r a
nd t
heoret
ica
l lu
f i
d d
ynamics 
text

tha
t h
ave l
it
tle 

ela
ti
onship 
to 
th
e r
eal 
wo r
ld 
of f
un c
tio
ning s
yst
ems.
Bl
  ack
bu n, 
r Lee and Shear
er'
s mag n
ifi
cent  b
ook  Fl
uid Power  Cont
rol g
ives an al
mo s

ine
xhaust
ible s
ourc
e of f
undamenta
l i
n f
ormation. 
The best 
book i
s tha
t of Merr
it
t, 
Hydrauli

Contr
ol 
Systems, 
Wile
y, 
Ne w 
York, 
1967. 
Th i
s 
boo k 
of 
3 5
0 pages 

s di
rect
ed more 
spec
ifi
cal
ly 
to
hydra
uli
c contr
ol 
pr
oblems. 
Except 

or 
the 
last 
chapte
rs, 

t 
is 
excel
len
t. 
Howe ver
, 
it 
doe
s no
t co
ver
desi
gn p
roblems.
Thi
  s t
ext
book'
s mai
n s
our
ce 
of 
cont
ent
s comes 
rom;

      
・An al
y s
is, 
Synthesis 
and Desig
n of Hydraul
ic Serv
osy
ste
ms an d 
Pipeli
nes
, by 
Taco J.
Vi
        
er
sma ,
1980.
.Co
      
ntrol 
Syst
em Pr i
nci
ples 
and 
De si
gn,勿Erne st 
O. 
Doebein,
l 1985.
・Mo
      
de r
n Control 
Syste
ms ,
勿 Ri ch
ard C. 
Dorf 
and 
RobetH
r  . 
Bisho
p,2002.
An
  aly s
is, 
S ynt
hesi
s and Desig
n of 
Hydrauli
c 
Serv
osy s
tems 
and 
Pipel
ines 
di
scuses 
many 
desi
g n

opi
cs and ex p
e r
imental 
resul
ts. 
There a
re var
ious 
ca s
e st
udi
es and 
specia
l t
opic
s in 
Co n
trol

yste
m Pr i
nciples 
and Design 
wh i
ch make t
he s
tudy 
become en
joyabl
e. 
Mo der
n Contr
ol 
Syst
ems

uppl
ies update i
nfor
ma ti
on, f
or ex
amp l
e to
pics 
in 
robust 
cont
rol 
sys
tems and 
in 
digi
tal 

ontrol

yst
ems.
  
Combi
nin
g the
se s
ple
ndi
d con
tent
s, 
wit
h a
n e
mphsi
a s 
on 
th
e a
nal
yti
cal 

echni
que 

nd 

he

esi
gni
ng 
metho
ds, 
is 

he 
mai
n a
im of 
HYDRAULIC 
CONTROL 
SYST
EMS DESIGN.

La
nzh
ou 
Un
ive
rsi
ty 

f Te
chno
log

Ma
               
rch, 
2004
CONTENTS

1. 
TOOLS 
FOR 
THE 
ANALYSIS 
OF 
HYDRAULIC 
SERVO'


.1 
Contr
ol Syst
em  Desig
n  Pro
cedur
e s


、) 一

.2 
Int
egra
tor wi
th Propor

t onal 
Fe
edback



.3 
Dominant Pr
ope r
tie
s of a 
Si
mple Serv
osyst
em

9 10 12 16 17 23

.4 
Veloc
ity Gai
n K,, 
and Valve 
Config
urati
on

.5 
Mul
ti
ple
-Ho
le 
Va
lve
1.
6 Tur
bul
ent 
Por
t Fl
ow


.7 
Compr
ess
ibi
it
l y 

f Oi

1.
8 For
ces 
and 
Cont
inui
ty
1.
9 Perf
ormance 
Indi
ces

2. 
ANALYSI
S OF 
HYDRAULIC 
SERVOSYSTEMS

32 33 39 43 科 46 48 51
2.
1 I
ntr
oduct
ion

2.
2 Asymme t
ri
c Motor
s Cont
roll
ed 
by 
3-
Wa y 
Val
ve
2.
3 Load-
Co mpens
ati
on
2.
4 Symme t
ric 
Motor
s Cont
roll
ed 
by 
a 
Symme t
ri
c 4-Way 
Valve
2.
5 Asymme t
ri
c Moto
rs Co
ntrol
led 
by 
a 
Symmetr
ic 4-
Way Cri
ti
cal
-Ce
nte
r Va
lve
2.
6 Asymme t
ri
c Moto
rs Cont
roll
ed 
by 
an 
Asymmetric 
4-
Wa y 
Valv

2.
7 Pump-Contr
oll
ed Hydr
aulics
2.
8 Fr
om 
M at
hem at
ical 
M odel 

o Tr
ansf
er 
funct
ion

3. 
DYNAMIC 
ANALYSI
S AND 
SYNTHESIS
55 56 58 60 61 65 69 71 74 75 6 78 80
3.
1 I
ntr
oduct
ion

.2 
Pro
por
ti
ona
l Co
ntr
ol

.3 
Dynamic 
Load

.4 
Dynamic 
Dead Zone 
Due 
to 
Co
ulo
mb 
Fr
ict
ion

.5 
Damping 
Methods

.6 
Ele
ctr
o-Hyd
rauli
c Se
rvo
val
ve
3.
7 De
rivat
ive 
Cont
rol 
Modes


.8 
Bl
ock 
Di
agr
am 

or 
Ha
rdwa
re 
Comp
one
nts
3.
9 PI
-Cont
rol

3.
10 
Fi
rst 
Or
d e
r Sy
ste
m in 
Se
rie

3.
11 
Compli
ant St
ruc
tur
es
3.
12 
LF-
Con
tro
l o
f Comp
lex 
Hyd
rau
lic 
Se
rvo'

3.
13 
Loa
d Ac
tua
tor

80 82 料 85
3.
13 
Load 
Act
uat
ors
3.
14 
Cou
lomb Fri
cti
on a
nd St
abi

lty
3.
15 
Ana
log 
Simulat
ion 
of 
Coulo
mb Fri
ct
ion
3.
16 
Des
cri
bin
g Funct
ion 
of 
Coul
omb Fr
ict
io

4. 
PERFORMANCE 
DIAGRAM 
AND 
DESI
GN 
OF 
SERVOMTOR



4.1 I
ntr
oduct
ion

0了 9


.2 
Rel
at
ion 
Be
twe
en 
Max. 
St
rok
e S=2
夕二a
nd 
Ba
ndwi
dt
h 
co


lj l

.3 
Rel
at
ion 
Be
twe
en 
Va
lve 
Capa
cit
y 
Q,.a
 n
d Max
imum 
Speed 
y.




.4 
Rel
at
ion 
Be
twe
en 
Ca
vit
at
ion 
Bound
ay 
r a
nd Ma
x. 
Acc
ele
rat
ion夕




4.
5 Pr
eimi
l n
ary 
Pe
rfo
rmanc
e Diag
ram

0产 g
气了 OU
4.
6 Desi
gn 
of 
Symmetr
ic 
Mo t
ors
4.
7 Fi
nal 
Pe
rfor
mance 
Dia
gra

Q产 0
O了 ntj} ,
4.
8 Desi
gn of 
Asy
mme tri
c Se
rvomoto
rs

 

. 
4.
9 Desi
gn Example

1   扣

11} (
.‘ 八口
 
. 
4.
10 
In
vers
e Desi
gn Example

工   J

 
. 
4.
11 
Case 
St
udies 
and 
Special 
Topic

1             
5. 
ROBUST 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM S


飞〕
. .J
5.
1 
 Int
roduc
tion

    



, 1
5.
2 
 Robust 
Cont
rol 
Syste
ms and 
Syst
em Se
nsi

ivi
ty

    .

勺自 八
}吕
 1
.     门
5.
3 
 Analys
is 
of 
Ro bust
ness



 . 
盆   .
5.
4 
 Sys
tems wit
h Un c
ert
ain 
Paramet
ers



 .
 二
5.
5 
 The Desi
gn 
of Robust 
Cont
rol 
Syst
ems

   J



 .
 几    ‘
5.
6 
  PI
D Cont
rol
ler



. 几
5.
7 
 The 
De
sig
n o
f Ro
bus
t PI
D-Co
ntr
oll
ed 
Sy
ste
ms     




. 孟
    

5.
8 
 Des
ign 
Exampl
e: 
Ai
rcr
aft 
Aut
opi
lot

了0
.. 且
    J


.9 
 The 
De
sig
n of 
a 
Space 
Te
les
cope 
Cont
rol 
Sy
ste



0了
  }


.10 
The 
De
sig
n of 
Robu
st 
Bobbi
n Dr
ive
 


11


.且


.11 
The 
Ro
bust 
In
tena
r l 
Model 
Cont
rol 
Sy
ste

‘) ‘〕 口

..昌

,) 门


.12 
Th
e De
sig
n of 

n Ul
tr
a-Pr
eci
si
on 
Di
amo
nd 
Tu
ni
r ng 
Ma
chi
ne


.1

5.
13 
The 
Ps
eudo-
Quant
it
ati
ve 
Feedbac
k Sys
tem

0了
,.1


.14 
Robus
t 
Co n
trol 
Sys
tems 
Usi
ng 
MATLAB


..占


.15 
Seq
uenti
al 
De s
ign 
Exampl
e: 
Di
sk 
Dr
ive 
Re
ad 
Sy
ste

6. 
DI
GITAL 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM S
‘U
,了

.且

6.
1 I
ntr
oduc
tion

OO
瓜U

.1


.2 
Di
gi
ta
l Co
mput
er 
Co
ntr
ol 
Sy
ste
m Ap
pli
cat
io
ns

C己
‘U
召.1

6.
3 Sa
mpl
ed-
Dat
a Sy
ste
ms
,1

‘U

.5 
Ope
n- Loop 
Dig
ita
l Con
tro

06


.1

、J

.6 
Cl
osed-Loop 
Feed
back 
Sampl
ed-
Dat
a Sy
ste
ms


C6
n龙
.1
6.
7 S
tab
il
it
y Ana
lys
is 

n t
he 
z-
P 
lan


C6

O矛


6.
8 Perf
ormanc e 
of 
a Sampled-Data, 
Second-Order 
Syste



,山
.l
6.
9 Clos
ed-Loo p S
ystems wit
h Digit
a l 
Comput e
r Compensa
ti
on


0了 0 了

、) , J
6.
10 
Th e 
Design of 
a Wo r
ktable 
Mo tio
n Co n
trol 
Syste


.1
6.
11 
Th e 
Roo t 
Locus 
of Digi
tal 
Con t
rol 
Syste
ms

今白

,1
6.
12 
Impleme nta
tio
n of Digi
tal 
Co nt
rolle
rs




.三 月
6.
13 
Digit
al Control 
Syste
ms  Usi
ng MATLAB

,‘
八曰}

6.
14 S
equentia
l Desi
gn Examp le
: 
Di s
k Drive 
Re ad S
yst
em




.人
REFERENCES


,且

APPENDIX 
LHYDRAULIC 
SYM BOLS

内‘

,t
2.
CONTROL 
TERM S 
AND 
CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 
1 TOOLS 
FOR 
THE 
ANALYSI
S OF

HYDRAULIC 
SERVO'

1.
1 CONTROL 
SYSTEM 
DESI
GN 
PROCEDURES
  

ust 
s 
a f
or an
y oth
er 
engi
nee
red pr
oduct 
or 

erv
ice
, th
e o
ver
all 
de
sig
n of 
fe
edbac
k cont
rol

yst
ems 
proce
eds i
n s
yst
emat
ic 
fas
hion t
hrou
gh 
as 
equence 
of 

tep
s s 
a i
n Fi
g.l
.l. 
Rat
her 
th
an
di
sc
uss
ing 

hi
s 
ge
ner
al 

roc
ess 
we 
wi

l 
co
nsi
der 

hos
e 
ppe
cts 

ecu
li
ar 

o 
fe
edb
ack 

ont
rol
s, 
whi
ch

ppl
y t
o t
he 

ort
ion
s o
f t
he 

ver
all 
de
sig
n p
roc
ess 

o de
sign
ate
d o
n Fi
g. 

.1. 
Due 

o t
he 

los
ed-
loo

nat
ure of t
he sys
tem confi
g ur
ati
on, t
he input of 
e a
ch compon ent 
is 
afected by al
l t
he othe

compon e
n t
s, 

equir
ing 
a desi
gn/anal
ysis 
approach t
hat 
consi
der
s the ent
ir
e s
yst
e m s
imulta
n e
o us
ly.
Fundamen t
all
y, 
the 
syst
e m is 
d e
scri
bed by diferent
ial 
equat
ions , 

he most 
general 
and highl

devel
oped the
oy 
r bei
ng based 
o n o
rdina
ry lin
e ar 
equat
ions 
wit
h  const
ant 
coefici
ents, 

n wh i
ch
ti
me i
s t
he i
ndependent 
var
iable.
Be
  fore 
one c
an wri
te 
a n
d solve 
the 
syst
em  difer
e nt
ia
l e
quat
ion s 
to 
obtai
n s
y s
tem perf
orma nc

dat
a, one must f
irs
t concei
ve  a s
yst
em  configur
a t
ion a
nd ope ra
ti
ng pri
ncipl
e. New  sy
s t
ems
gener
ally 
uti
li
ze 
comb i
nati
ons and/o
r va
riat
ions of 
well-
known pri
nc i
ple
s, 
thus 
a 
designe
r mu s
t 
be
fa
mi l
ia
r with 
thi
s 
background. 
In addi
ti
on to f
amili
a r
it
y wit
h bsi
a c 
pri
ncipl
es, 
pra
ctica
l 
de s
igner

must 
al
so 
maint
ain 

p-t
o-da
te 
knowl
edge 
of 
avai
la
ble 
har
dwar
e i
n t
hei
r 
fi
eld 
of 

ppli
cat
ion. 
Trad


ouna
r ls, 
wher
e man
ufa
ctur
ers 
pr
esen
t a
dver
ti
sement
s an
d t
echni
cal 
pa
pers 
exp
lai
nin
g the 
lat
est
dev
elo
pme nt
s, 
ar
e a 
major 
so
urc
e of 
such 

nformat
ion. 
Al
thou
gh new h
ardwar
e i
s co
n t
inu
all


ein
g d
eve
lop
ed, 
th
ere 

re 
ma
ny 

lss
a e
s o
f e
qui
pme
nt 

hat 

ave 

een 

n 
wi
de 
us
e 
fo
r d
eca
des 

nd

hat 

how n
o si
gns 
of 

isa
ppe
ari
ng. 
Si
nce 
th
e phi
los
op hy 
of 

his 

ext 

tta
ches 
gr
eat 

mporta
nce t


he b
ene
fit
s o
btai
ned 
fr
om a c
onc
urrent 

rea
tment of 
the
oy 
r a
nd pr
acti
ce, 

ardwar
e of s
uch

ndur
ing 
na
tur
e wi
ll 
al
so 
be 
di
scus
sed 
at 

ome 

engt
h.
  
Once 
a t
ent
at
ive s
yst
em concept 
ha
s been 
deve
lop
ed th
rough c
omb i
na t
ion 
of 
bas
ic 
pri
nciple


nd  h
ardware 
famil
iar
it
y, 
comp onent
s must 
be "s
ized" t
o meet the needs 
of 
the spe
c i
fi


ppl
icati
on. 
For 

x a
mp l
e, 

n t
he t
racer 
la
the, 
use 
of 
a 
ser
voval
ve 
a n
d hydrauli
c 
act
uat
or 
rep
resent


he de
sig
n e
r's 

ho i
ce 
(ro
f m s
e v
er a
l a
vail
abl
e a
lt
ena
r ti
ves) 
of 
a par
tic
ular・ 

orm o
f d
riv
e sys
tem;
however
, f
urt
her 
deci
sions 
mus
t be 
made 
s 
a t
o t
he 

ize 
of 
val
ve 
and 
act
uat
or. 
Thes
e ar


ete
rmined 

rom cons
ide
rat
ion of 
speci
fi
c a
tio
ns s
uch 
as 
the 
des
ire
d maxima of 
ac
tuat
or 
f o
rce 
and

peed 
re
quir
ed 
in 
the 
machini
ng operat
ion. 
Tent
ati
ve 
choi
ces 
of 
th
e fo
rm and "
siz
e" of 
all 
sy
ste


omponent
s can be 
made  i
n this 
wa y, 
and once t
his 
phase 
is c
omp le
te, 
the fo
rm  of t
he

omponent
s' 
difer
ent
ial 
equat
ions (
and th
e numeri
cal 
val
ues 
of 
coef
fici
ent
s i
n the
se equat
ion
s)

ecome ava
il
able
, t
he si
multaneous s
et of al
l t
hese 
equat

ons becoming t
he over
all sy
ste

desc
rip
tio
n. 
Ac t
ual
ly
, at 

his 
st
age, 
one 
nu mer
ica
l val
ue, 
the 
loop 
gai
n, 
is 
le
ft o
pen t
o cho
ice.
Usual
ly, 

oop 
gain 

s c
omposed 
of 
sever
al 
"bit
s 
and 
piece
" of 
gai
n, 
on
e f
or 
each 
component
, 
so 
it

ad
just
me nt 

o s
ome 
desir
ed 
val
ue p
rese
nts 
no pr
act
ica
l di

ficul
ty. 
The 
"prop
er" 
valu
e f
or 
lo
op gai


s th
e one t
hat 
meets 
the 
sys
tem ac
curacy s
peci
fi
cati
ons whil
e ma
int
aini
ng ade
quate 
st
abil
it

e h
t y
e 
sse
tm

nc
olv

y s

ub





te







o 

mma
e t r

口0亡心一 J
OdXa
d o


d 

 一
P  1
份 怪


ln



s 


si

 七
月  曰}
』0


wo
de


。U.后侣 咎
e 
e 

的u}
拐a卜


胜言 芝乙       


oc

h h

5 奋巴n‘』



gn 
s 

 瓦
5  沉。P


 

灿筋 a
P 5品认公
P卜。  0
口  1

 口 们 J

 』
应  
忍 -
与 

wi

.。轰任各七胜 分 尘一
侣 eJ巴工e 护
。n艺Jd 爹。u
hi

 份 0
U  
二0  扫云 E.U‘之
e 


留一
脚生』
.居


ng 

UO云 召 2几 缪1书一
巴 竺憩舒P 卜O     
   ‘
句  
0卜Pa中U

a二
   扫 
芍  PU
   
e    


节 uol
倒工
u兮苗匕

t 

‘.uJ;。』
d‘一 ‘。.-
乞:uoo

de

e.三公-
罗占


O UO-
1月n一
绍囚

di

仍易 .-
的aP




巴 n尸
韶 助二‘目任 a,书.uJ .一一


d 
o 




 
卫     


    

1 
Pr
 脚 
‘ 的占
h 

艺里-
.二V


ole

g. 






on

的uJ忍5扮 艺召P.理』 。卜alq门一


一.

Fi
e 

 
san
 b ̄
u二兰 Pazl

.一。践5
" ap
r 

 乍
乡  
1村 

‘J 
O        
ce

 

老 二.
。一的
全d}
。叻u
lPu
.下J
.Pu

n 


e o

 ,
巴  
,卫月 ‘瞥 一
拐【xa乞 价aua招宝之

命云 ̄』e。 ̄
^l一
.‘日』
胜〕.。 u.一
七江鱿a妇5.







qu

l 
A "

. 
nta







fe
mar
di

nputs 
ap pl
ied) 
for a 
rang
e of 
gain val
ues and sel
ect t
he best
. Compute
r-ai
ded-
desi
gn (CAD)

echniqu
e s ca
n ma ke 
such at 

il-
a and-e
rror t
ec h
n i
que quit
e cost 
efect
ive
. However, 
cla
ssi
cl


on t
rol 
theoy 
r provide
s more 
dire
ct (
and usua
lly one-
step) 
me t
h o
ds f
or 
solvi
ng t
his 
most bsi
a c

ystem de s
ign 
problem of 
gai
n set
tin
g. The two mos t 
succes
sful 
pra
cti
cl 
a me t
hods, 
re
f quency

esponse an
d roo
t lo
cus, 
wil
l 
be 
explai
ned l
at
e r 

n thi
s t
ext.
Al
  t
hou gh 
evey 
r f
eed
back s
yst
em  must 
have i
ts 
gain 
set, 

here 
is 
no g
uarant
ee 
that 

he o
ptimum

ain for 
the i
nit
il 
a choi
ce of 
component
s wi l
l 
me et 
all 
syst
em speci
ic
f at
ions. 
Wh e
n t
his f
ail
ure

cc ur
s, 
changes 
other 

han 
loop 
gain 
must b
e tr
ied. 
These i
ncl
ude:

. 
 I
mpr
ove
d 
co
mpo
nen
t 
dy
nami
cs 

2's
,城s
, 
et
c.

b. 
 Add
iti
on 

f d
yna
mic 

ompe
nsa
ti
on 

leme
nts

c. 
 Change 

f 
co
ntr
oll
er 

ype 

on-
o氏pro
poti
ronl, 
a i
nte
grl, 
a et
c.)
d. 
 Tot
all
y 
new 

yst
em co
nce
pt 
(c
han
ge 
ro
f m 
el
ect
ri
c 
dri
ve 
to 
hydr
auic 
l dr
iv
e, 

or 

xamp
le)
Fo rt
unat
ely
, 
the 
re
f q
uency-r
esponse 
and r
oot 
locus 
desi
gn 
me t
hods 
incl
ude t
echnique s 

hat 
provi
d e
guidance 
on t
he 
type 
and a
mou nt 
of 
change 
ne e
ded t
o h
elp 
sat
isf
y a 
pati
r cu
lar 
unme t s
pecif
icat
ion.
The  modi
ie
f d s
yst
e m must 
the
n again 
have 
it
s gai
n se
t, 
and 
it 

s ho
p e
d t
hat su
fic
f i
en t 

te
r a
ti
ons of
this modi
fy set 
gai
n/eva
luate p
erformance 
p roc
edure l
ead t
o an acc
eptabl
e  desig
n. Both t
he
re
f quenc
y-r
esponse 
and r
oot 
locus 
approa
ches wee 
r ori
gin
all
y i
mp l
eme n
ted 
s 
a "ma nua
l" gra
phical
pro c
edur
es, 
but 
they 
are 
now availa
ble 
s 
a s
of
twa re 
package
s f
or 
rapid 
comp ut
er -
ai
de d 
d e
sign 
o n
ma ny co
mpu t
er s
y s
tems. 
In f
act, t
he co
ntr
ol syst
ems ie
f ld 
was t
h e 
lead
er in develop
ing CAD
procedur
es, 
which 
are 
now spr
eading r
api
dly 
to ot
her 
ie
f ld
s.

1.
2 I
NTEGRATOR 
W ITH 
PROPORTIONAL 
FEEDBACK
  
Complex e
lect
ro-hy d
ra u
ic 
l se
rvomechanisms in
volve  s
o many f
a ce
ts, 
eleme nts 
and 
compo nent

and 
so 
ma ny 
dis
ciplines 
that 
a 
syst
emati
c approach 
rom 
f t
he b
eginning may take many s
pecial
iz
ed
chapt
ers 
bef
ore 
some  underst
andin
g of 

he esse
nt i
lc
a  haracter
is
ti
c s 
of 
a hydraulic 
serv
o i
s ea
r ched.

  
n 
an att
empt to discover 
dir
ectl
y some  i
mp ort
ant  c
ontr
ol featu
res, we  sha
ll der
ive i
n t
his

n t
rod
uc t
ion 
a v
ey 
r simpl e 
mo d
el 
of a 
hyd r
auic 
l copying syst
em, showing tha t 
a 
hydrauic 
l s
ervo
sys
tem behaves 

lke a n i
nteg
rator 
wit
h proport
ionl 
a po si
tion 
feedback. 
To  sho w 
the 
relat
ions
hip
bet
ween mechani
c ld
a   e
sign a
n d 
cont
rol 
behavior 
the i
nfluence 
of mo t
o r 
and v lve 
a c
onig
f ur
ati
ons
on 
the 
loop 
gain 

s discussed 
ro
f m the 
beginnin
g.

  
n 
Fig. 
1.
2 a) 
vey 
r simple 
asymme t
ri
c "mo t
or" with a s
o-cll
a ed t
hree-way  vlv
a e i
s s
ho wn. 
Fig
1.2 
a) ca
n be si
mp liie
f d to gi
ve b)
, while c
) gives the nor
ma i
lzed presentati
on in which 
the
mechanic
lv
a  lv
a e conf i
gurat
ion 
is 
not 

ncluded.
  
Ass
umin
g a
n a
re
a r
at
io 
of 
2 :
1, 

t 
one 

id
e o
f 
the 
pi
st
on 
th
e c
ons
ta
n t 
supp
ly 
pr
ess
ur
e 
PS 
pr
eva
il
s,
wh
il
e a
t 
th
e o
the
r s
id
e o
f t
he 
pis
ton 

he 
pre
ssu
re 
is 
P,=0.5P, when 

hee 
r i
s 
no 
ext
ena
r l 
or

ri
ct
io
nll
a  
oa
d. 
Than
ks 
to 
Newt
on's 

aw, 
P,=0.5P, 
no
t 
onl
y at 
a 
p i
st
on 
spe
ed 
y=0 b
ut 
ls
a o 
at
夕=co
nstant. 
Ev
ide
ntl
y, 

he 
magn
it
u de 
of 

pee
d夕of t
he 
pi
st
on (
wit
hout 

ode
) 
is 

ete
rmine
d b
y t
he

nl
et 

penin g 
a, 
and 
the 
ou
tl
et 
op
en i
ng 
a2,whi
ch 

n t
urn 
ar
e c
ontr
oll
ed 
by 

he 
di
spla
cement 
xo 


he 

pool 
valve. 
Assumi
ng 
an 
in
let 
low 
f Q, 
and 
an 

utl
et 
QZ,we 
fi
nd

                  
A=Q,
一Q2=a,
v,一R
2V2
wh
ere 
v, 

nd 

2 a
e 
r t
he 

pee
d o
f t
he 
oi
l t
hr
oug
h a, 

nd 
a2,r
espe
cti
vel
y. 
Th
e lo
fws
Q, 
an
d 
Q2 
de
pen
d o
n t
he 
ma
gni

ude 

f 
th
e c
orr
es
pon
din
g o
pen
ing
s 
as 
we
ll 

s 
on 

he 

res
sur
e 
dr
op

cros
s 
th
ese 

pen
ing
s.





_

,}立
.门.
      
- .呀. ̄
山     
Q 
2 
  Q1 P
5.

            

Fi
                  
g.1
.2 
Th
ree
-wa
y-v
alv
e-c
ont
rol

ed 

symme
tri
c 
mo
tor

As
  suming 

urbu
len
t lo
f w, 

he (
ave
rage
) s
pee
d vo f 

he o
il 
thr
ough a
n o
peni
ng i
s d
ete
rmin
ed

xc l
usiv
ely 
by 
the 
pr
essu
re 
drop 
acr
oss 

hat 
open
ing. 
Si
nce t
he 
pres
sure 

rops 
ac
ross 
in
let 

nd

utl
et 

pen
ing
s a
re 

qua
l(P,一P
,=0.
5P, 

nd 

,=0
.5P
, r
es
pec
ti
ve
ly)
, 
th
e s
pee
ds 

n t
he

o-l
ode 

it
uat

on 

re 

ls
o e
qua
l: 

,=v
2=v
o,・T
hus 

A=v
o(a
,一a2
),,
an
d f
or 

he 

alv


onig
f u
rat
io
n o
f 
Fi
g. 

.2
妙一
vo -A

a(
a,一a2


 

一   

Km 
=c
ons
ta
nt.

    
Wi
thi
n a 
limi
ted 
val
ve t nK, 
ravel 
the v
elo
cit
y ga
i of 

ur 

oto
r 
re
甲l
y 
is“c
on
st
an


o 
K.
,=0 


}/a
x二}
/X,and 

he 

npu
t t
o o
utp
ut 

ran
sfe
r f
unc
ti
on 
of 

he 

pen 

oop 

yst
em
becomes

y_Km
x 
               


知卜 山 尸

bed

Fi
g. 

.3 
Co
pyi
ng 

at
he

wh
ere 
sis 
 t
he 

ife
rent

al 

r La
pla
ce 

per
ato
r.

  
rom 

he 

ont
ro
l 
po
int 

f 
vi
ew 

he 

yst
em 

s 
an 

nt
egr
ato
r, 
me
ani
ng 

hat 

he 

utp
ut 

igna
l 
y 

an
be 

eri
ved 

y i
nte
gra
ti
ng 

he 

npu
t s
igna
l 
x.
The 
   p
hys
ica
l 
imp
lic
ati
on 
of 

his 

s 
tha
t 
th
e mo
tor 

s 
pu
she
d b
y lo
f w 

nd 
no
t 
by 

orc
e. 
Thi
s 
is 
no

a 
cont
radi
cti
on 
of 
Newt
on'
s l
aw, 

ince 

xter
nal
, ri
f ct
ional 

nd 

ner
ti
al 

orces 

houl
d be 

een 


di
st
urb
anc
e s
ign
als 

nlue
f nci
ng 

he 

npu
t o
f t
he 

nte
gra
tor
. 
Th
is 
wi
ll 

e c
lar
iie
f d 

at
er.
Gi
  
vin
g t
he 

nte
gra
tor 
a 

ropo
rti
ona
l p
osi

ion 

eed
bac
k, 

he 

yst
em 
des
cri
bed 

bov
e b
eco
mes 


eal 

erv
osy
ste
m a
ble 

o c
ont
rol 

ispl
ace
ment
s. 
By 
way 

f i
ll
ust
rat
ion, 

ig.
1.
3 s
hows 

ery

che
mat
ica
ll
y 
th
e h
ydr
aul
ic 

ont
rol 
sy
ste
m o
f a 

opy
ing 

at
he.
He
  
re 

he 
pi
st
on 

s 
st
at
io
nay, 
r t
he 

yli
nde
r 
is 
mo
vab
le, 
whi
le 

he 

poo
l 
va
lve 

an 
mo
ve 

el
at
iv
;, 



he 

yli
nde
r. 
The 

npu
t s
ign
al 
ro 
f 
the 

ont
rol 

yst
em 
is 

ive
n by 

he 
mas
ter
, t
he 

rot
ay)

wo
rkpi
ece 

o b
e c
opi
ed. 
In 
pe
rfe
ct 

opy
ing 

he 

ool 
di
spl
ace
men
t y(
 
sha
pin
g t
he 
wo
rkp
iec
e b
ein

ma
nuf
act
ure
d) 

qua
ls 

he 
ma
ste
r d
ime
nsi
on 
r.An
y d
ife
ren
t£=r一y 
wi
ll 

esu
lt 

n a

orr
espo
ndi
ng 

poo
l v
alv
e d
isp
lac
eme
nt 
x=£c
aus
ing 

yli
nde
r mo
veme
nts 
wh
ich 

y 
r t
o ma
ke
x=£=r一Y二Oo
ry=r.
Her
e 
th
e f
eedb
ack 
ha
sb 
een 

bta
ine
d i
n 
a 
pu
rel
y 
me
cha
nic
al 
wa
y.
Th
e c
ompl
et
e c
ros
s-s
li
de 

oge
the
r wi

h t
he 
hy
dra
ul
ic 

erv
osys
tem, 

s t
rav
eli
ng 
wi
th 
a 
co
nst
ant

pee
d a
lon
g t
he 

ed 

f t
he 

at
he 

per
pend
icul
ar 

o t
he 

lan
e o
f d
rawi
ng)
. 
Th
e s
yl
t u
s wi

l f
oll
ow 

he
va
ri
abl
e 
co
ntou
rs 

f 
th
e ma
st
er 

nd 

ont
rol
le
d by 

he 

alv
e-t
he 

yli
nde
r 
wi

l 
fo
ll
ow 

cco
rdi
ng 


夕=Km
                      
x,
where

x 二£ = r一 Y-
                                 
Of 

our
se 

t 
is 

ot 

ece
ssa
y 
r t
hat 
x=£,
s 
a t
her
e c
oul
d b
e a 

eve
r b
etwe
en 

tyl
us 

nd 

poo
l o
r e
ven

n 
el
ec
tr
o-
hyd
rau
li
c 
se
rvo
val
ve, 
ma
kin
g 
x=K, 

E 
an


了-X
Y , KS 
Km=兰

 

- 
一 = 几s

                                            

    

Bu
t t
his 

oes 
no
t c
han
ge由e 

sse
nti
alchar ours
erof 
act erv
o, 
wh
ich 

s t
hat 

f a
n i
nte
gra
tor 
wi


pr
opo
rt
io
nal 

osi
ti
on 

eed
bac
k.

1.
3 DOMI
NANT 
PROPERTI
ES 
OF 
A 
SI
MPLE 
SERVOSYSTEM
Di
sr
ega
rdi
ng 
compl

cat
ion
s c
onc
eni
r n
g s
tab
ili
ty 
and 

oad,o
ne 
cou
ld 
cha
rac
ter
ize 

ny

erv
osy
st
em 

s 
an 

nt
egr
at
or 
wi

h f
eed
bac
k..
灿Mo
st 

mpo
rt
a4p
rop
ert

es 



ave 

een 

umma

rze


n 
Fi
g. 

.4. 
igu
F r
e 1
.4 

) s
hows 

he 
op
en 

oop 

ran
sfe
r f
unc
tio
n of 

he 

erv

夕=K,

or
     s)=Y
H( =K,

E  E


一K, 
f 

dt
The 

los
ed 

oop 

ran
sfe
r f
unc
ti
on 

s 
th
at 
of 
a 
ir
fst 

rde
r s
yst
em
Kv
      


:二二
H 
      s

      


1+H — + t 二 +l
Kv
Kv 
is 

all
ed 

he 

elo
cit
y g
ain 

f t
hei
nt
egr
at
or
. 
An 

mpo
rta
nt 

mpl
ic
ati
on 

s 
th
e s
o-c
all
ed 

eloc
it

error:i
n or
der 

o mai
ntai
n ac
 onst
ant s
pee
d夕 of 

he 

erv
o, 

und
ame
nta
ll
y 
a 

ont
ro
l 
er
or£ha
r s

o bep
res
en
t. 
Th
e 
co
nt
ro
l。 “=yI
K, 

s 
ca
ll
ed 

he 

el
oc
it
y 
er
ro
r.
Th
  
e we
ll-
kno
wn 

los
ed 

oop 

tep 
es
r p
ons
e a
nd 
re
f qu
enc
y es
r p
ons
e a
re 

how 

n Fi
gs. 
1.
4 
c) 

nd
d)
. 
Fi
gs 

.4 

), 

) 
and 
d) 
ma
ke 

lea
r 
th
at 
a 

ar
ge 

elo
ciyg
t  
ai
n 
Kv 

s 
de
si
ra
ble 

o 
ob
tai
n 

.s
mal
l 
vel
oci
y 
t e
rror

・f
ast 

tep 

esp
ons

.l
arge 
bandwi
dth.


n 
pr
act

ce, 
a 

esi
ra
ble 

nc
ea
r se 

n 
Kt

, 
is 


mit
ed 

y c
ons
id
era
ti
ons 
re
gar
di
ng 

ta
bi

lya
t  
nd 

amp
ing

Th
  
e e
fec
t 
of 
a 
gi
ven 

oad 

as 

een 

egl
ect
ed 

o f
ar
. 
In 

he 

impl
es
t 
ca
se 

ne 
ma
y s
ta
te 

hat 


oad 
F 

oppo
sin
g t
he 
mo
ti
on 
y)g
ive
s 
th
e o
pen 

oop 

erv
o a 

ropo
rt
io
nal 

fse
t 
in 

he 

pee
d夕.
In

he 
mo
to
r 
of 
Fi
g. 
1.
2 
a) 
th
is 

an 

e 
ex
pl
ai
ne
d 
esi
al
y. 
A 

et

war
d 
fo
rc
e 
F 

il
l 
es
rul
t 

n 
an 

nc
re
se
a d

res
sur
e君,c
aus
ing 

he 

res
sur
e d
rop 

cro
ss 

he 

nle
t o
pen
ing 

o d
ecr
ese 
a a
nd 

hat 

cro
ss 

he


utl
et 

pen
ing 

o 
in
cre
se
a . 
Q1 
an
d Qz 
wi

l 
ch
ang
e a
cco
rdi
ngl
y 
an
d a 

pee
d (

n t
he 

ir
ec
ti
on 



he 

oad 

ein
g a
ppl

ed) 
wi
ll 

esu
lt. 
Thi
s 
ha
s b
een 

umma
riz
ed 

n Fi
g. 

.5 

), 

howi
ng 

hat 

n e
xtr



rro
r s
ign
al 

s 
ne
ede
d i
n t
he 

los
ed 

oop 

o c
omp
ens
ate 

he 

oad. 
It
s 
co
nse
que
nce
s a
e 
r s
hown 

n b)

nd 
d)
. 
 Fr
om 
a) 
we 
de
rive

r.
。。_}
凡1 _
-甲闷气入护一 p .一 卜翩一 -尸一  ̄,, ,

   ,r Is 
  I 
     


     产

-0代声.




      


彭 00
  


八了一
  


_
__


-一

、 ;
  

.J



--一丫 -  ̄ 朴 r 一  ̄

〔\
     { ! }
\一
一oP

户e
que
nel
` 
re
spo
nse{
率盆?州
1.



-一一 一 十一 ̄— 一

勿o


los
ed 

oop一


0,as 0.4 肠

,!

卜t落 1




mp

oe


  

l j 卜 |!

        

一  ̄份一 山 _ 一

0.
.1 
   Q.心 口

Fi
g. 

.4 

nte
gra
tor 
wi
th 

ropo
rti
ona
l 
fe
edba
ck

              
_二+
丝 _二+F
Q十二.
Kv 
                        
   
c 
  K, 
  c 
  c
He
re 
c 

s 

he 

oa
d 
st

fne
ss 

nd 
I 
F 

he 

to
ta
l" 

oa
d 
in
cl
udi
ng 

xt
ena
r l 
fo
rc
es凡(
pa
y-
lo
ad) 
an


he 

al
way
s p
res
ent
) 
Co
ul
omb 
ri
fct

on, 

ee 

ig. 
1.
5 
c)
. 
I 
Fl
c i
s 
ca
ll
ed 

he 

oa
d-e
rr
or
, 
wh
ic

mu
st 

e 
ad
ded 

o 
th
e 
ve
lo
ci
ty 

rr
or对K t
o 
 
obt
ai
n 

he 

omp
le
te 

ont

ol 

rr
or 
8.
The 
   e
fec
t 
of 

he 
Co
ulomb 

ri
ct
ion 

n a 

erv
osys
tem 
wit
h l
oad 

ti
fne
ss 
ci
s 
 s
hown 

n 
Fi
g. 

.5 

).
Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
ion
, r
eve
rsi
ng 

ts 

ign 
wi
th 

he 

pee
d夕,i
nt
rod
uce
s a 

ead 

one
, 
wh
ich 

oses 


eri
ous 

hre
at 

o t
he 

ccur
acy 

f a 

erv
osy
ste
m.
Unp
  red
ict
abl
e v
ari
at
ions 

n Co
ulo
mb 
ri
fct
ion 
wi
ll 

aus
e c
orr
espo
ndi
ng 

ari
ati
ons 

n t
he 

onro
t l

rro
r a
nd 

oul
d h
ave 

ata
l c
ons
equ
enc
es 

or 

he 

smo
oth
nes
s" 

f o
per
ati
on, 

art

cul
arl
y wi
th

ega
rd 

o t
he 

pee
d夕a
nd 

he 

cce
ler
ati
on夕o
f t
he 

erv
osy
ste
m.






F二F一F

e 十

; 
EI

S 



.干



f 
ea过-
Ott

I 
    
      


Fi
g. 

.5 

nf
lue
nce 

f e
xte
na
r land 

rict
ional 

oad

To 
  mea
sur
e t
he 

erf
orma
nce 
of 

he 

erv
osys
tem 
one 

s i
ncl
ine
d i
n  ny 
ma cas
es 

o mea
sur
e t
he

esu
lt
, 

he 
ou
tpu
t 
si
gna
l 
y.
But
, 
as
sumi
ng 

he 

npu
t 
si
gna
l 
r 

o 
be 
pe
rf
ecttsometimes 
, 
i make 
mor


ens
e t
o me
su
a r
e t
he 

rro
r s
igna
lE 
 d
uri
ng 

per
ati
on 

r t
est
ing. 
Thus 
ma
chi
ne 

ool 
co
p外ng 

yst
ems

Fi
g.1
.6 
Me
su
a r
ing 

et-
up


hou
ld 

ot 

e t
es
ted 

rima
ri
ly 

y me
asu
rin
g t
he 
wo
rkpi
ece
s t
hat 

ave 

een 
ma
nuf
act
ure
d, 

ut 
by
me
asu
rin
g t
he 

rro
r s
ign
al 
E 
di
rec
tl
y, 
s 
a i
s s
hown 

n Fi
g. 

.6, 
whe
re 
a 
mi
crome
ter 

att
ach 

y me
ans

f a 
ma
gne
ti
c 
cl
amp
) i
ndi
cat
es 

he 

pool 

ispl
ace
men
t wi

h r
esp
ect 

o i
ts 
ho
usi
ng. 

n t
he 

los
ed

oop 

it
uat
ion 

eve
rl 
a p
oint
s o
f t
he 

har
act
eri
st
ic 
of 
Fi
g.1
.5 
d) 

oul
d b
e me
su
a r
ed 

si
a l
y,

ete
rmi
ni
ng 

he 

elo
cit
y 
ga
in 
Kv 
an
d l
oa
d s

ifn
ess 
c,
sw
a  
ell 
st
a  

e d
ead 

one
. 
Th
e v
lu
a e 

f 
su
ch
si
mp l
e tes
ts, i
n which 
el
r evant 
syst
em  para
me te
rs ar
e measued 
r (which i
s  the ai
m.), 
can be
il
lus
tra
ted by t
he f
act 
th
at  s
ome fi
rms are us
ing mainl
y t
he mesur
a eme nt 
of t
he  dead 
zone 
s 
a a
cr
ite
rion i
n  sel
ect
ing copying machines to be inst
all
ed i
n  t
her
e  worksho ps. Wit
hout any
pepa
r rat
ion, 
the 
mesu
a re
me n
t o
f t
he 
dea d 
zone o
f a 
copyin
g s
ystem c
o u
ld一a cco rdi
ng t
o Fi
g. 
1.
6一
be c
arie
r d out 
in 
a fe
w mi nute
s. 
It 
is 

h er
efore 
surpri
si
ng t
o obse
rve a
t machine  t
ool 
exhi
bit
ions
th
at 
neit
her s
le
a s 
manager
s nor 
ma ch
ine t
ool 
operator
s u
nders
tand 
the 
ess
e n
tia
ls of t
he e
xperi
me nt


.4 
VELOCI
TY 
GAI
N Kv 
AND 
VALVE 
CONFI
GURATI
ON

n t
he 
pr
evi
ous 

ect
ions 
we 
hav
e f
ound 

hat
Kv gain


y 0
v.
a(
a,
. 
-a2
)=K
_
_ 

vo
. 
}a
(a
, 
-a
2.
aE A 
   
aE 
   3 
A   
  ax
Th
us 

he 

eloc
it
y Kvi
s p
rop
ort
ion
al 

o t
he 

lope 

f t
he c
harac
teis
r t
ic, 

n whic
h  t
he
-di
fer
ence 
bet
ween i
nlet 
and 
out
letopen
ing (
a,一a2)is 
pl
ot
te
d s
a  a 
funct
ion 
of 
the v
a l
ve

di
spl
ace
ment 
x.That cha
ract
eri
st
icdependscompl et
ely on 

he vlv
a e config
urati
on a
nd i
ts
di
mensi
ons
. 
In 
Fi
g. 

.7-
some e
xamp l
esar
e gi
ven. 
Fi
g 1
.7 a) 

hows 
anopen-
center 
3-way 
va
lve 

nd

) a 
cr
iti
cal
-ce
n t
er 
valv
e, both 
wit
h cy
lin
d r
ical 
por
t 
openi
ngs. 
The c
orre
匆on di
ng c
har
act
eri
st
ics

re 
giv
en al
so. 
It 

ppears 
that 

he 
open-
cente
r val
ve 
has 
wit
hin 

he under
lap-
regi
on 
a 
gai
n t
wice 
as

uts
ide, 
whi
le 
the 
cri
ti
cal
- ce
nter 

alve 
has 
a 
const
ant 
gai
n.
Fu
  rt
heri
in
ore
, i
t 
shoul
d be no
ted 
th
at 

he open-c
enter 

alv
e i
mp l

es an 
oi
l 
suppl
y (
rom 
f t
he 
pump)

hat 

s pa
rti
cul
ar 

nde
pen
dent 
of 

he 

poo
l p
osi
ti
on 

n t
he 

nde
rla
p-r
egi
on. 
it
W h 
a 
cr
it
ica
l-c
ent
er

alv
e t
her
e i
s 
no 

il 

bns
um沁询 a
t x 
=0
. 
Th
is 

bse
nce 

f "
lea
kag
e f
low" 

at 

eas
t 
th
eor
eti
cal
ly)

oul
d be 

n a
dva
nta
ge, 

spe
cia
ll
y i
n s
yst
ems 

suc
h a
s a
irc
rat) 
f wi

h al
 
arg
e n
umb
er 

f mo
tor

conne
ct 

o one 
pump 

et.


泊r
   ̄

    



卜  


, 

,一
毖1 口

11、
』、

产 口
伪乙  

JJ

性.I P
s.

崇结凳 !
}一 「
I S 4)

Fi
g. 

.7 
Op
en-
cen
ter 

nd 

ri
少al
-c
ent
er 

-wa
y v
alv

1.
5 M ULTIPLE-
HOLE 
VALVE

n F
ig. 
1.
8 
a 

ery 

pec
ial 

-wa
y v
alv
e i
s 
sho
wn, 
a 

mul

ipl
e-
hol
e" 

alv
e, 
whe
re 

he 

nl
et 
a, 
and

he 
ou
tl
et 
a2 

ons
is
t o
f a 

ar
ge 
nu
mbe
r of 

ir
cul
ar 

ole
s a
rr
ang
ed 

none, 

wo 
or 
more 
rows.

Di
sp
lac
ing 

he 

poo
l, 

it
he
r 
th
e 
in
let 
ho
les(
a,)o
r 
th
e o
utl
et 

ole
s(a2
)wi

l倪o
pen
ed.
砒ei
A}

und
erl
ap" 
U 
is 

rop
erl
y c
hos
en, 

ee 
Fi
g.1
.8 
b)
, t
he 

har
act
er
is
ti
c o
f a, 
-a2 

ers
us、
 


det
er
min
ing 
K,
,.
)is 

at
he
r s
tr
ai
ght
, 
se
e c
). 
Di
sc
los
in
g o
ne 

in
gle 

ole 
wi

(n 

iame
ter
d o
ver
, 



di
st
anc
e h,
one 
in
f ds 

n o
peni
ng

口1 口2


粼鑫赵土上窦羞么 二
、 蠢卜.‘面画‘ 肠白砰测 一
  



FS


          

Fi
g. 

.8 
Mul
ti
ple
-hol
e 
va
lve

  
h.__2
h.)
不-万

尤一
ar
ccos
(1一了 )一2(
卜 --),
I一
万一下

  

d 
  
            
d Vd 
  d“

  

 

一 





_
2了
 


h-

h2_
2d,压二
Vd 
可.
  d`

nde
rla
p U 

cco
rdi
ng 

o 
Fi
g. 

.8 

b) 
we 

nd 
i i
nsi
de 

he 

nde
rla
p-r
egi
on 

a 
(a
,一a
2)
ax
    




, 
a-


2)
一rd 
  
- 

a2
= Maxi
mum,

Ou
tsi
de 

he 

nde
rla
p r
egi
on 
we 

in





d 



x 

2)

e 
2 

ma


d 
   


4 
U 
d)

mu
m g
ain 


=M i
nimum .
d 一2


(a,
一a2

  

_a
a,=d

X   
 
 

    

一   

ax
     ax
  

he 

at
te
no
r  
f 
a(
a,一a
2 
Ya
x i
s 

ep
et
it

ve, 
si
a  
s 

how
n i
n 
Fi
g. 


8 c
) 
an
d 
d)
. 
Tr
yi
ng 

o 
ma
ke

ar
ia
ti
on
s 
in 
a(
a,一a
, 
Va
x 
as 

mal
l 

s 
po
ss
ib

e, 
we 

qua

lz
e 
th
e 
ma
xi
ma 

ns

de 

nd 

ut
si
de 

he

nde
rla
p r
egi
on, 
re
sul
ti
ng 



1立_
0.
06
7.
d 2 4

The maxi
mum and mi
nim um val
ues o
f a
(a,
一a.
,l 

x t
hen 


eco
me 
da 
nd 

.68
1 d
                      
1 ‘ 1 1


espe
cti
vel
y.
Le
  
aka
ge 

low 

n a 
mu
lti
ple
-ho
le 

alv
e d
epe
nds 

n t
he 
nu
mbe
r o
f r
ows 
wi

h h
ole
s. 

n t
he 

eut
ral

al
ve 

osi

ion(
x =
O), 
wi

h. 
U/
d=0
.06
7,t
he 

nl
et 

pen
ing 

s, 
in 

erc
ent
ag
e 
of 

he 
ma
xi
mum

pen
ing
, 3
% 1
工%a
nd 
1 
% 
wh
enthere 

re, 

espec
tivel
y, 
1, 
2 

nd 
3 
rows 
wi
th 
hol
es, 
Thus 

he


hoi
ce 

f n
umb
er 
of 
rows 

epe
nds 

n t
he 

mou
nt 

f l
eak
age 
lo
f w 

eaka
ge 
low 
f be
ing 

ll
owe
d.

1.
6 TURBULENT 
PORT 
FLOW
  
To 

nal
yze 
hyd
rauli
c 
s e
rvosys
tems
. Oi
     l 
lo
f w t
hrough va
ria
ble 

oto
r  
pen
ing
s( 

alv
es)

. Co
    
mpr
ess
ibi
li
ty 

f o
il, 
an

. For
    ces 

nd 

ont
inui
ty
mus
t be 

aken 

nto 
account.

12
Th
e s
pee
d v 

f oi
l 
th
roug
h a 

arr
ow 

rif
ice 

s 
de
ter
min
ed 


_C,
_2
t}
P. (
1.1

“1
    
1 P

n 
 191
7 
 Von 
 Mi
ses f
ound 
 a 
 c
ons
tan
t 
 "
dis
cha
rge
" 
 c
oefi
ci
entCd.The
ore
ti
cal
ly


d=二
/伽+2
) 
= 

.61
1.  
Thi
s 
ty
pe 
of 
lo
f w 

s 
ca
ll
ed 

urbu
lent 

eca
uset
he 

res
sur
e dr
op 
OP
‘                                                          
                                                           
-- 

acr
oss 

he 
openi
ng 

s propornonai 

o尸v
The 
low 
f Q 
ca
n no
w be 

oun
d a
s t
he 

rod
uct 

f po
rt 

pen
ing 
a 
an
d t
he 

pee
d v。


=。
一。
hC
d 
 2

Pp
・ (
1.2)

e h 
Her (
the 
va
riabl
e) 
is 

he s
mall
est 

imens
ion 
of t
he 
(r
ectang
ula
r) 
ori
fi
ce; 

ee 
Fig. 
1.
9 a
), 

nd 

t co
he  ns
tant 
wi
dth. 
Tur
bul
ence 
is 

nsur
ed 
onl
y at 

lar
ge 
enough" 
Reynol
ds 
numbe
rs.



    

/ P 


r N-

7 1
717又

P h入 、 _
._ _ r
.,.

节 ‘
一“‘
V半

0.
公 )
        

       V
「一 不一一 尸一 一 一 ’

l'! /i

句poi
het
ica I }
a5
  

          
r 匕, ! L--

        /
      


            

     {

      
dge
s / 一
0.
4 p门
} I 夕


  

  


  
a3 : -一 洲
一7 一’I
} /・
l : }

,/ } I

a1 t -, .节

困 {
/ ! I

门 .

’ 一



} }

/ 一
    



        


   l
      



  

0.
1 / 」 !


} ! I

  
{ } }
」I !
} I

lO 场                 
,、             
俪 vi
ie
DJ

Fi
g. 

.9 
Di
s gec
char oefi
ci
ent 
Cd
。__2
八c= —

h 
  2 
= —
pv

一 . (
1.3)
                                 
V 
    

He
reV 

s 
th
e k
ine
mat
ic 

isc
osi
ty
, ,

l t
he 

yna
mic 

is
cos
it
y 
an
d p 

he 

pec
if
ic 
ma
ss.

  
xpe
ri
men
ts 

rov
ed 

hat 
at 

ery 

har
p 
ed
ges 

n 
na
rr
ow 

if
r i
ces 

he 

ri
ti
cal 
va
lu
e 
Re
,, 

s 
s 
a l
ow
s2
a  
0, 
whi

e s
li
ght
ly 

oun
ded 

ff 

dge
s i
ncr
eas
ed 
Re,
,‘8
0 o
r 
hi
ghe
r. 
Th
us 

t 
ve
ry 

har
p e
dge

we 
ma
y ss
aume 
Cd 

o 
be 

ons
ta
nt 

t 
Re
> 
Re 
cr“2
0.
At 
  s
mal
le
r v
alue
s of 
Re 
a 

oun
day 
r l
aye
r wi
ll 
bu
il
d u
p. 

n 1
954 
Wue
st 

eiv
r e
d, 

or 

xtr
eme 

ow
va
lues 
of 
Re,
C才=S 
Re. (
1.4)
He
re 
S 

s 
a 

ons
ta
nt, 
de
pen
ding 

n g
eome
tr
y. 
Co
mbi
ni
ng 
Eq
ns. 
(I
. 
l)
,(1
.3) 

nd 

1.
4)尹e
lds


一。J
,2
0p
一。R
e 
1 
li
p一
V 

、2 
pv
h 

AP
        
P        
V P 
   V P 
                 


esul
ti
ng 


v= —4
  
82h__
AP


      
and

。二
。,一
。,,
=44


2 
bh 
2 
AP.
                  

1.5)

Ex
tra
pol
at
ing 

ami
nar 
low 
f t
o l
arg
er 

alu
es 

f Re 

nd 

ssu
min
g a 

udd
en 

ran
sit
ion 
rom 
f l
ami
nar
low 
f t
o t
urbul
ent 
low, 
f we 

ind

S Cd

ur
b 
    
0.
611 0.
136.
:二 一 一 二昌 一 牛之

1.6)

  
e 
,万 2

Th
is 
lo
f w 
mod
el 

f l
ami
nar 

nd 

urbu
lent 
lo
f w 

s 
pr
ese
nte
d i
n Fi
g. 

.9 

) c
an 
be 
us
ed 
s 
a t
he 
ba
sis

or 

alc
ula
tion 
of 
lows
f .

App
  ie
l d 

o a 

rit
ica
l-
cen
ter 

alv
e of 
Fi
g. 

.10 

) a 

ami
nar 
low 
f a
t s
mal
l 
po
rt 

pen
ings 
wi
ll 

ccu

wi

h a 

ara
bol

c r
el
at
io
n b
etwe
en 
Q 

nd 
x 

cco
rdi
ng 

o 
Eg
n.(
1.
5)
. 
At 
x二hT 
th
e c
ri
ti
cal 
Re
yno
lds

umb
er 
Re,
, 
wi
ll 

e p
ss
a e
d, 

esu
lt
in
g i
n a 

ons
tan
t 
low 
f g
ain 

cco
rdi
ng 

o 
Eg
n.(
1.2
). 
Fo
tu
r n
ate
ly,

he 

oor 
lo
f w 

ain 

rou
nd 
x=0 

s 
re
str
ict
ed 

o a 

mal
l 
ar
ea. 
Equa
ti
ons 

1.2
)一(
1.6)
如el

V 
    
Rec

hT= (
1.7)

气rb
担Op
Ip

et
ti
ng
, 
fo
r e
xa
mpl
e,、
,=3
0x1
06m2
- /S, 
Re
cr=2
0, 
Cd=0
.61
1, 
AP=5
0x1
05N/
m2

nd 
p=9
00k
g / 
m 

,we 


nd

          
T=4
.66
x1护m=4
.66

um.
Th
  
e l
ow 

low 
ga
in 

rea 

oul
d b
e r
est
ri
ct
ed 

n p
ropo
rti
on 

o t
he 
wh
ole 

rea 

y o
rif
ice
s wi
th 


mal

er 
wi
dt
h 
b,
as 

hown 

n 
Fi
g. 
1.
1t
) 
b)
. 
He
re 

T 
is 

he 

ame 

s 
be
for
e, 

ut 

win
g t
o 
th
e s
mal

wi
dt
h b<MI 

t 
ta
kes 
pl
ace 

t 
a 

owe
r v
alu
e o
f t
he 
low. 
f Th
us 

s 
a 

erc
ent
age 

f t
he 
ma
ximum
fo
l w 

r v
alve 

tr
oke 
the 

ow g
ain 
ar
ea 

s 
re
str
ict
ed 
con
sid
era
bly


  
n 
add
iti
on 
it 

s p
ossi
ble 

o i
ntr
odu
ce 
av er
y s
mall 
und
erl
ap 
U 
in 
ou
r "
cri
ti
cal
-ce
nte
r" 

alv
e.
As
su
min
g 
in
le
t 
an
d 
ou
tl
et 
op
eni
ng
s a
,=b
h,=b
(U+x
j a
2=b
h2=b
(U一x
), 

nd 

re
ss
ur

14

nrhul
eat 
fl
ow

            


‘ .‘. .


ect
angu
lar 
hol
es
Q,一Q
  .      

句 1 
paw

Fi
g. 

.10 
Tr
ans
it
ion 
rom 
f l
ami
nar 

o 
tu
rbul
ent 

low


rop
s△只 =△凡 =AP, 
we 
in
fd i
n 
th
e u
nde
rl
ap-
reg
ion


:一
Q2一
432 
b(


2 

P,
一。
2 
2 
P2
A)-
16

52
- 

APU

So


               井

)   

一82.一__ = 16- bAP U = Const
ant


公,一Q2
、〕
户、f
“. 卜.

ax
     井
Re
qui
ri
ng 

hi
s 
lo
fw ga
in 

o 
be 

qua
l 
to 

he 

ur
bul
ent 
lo
f w 
ga
in 

t 
x>h,
. 
acc
ord
ing 

o 
Ec

n. 

1.
2)



15
fi
nd
          
v 
Re__ h}
U 二— 详 兰二二 =一
.竺‘. (1
.9)

    
Cdt

rb 
V 

A  /
P 
  4
Th
  
us, 

n t
he 

xamp
le 

lre
ady 

ive
n, 

ven 

t a
n e
xtr
eme
ly 

mal
l 
un
der
lap 
U=1
.16 
ynt
,a 

ery
go
od 

ons
tant 
lo
f w 
gai
n i
s o
bta
ine
d t
hro
ugh
out 

he 
wh
ole 
wor
king 

ang
e o
f t
he 

alv
e. 
Thi
s i


onf
ir
med 

y ma
nuf
act
ure
r's 

rac
tic
e, 
wh
ere 

n u
nde
rla
p o
f a 

ew 
mi
cro
ns 

s u
sua
l t
o p
rov
ide 


ons
tan
t lo
f w 
gai
n. 
Th
is 

n s
pit
e o
f t
he 

act 

hat 

he 

ssu
mpt
ion
s l
ead
ing 

o Eg
n.(
1.8
) a
re 

ot

ulf
il
led 

utoma
tica
lly.
Co
  
ncl
udi
ng 

his 

ect
ion, 
we 
st
at
e t
hat 

t 
is 
pe
rmi

ted 

n n
orma
l 
pr
act
ic
e t
o us
e t
he 

urb
ule
nt 
lo
f w

qua
ti
on 

1.2
) r
ega
rdl
ess 

f t
he 
Re
yno
lds 

umbe
r i
f we 

ear 

n mi
nd 

hat 

t v
ery 

mal
l 
po
rt
openi
ngs 
cons
ider
abl
e de
via
tions 

n t
he 
ca
lcul
ate
d low 
f gai
n may 
oc
cur

1.
7 COMPRESSIBI
LITY 
OF 
OIL

  
t i
s quit
e s
urpri
si
ng t
o outsi
ders 
th
at 
oil 
compress
ibi
li
ty i
nlu
f ence
s t
he dy
namics 
of hy
draul
ic
se
rvo'
s  s
ignif
ica
ntl
y. 
Hydraulic 
lui
f ds s
uch a
s oil
, 
even th
ough f
ar l
ess 
compres
sib
le t
han gs,

when comp r
esse
d in 
ac 
yin
l der 
compart
men t 
act 

ike 
a spri
ng a
nd i
ntr
oduce t
her
efor
e a 
second
or
der mas s
-sp
ring 
sys
tem wh ose 
natur
al 
re
f quency i

mits t
he ban
dwidth 
of 
any hyd
rauic 
l s
ervo
ab
ruptl
y . 
The compres
si
bilit
y of a hyd
rauic 
l lu
f i
d, t
rapped i
n a vol
ume v 
and 
ap res
sure 
P 
is
def
ined 
by
AV △尸
(1
.10)
v E

E 

s 
ca
ll
ed 

he 

ulk 
mo
dul
us, 
of

en 

ndi
ca
te
d b
y刀.
The 

ulk 
mo
dul
us 

st
a  
he 

ame 

ime
nsi
on

NI 
m 

)sY
a  
oun
g'
s 
modu
lu
s 
of 

la
st
ic
iyf
t  

r 
met
al
s. 
For 

ea
son
s 
of 

nal
ogy 

t 
ha
s 
be
en 
gi
ve
n t
he

ame 

ymb
ol 
E.Fo
r mi
ne
ra
l 
oi
ls
,£ma y 
be 
s 
a hi
gh 
as 
15
,0
00 
bar 
(1
5 
X 1
0¥ 
N 
/ 
m2).I
ts

fe ct
iv
e val
ue 
in 
pract
ic
e, 
however, 

s 
muc h 
lower, 
main l
y du
e to 
a s
ma l
l perc
entag
e of 
ent
rai
ned

ir, 
which 
in 
fac
t c
annot 
be av
oided. 
Howe v
e r
, 
bad practi
ce 
in r
eservo
irs (r
etun 
r l
ine 
splsh
a in
g,

ma l
l s
urfa
ce ar
ea, 
cl
ogged su
ction 
fi
lt
ers, 
etc
. e
tc.) 
s 
a well 
s 
a bl
ind holes 
and pocke
ts i
n t
he

yd r
aui
lc sys
tem it
sel
f coul
d reduce 
E to 
less t
han  1
0%  of i
ts t
heo re
tic
al val
ue. I
n good

ng i
neer
ing 
pra
cti
ce, 
val
ues 
bet
we en 
6,
000 an
d 12,
00 0 
b ars 
can 
be 
expected.
El
  st
a ici
ty 
of 
stee
l c
yli
nders 
and t
ubi
ng has 
some efe ct 
on 
the 
efecti
ve E, but 
could 
normal
ly

e negl
ecte
d. 
Howe ve
r, 

he e
lst
a ici
ty 
of 
(h
igh 
pressure) 
hoses 
coul
d have 
a disst
a r
ous e
fect 
on t
he

fec
tiv
e bul
k modul
us 
E.

Th
  
e o
il 

pri
ng 
st
ifne
ss 
co 
of 

a r
iou
s s
ervo
syst
ems d
e p
ict
ed 
in 
Fi
g. 

.11 
hs 
a be
en d
eri
ved 

n t
he

si
a s 
of 
a 
det
er
mined 
bul
k modul
us 
E.I n 
Fig.
1.
1 1 
a), 

n t
er
ms of 
Egn.
(1.
10)
, AV=y A and
V二AL+叭,wh e r
e AL is 
the e
ff
ecti
ve v
olume of 
the 
cyl
in
der co
mpart
ment a
nd玫 the

nefe
cti
ve 

ne. 
The 

ress
urei
ncr
eas
e AP 

s 
cau
sed 
by 

he 
loa
d F=AAP.Th
us 
we 

ind
Y F 
    
             
                  
A F 
    A2


nd 
  co二一一 二二 — . (1
.11

L十从 AF

              
A Y AL 
  +VL
16
The 
min
us 
si
gn i
s 
du
e t
o c
onvent

onal 

opposi
ng) 

osi
ti
ve 
di
re
cti
ons 
of 
y 

nd 
F.In 
Fi
g. 
1.
11 
b)
an
d c
) 
the 

alu
es 
of 
co 
hav
e be
en 
fou
nd 
by add
ing 
up 

he 
oi
l 
sp
rin
g s
ti
fnes
s 
on 
bo
th 

ide
s o
f t
he

ist
on.
Th
e i

nea
r 
mo
tor
s 
a)
, 
b) 

nd 

) 
al
l 
sho
w s
ti
fne
ss 

. he
avi
ly 

epe
ndi
ng 

n t
he 
pi
st
on 
po
sit
io
n.

,、l

wes
t 
po
ss

bl
e 
na

ura
l 

fe
qu
en
cy 



0司动M 
 i
s 
mo
st 

mp
or
ta
nt
, 
co
rmh
as 
 b
ee


alcu
lat
ed 
for 
ev
ey 
r moto
r i
n F
ig. 
1.11.
A 
  
spec
ial 

ase 
is 
th
e r
ota
y 
r mot
or of 
Fi
g. 

.11 
d). 

ts 

ota
tiona
l o
il 

pri
ng 
st
if
fness 

in 
Nm/
rad)

ould 
be 
deri
ved 
by a
nal
ogy wit
h t
he s
ymme t
ri
c in
l e
ar 
motor, 

epl
aci
ng 
the 

isto
n ar
ea 
A 
by 
th

mot
or d
ispl
ace
ment 
 Vr 
 per 
rad
ian 
and 
by re
placi
ng 
the s
tr
oke 
S b
y 7
r r
adi
ans 

hal
f a

evol
ut
ion). 
Of 
cou
rse 

o 
ca
n b
e de
ri
ved 
di
re
ctl
y 
also 
by 

et
ti
ng:

                            
r__ V, _ __. S . 
  V,
ComDart
ment 
vol
umes: 
V ,二 一 V + 一
。 i
nst
ead 
一of 
‘V ,二 一 A + 一 .
一“
甲一“
’一’
“’一
‘“
’‘
一‘”1

2一2’
r’2, 一 下 1

2一2“’2’

lows
: 
 Q1
一Q2 
= 

V 
Vr
, 
   
in
st
ead 

f Q,
一Q2=y


oa
d: 
T二V
r・(
PI
一P2
),
in
st
ea
d 
of 
F=A・

P,一P
2)
Re
le
van
t 
in 
ma
ny 

ppl

cat

ons 

s 
th
e f
act 

hat 

he 

ine
fec
ti
ve" 


ne 

olu
me 
0.
5VL 

ann
ot 



egl
ec
te
d wi

h r
es
pec
t 
to 

he 

fec
ti
ve 

olu
me 

o 
0.
5 

rvr
.Th
us 

ne 

st
a  
o 
be 

xt
re
mel
y 
ca
ref
ul 



alc
ula
ti
ng 

r e
sti
mat

ng 
co 

or 

ota
y 
r mo
tor
s.
  
A s
econ
d c
ompli
cat
ion 
in 
rot
ay 
r motor
s wi
th 

hei
r 
us
ual 
tra
nsmiss
ion 
is 

he 
iner
ti
a "
fel
t 
by 
the
mo
tor
". 
The 

ner
ti
a 
of 
gear 

rai
ns 
et
c. 
re
duced 
to 

he 
mot
or 

xis 
is 

umma r
ize
d a
lso 

n Fi
g. 

.11 

).
Us
ual
ly 

he 

addi

iona
l 
in
ert
ia
" i
s 
5-
10 

ime
s l
ar
ger 

han 

he 

ner
ti
a 
JM 
of 

he 

ota
ym
r  o
tor 

ts
el
f.

t 
is 

her
efo
re 

lmo
st 

n un
der
sta
teme
nt 

o s
ay 

hat 

are
ful 

esi
gn 
of 

ear 

rai
ns, 
et
c. 

s 
wo
rthwhi



n 

rd
er 
to 
ob

ai
n 

cc
ep
ta
bl
e 

al
ue
s 
of 
th
e 
na

ure 

fe
qu
en
cy 


o司瓦7
天万.

1.
8 FORCES 
AND 
CONTINUITY
The 
   c
omp
lex 

it
uat
ion 

ega
rdi
ng 

orc
es 

nd 

ont
inu
it
y wi
lb 
e t
rea
ted 
he
re 

or 

he 
mos
t 
ge
ner
al

ase 
of 

n a
symme
tr
ic 

ine
ar 
mot
or(A, 
#A2)a
nd 
an 
as
ymme
tr
ic 
4-
way 
val
ve

a, 
#a3
,a2 
# 
a4)
,se
e Fi
g.1
.12
. Ot
her 

ase
s a
re 

ar 

imp
ler 

nd 

hei
r 
re
sul
ts 

oul
d b
e f
oun

ro
f m t
he 
ge
nera
l c
se 
a qui

e e
asi
ly.
Th
  
e mos
t 
import
ant 
for
ces 
ar
e l
is
ted 

elo
w a
cco
rdi
ng 

o o
rigi
n 
an
d b
rie
ly 
f di
scus
sed.

1) 
Oi
l 
pes
rsur
es 
P 

nd凡c
aus
ing 

ppo
sin
g f
or
ces
,只A, 

nd凡A2 

se
e 
Fi
g. 

.1
2)

2) 

xte
rna
l 
fo
rce 

e 
co
min
g ro
fm o
uts

de 

he 

ydr
aul

c mo
tor
, 
fo
r i
ns
ta
nce 

utt

ng 

or
ces 

f a
ma
chi
ne 

ool


3) 
Fr
ic
ti
ona
l f
orc
es, 
op
pos
ing 

he 

pee
d夕.On
e mus
t d
ist
in
gui
sh 

etwe
en 

li
nea
r) 

isc
ous

ri
cti
on 

nd hi
ghl
y n
on-
li
n e
ar 
Coul
omb f
ri
cti
on 
or 
dr
y f
ri
ct
ion.

4) Cou
lomb ri
fct
ion 

s 
the 
most 
mag
ic 
non-l
ine
ari
zi
ng 
fa
ctor 

n h
ydr
aul

c s
erv
o's 

nd 

s 
al
way

17

 、
犷  ‘1饮 产 1



l 


, 卜卜1
卜、
官}
r卜
}I 
 V

引公         
111


   丁 万

.0

护‘
七 。。 味鑫
 之



            
 岛叫、

卜,)户.
 ,J)
勺  屯

矛二。件

 


,、
1 

1" 

t』


的 

、.丁飞 .不叫L

闪」气闲,十一

IC

昨才州
闷二.


、 ̄・5吧

瞥・
险曰 ,咨


  

娜 ,
甲    

“卜


,护
,0
贾 V
毛 V





,J上+J上 /


门 ̄+才宁・ ,卜』、、



闷 r丫

尸一

飞,气芯囚扣


十尸二

5、户
      


 }


 

常〉


叹,

带叭〉带冷

\ 川扩
11二

创二
飞1


乞。

。‘
.心

乏才



 

夕 1

之七、1
 。 
冷    夕 .
 奢
、  』
二t

之1
,7
盯,
 
‘                        

峨\

比川
时卜瞬.・、
 

  

卜 。、、

零扩
卜 
SvI

闷 甲
  

阵。

 甲

 l

代    

 
 l

〉v『

 ̄了

 l


 

』岛

Fi
g. 

.1]Co
mpr
ess
ibi
li
ty 

f o
il, 
oi
l 
sp
ring
, 
st
ifne
ss 

nd 

atu
ral 
re
f qu
enc


us twh
pec e
n s
omet
hi
ng 

rr
egu
lar 

s h
app
eni
ng. 

n n
orma
l p
rac
tic
e, 
Co
ulo
mb 

ic
r t
ion 

an 


5-15% o
f t
he 
ma
ximu
m l
oad
-ca
pac
iy. 
t Tl

us 

t 
ca
nno
t b
e n
egl
ect
ed 
wi
tho
ut 

eri
ous 

ons
equ
enc
es,

is
s 
a i
s 
don
e i
n ma
ny 

ext
book
s a
nd 
ma
nuf
act
ure
rs' 
ca
tal
ogs
. 
In 

his 
bo
ok 

he 

imp
lif
yin
g ss
a u
mpt
ion


s 
ma
de 

hat 

n a 
mov
ing 
mo
tor 
Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
ion 

s 
co
nst
ant
, 
re
ver
si
ng 

ts 

ign 
wi

h t
he 

pee
d夕

see 

ig 

.13
). 

n s
pit
e o
f s
ome 
mi
sl
ead
ing 

ubl
ica
ti
ons 

t 
sho
uld 
be 

tre
sse
d h
ere 

and 
wi
ll 


pr
ove
d l
at
er 

n) 

hat 
Coul
omb 

ri
cti
on 

ts
elf 

anno
t 
pr
ovi
de 

deq
uat
e 
st
abi
li
yi
t  
n 
pr
act
ic
e.

5) 
Vi
sc
ous 

ri
ct
io
n i
s 
pr
opo
rti
ona
l t
o t
he 

pee
d夕a
nd 

ont
ri
but
es 

o s
ta
bil

ty 

nd 

amp
ing 


ma
ny 

ydr
auic 
l s
yst
ems
. No
rma
ll
y, 

t c
anno
t b
e p
red
ict
ed 

ufi
ci
ent
ly, 

ts 

mou
nt 

anno
t b


ccu
rat
el
y d
esi
gne
d a
nd 

ire
ct 
me
su
a r
eme
nt 

s h
ardl
y po
ssi
ble
. Ne
ver
the
les
s i
ts 

res
enc
e c
an 


pr
ove
d i
ndi
rec
tl
y. 
Nu
mer
ous 

xpe
rime
nts 

how 
a d
egr
ee 
of 

yst
em 
damp
ing 

or 
whi
ch 

he
ss
a ump
tio
n o
f v
isc
ous 

ri
ct
ion 

s t
he 
on
ly 

xpl
ana
tio
n. 
Thu
s i
t s
houl
d n
eve
r b
e n
egl
ect
ed 


dy
nami
c 
an
aly
sis

.门卜一 .


  
,,
一F, 
_”了

Fi
g. 
1.
12 
For
ces


otal

Fi
g. 

.13 
Cou
lomb 

ri
ct
ion 

nd 

isc
ous 
ri
fct
ion

Our 
exp
eri
ments 
s h
owe d 
too, 

n an 
indir
ect 
wa
y, 
a st
ron
g corr
ela
ti
on bet
wee
n vis
cous 
and
Cou
lomb 
ri
f ct
ion. 
Hydros
tat
ic 
be
ari
ngs 

n hydr
aul

c c
yli
nder
s f
or 
ins
tanc
e e
li
mina
te 
not 
onl
y t
he
Cou
lomb 
fr
ict
ion 
(whic
h is 

he 
purp
ose
.) b
ut 
al
so 

he 
vis
cous 
ic
f ti
on, 
maki
ng a
ddi
ti
onal 
da
mping
mea
s ures 
necess
ary.
Su
  
mma
riz
ing 

o f
ar, 
we 

ssu
me 
a 

impl
e (
but 

omp
ic
l a
ted 

nou
gh) 

ri
ct
ion 
mod
el 

epi
ct
ed 


Fi
g. 
1.
13


Fc

Ff
nc

io
n二Fc十吟 二 nl 兀
+ wy.
    

Co
mbi
nin
g p
rev
iou
s f
orc
es 

f Fi
g. 

.12 
wi
th 
Ne
wto
n's 

aw, 
we 

et


                      
, 
A,
一凡A:一凡一凡一w夕=My
or


                        
, 
A,
一凡A2=凡+凡+砂 + 
My・
Now, 
de
fni
i ng 

he 

ota
l l
oad艺F 

o be
艺F二F
e+F
c+w
y+My

we 
ge
t f
ina
ll

P, 
A,
一P2 
A:二IF=FQ+Fc+砂十搏 ・

o t
he 

el
at
io
n b
et
wee
n t
he 

il 

res
sur
e 
P 

nd几d
epe
nds 

n t
he 

ot
al 

oad 
I 
F.T
he 

res
sur
es只

nd凡 i
n 
tu
n 
r d
ete
rmi
ne 

he 
pr
ess
ure 

rop
s a
cro
ss 

he 

ort 
ope
nin
gs 

n 
th
e v
alv
e. 
Us
ing

。_。
,_a
CJ_EP
一 “v 


he 
lo
f ws 

hro
ugh 

he 

pen
ings 
a, 
, 
a2 
, 
a3 

nd 

4 i
n 
Fi
g.1
.14 
be
come

LI 丈
?"
LI一L 
2 

.S

-Fc一,
r}
-一场・

Fi
g.1
.14 

orc
es, 
lo
f ws 

nd 

ont
inu
it



一。

Cd
一2 

S 
_ 

I Q

一。

2 



d 
P 

P,


3 
=a
3C

俘 Q
4一

4 

d 

平一
Co
  
nsi
der
ing 

he 

omp
res
si
bil
it
y o
f o
il 

acc
ordi
ng 

o F
ig. 
1.
11) 

s we
ll 

s c
ont
inu
ity 
we 

et 

wo

qua
ti
ons 

or 

he 

pee
d夕of 

he 
mo
tor

y=


l 
-Q
2一A
, 
L, 
+1
鱼户,

   AI 

20
        

‘・
?“兮少个一
瞥・+
1。

・内?
乙叱口“.:.牙 右 勺、‘
之下‘
之』‘之勺乍户
勺魂勺q、
‘,、白』
飞 心・
,I’」树、
。亡
夕+
-叫
夕、
・夕!
已陈万?
“,.
 ̄犷} 1

竺逻令

匕 、・

咚,・

 7
二  叫‘
-z 菩:
     


、.兮半中一瞥。1陋
『长乙叱J;、 ・
。 (
州・ ‘
.。
.二
、、
、、
,,

.!
J代、
。一心
}!

、, 宁

豹.匀

",

心}臀
}・留公}
+‘}
・叼・
"公・。
;,.
‘宁・
夕矛・
‘补 』
、勺油
、二洁 勿

・4`I

    
-1 

a` cP

Ci

. ̄・
心・如+
、。
』。

; 味“ ̄

+7
勃!、
臼心 ; 叭・
:1



#       


  


} 

4I
4 

Oi
C 


、!

  

,气
”兮报・
公少


!心.
夕・公; 了
  
'1


;瞬+
公少


; 叭。鑫旬

or
I 
4 

vomot



、1
匆 ̄"
‘勺.
岛七之。
,01气

肛件口
寸1比J
拿・享 比亡
。!陈味J
"11
价犷

J夕.、

er

ic 

叱J
夕! 比 ?1
陈味。・
夕分   
比 J
。 
・夕   

aul
口1
勺. 卜
 .  1
 .
勺 八 、
.队髯泞宁.矿

hydr
    

of 

21
i闷

. 目伪
心 


_ 1嗽

G !

y 
 

淤 勺卜
 、                   

  

ve
W卜

‘叫泊卜,
  
公。
冰・??

  
  

  

  
..

  
沙・公・

卜明IN



Sur


盯 “
比“
.资
}+、
。丫穿・、
下舀

5 

片 +净十罕十蛤.瑞 ・切即』,吟

g. 1
心翔 十心二十心十,1”卜『。盆(公・荤、

1.

渝 +,2.+幼十
睁11』闪.,(
卯。分
 二
-肾・
 冷 
,犷 枷
丫,吟

Fi
粗 与‘为』
 1
叫  ,
   、
  .一
 二   r
 
. 1
                 

5气 C
   
; 1    !
   勺
  t之 一- .  ̄
卜之,
之、。户・日.
.1 ‘二俄 侣 、、邃‘
合沂 勃
之,,・
户二』・‘
欲傲 与 ̄
Jl补
‘注称劳   ̄
七  
,尸 匀
 二 。
 J二
 户、
   口
,  

宕 户 』 
・、 、‘
  

 

o, 
0、之・
L,oloJ 勺、
尧‘抽尧攀一坷  O
J  、 
勺 ‘
之‘
。‘t
之 七‘
11",
之・沂号 ‘
之。.
"‘n
、‘之,三匆
‘之、
二・
I’t,
.右 ‘0,01

1‘舒『1之勺1
‘、、J
,I
工tl.
爵,仓


夕= Q
3 
- 

,十A
兰过V
,2户

  
A 2 
       
A, 

Combi
ni
ng 

rev
iou
s 
equ
ati
ons 

nd 

egl
ect
in
g玫,an
d从:we 
ge
t 
fi
nal



Cd 
 
PP 

} 

A-

, 
       
2 

- 
P 
 



一a

2 
, 
 2



L, 三
  
一一
-二尸 I (
1.1
2)

    
w 「
 
a. 
 2P7。月厅,P } 
)1   
L, ;
夕“Cd
飞}
言}AJ 
11 
P 
`一A飞
}“
}’一P }+一二 尸2.
}E (
1.13)
,r 
        
L‘-
3 
 l
'‘S 
          

.2 
V\ ‘S 


wh
ere

P, 
                
A,
一P2 
A2 
=Y
,F二F, 
+凡+砂 十脚 . (
1.
14

Fr
om 

hes
e e
qua
ti
ons
,只 a
nd几 a
s we
ll 

s夕ha
ve 

o be 

olv
ed. 

n g
ene
ral
, a
nal
yt
ic



olu
tio
ns 
are 

mpos
si
ble
. 
A sp
eci
al 
sol
uti
on 
could 
be 
found 

nly 

or 
ver
y s
peci
al 

ondit
ions

Any 
   so
lut
ion 
mus
t 
fu
lfi

l t
he 
req
uir
eme n
t t
hat 
th
e sp
eed夕acc
ord
ing 
to Eg
ns.
(1.
12) 
and 
(1
.13


re 

he 

ame
. 
A 

pec
ial 

olu
tio
n c
an 

asi
ly 

e f
oun
d b
y e
quli
a z
ing 

ll 

orr
esp
ondi
ng 

act
ors 


Eg
ns.
(1
.12
) 
an
d (
1.1
3). 
Th
e "
con
dit
io
ns" 

re
a, 
    
a3

nd丝二生 (
1.1
5)
A, 
    
A2 A, 
    
  A2

            
L.二L,二一 , (1
.16)

              

                      
君十PZ二P
S , (1
       
.17)
Condi
ti
on 
(1.
15) 
conc
er
ns 
val
ve 
and 
mot
or 
di
mens
ions  

nd 
cou
ld 
be 

ulf
il
le
d t
heo
ret
ica
ll
y.
Con
dit
ion 

1.1
6) 

est
ri
ct
s 
th
e s
olu
tion 

o o
nly 
on
e po
sit
iono
f t
he 

ist
on. 
Cond
iti
on 

1.1
7) 

oge
the

wi
th 
Eqn. 

1.1
4)勇el
ds

P, _A
Z+艺F
l 
Ps and 2_A
P ,一艺Fl 
Ps (1
.18)
尸: A,+AZ
     PS A,+AZ
  
Subs
ti
tut
ing 
Eqns. 

1.1
5), 
(1
.16) 
and 

1.1
8) 

nto 
Eqn. 

1.1
2) 
gi
ves

心= r

    



- 
l 
a, 
 I
A,

一 ‘_iw
- 
S'

F/P
,。
e止‘    

,I
A,十Y. 
FI
Pc飞y户
_一二一一止竺巴二-二一一二 一 一立 {,一二一‘竺竺二一二一二二 1
一 rr
J 
   
- d、】 _ f , 11 , .A ‘ 1t , . , 1 (1
.19)
u 
            
  U  in , u 
    
H :十 八 , ti. u 八 ,十 H .
, 
     
I 
    

L ”
              
“ ‘’ 且 ‘ 」
wh
er
e c
o=2
E认+A, 
)/ 
s.
As 
  i
s 
ma
de 

lea
r, 

gn.
(1
.19
) 
re
pre
sen
ts 

nly 

ne 

pec
ial 
sol
ut
ion
, 
be
ing 

aid 
l i
f 
co
ndi
ti
ons 

1.1
5)

nd 

1.1
6) 

re 
met
. 
Th
e qu
est
ion 

s wh
ethe
r o
r n
ot 

his 

olu
tio
n i
s a 
go
od 

ppr
oxi
mat
ion 

f t
he

ond
iti
ons 

re 

ot 

ulf
il
led
. I
n t
he 

it
era
tur
e t
his 

ues
ti
on 

s a
voi
ded 

yst
emat

cal
ly
, t
aci
tl


ssu
min
g t
hat 
it 

s 
no
t 
impo
ta
r n
t whe
the
r t
he 

ond
iti
ons 

re 
me
t o
r 
no
t.

  
t wi
ll 

e pr
ove
d i
n Ch
apt
er 
2 

hat 
Eg
ns.
(1.
18) 

nd 

1.1
9) 
do 

ot 

ven 

how 

he 

li
ght
es


ese
mbl
anc
e t
o ph
ysi
cal 

eal
it
y i
f 
co
ndi
ti
on 

1.1
5) 

s n
ot 

ulf
il
le
d, 

ugge
sti
ng 

hat 

n a
symme
tri

22
mo
tor 

eeds 

n a
symme
tri
c v
alv
e. 

t 
wi

l b
e pr
ove
d t
hat 

his 

ugg
est

on 

s c
orr
ect 

ut 

his 

s 
no


oo 

elp
ful 

inc
e a
symme
tri
c v
alv
es 

orma
lly 

re 

ot 

vai
lab
le 

omme
rci
all
y. 
So 

pec
ial 

tt
enio
t n

s 
ne
ede
d t
o 
sol
ve 

his 

rob
lem.
Sy
  
mme
tri
c 
mo
tor
s 
wi

h s
ymme
tri
c 
va
lve
s d
o n
ot 

aus
e c
omp
lic
ati
ons
. 
Re
lat
ing 

he 

pen
ings
a' 
an
d a2 
to 

he 

poo
l 
di
spl
ace
men
t 
x 

in
ear
iz
ati
on 

nd 

ppr
oxi
mat
io
n wi

l 
le
ad 

o 
a 

ands
ome
di
ffe
rent
ial 
equat
ion 

hat 
wil
l 
permit 

ynamic 
anal
ysi
s, 

ynthe
sis 
an
d des
ign. 
Thi s 

s 
done 
in 

he
fo
llo
wing c
hapt
ers 

or 
sev
eral 

ypes 
of 
hydr
aul
ic 
ser
vorn
otor
s. 
Fig. 
1.1
5 gi
ves 
a 
fundament
al
sur
vey 
of 
hydr
aul
ic 
ser
vomotor
s as 
a 
"su
mma r
y i
n a
dvance
" i
n whi
ch t
he 
abov
e tool
s f
or 

naly
sis
ha
ve 
bee
n appl
ied 
and 

he 

inear
izat
ion 
ca
rri
ed 
out

1.
9 PERFORMANCE 
INDICES
  
In
c rea
sing emp h
si
a s on the ma th
ema tic for
mu l
ai
ton and measur
eme nt o
f control 
syst
em
perf
orma nc
e  c
an be found i
n t
he  r
ecent it
l erat
ure 
on aut
oma t

c cont
rol. 
Mod e
r n 
contro
l t
heory
ass
ume s t
hat t
he syste
ms  eng
ineer can 
s pecif
y quant
it
ati
vel
y the 
equ
r i
red s
ystem perfo
rmance.
Then  ap 
erf
o r
ma nce i
nd e
x can  b
e  c
alculated or 
measur
ed and us
ed to eval
uate 
the sys
tem's
perf
orma nc
e. A q
uantit
ativ
e mea su
re of 

h e perf
ormance 
of 
a 
syst
em is 
necess
ay 
r f
or 
the 
operat
ion
of 
mo dern 
adapti
ve cont
rol 
syst
e ms f
or a
u toma t
ic 
par
ame t
er 
opt
imizat
ion 
of a 
cont
rol s
yst
em, and
for 

h e 
desi
gn of 
opti
mu m syst
em.
Wh
   ethe
r the ai
m  is 
to improve  t
he de si
gn of a s
yst
em  or 
to des
ign ac ont
rol sys
tem, a
per
forma nc
e inde
x mu st 
be 
chosen and 
me a su
red.
A 
  perf
orma nce 
index 
is 
a quanti
taiv
t e 
me asur
e of 

he 
perfo
rmance o
f a 
syst
em  a
nd is 
chos
en so
empha s
is 
is 
given 
to 
the 
imp or
tant 
syst
em.
A 
  syst
em is 
consider
ed an o
ptimu m control 
syst
em when t
he 
syst
em paramete
rs ar
e adj
ust
ed so

hat 

he 

nde
x r
eac
hes 

n e
xtr
emum 

alu
e, 

ommo
nly 
a 
mi
ni
mum 

alue
. 
A 

erf
or
man
ce 

nde
x, 



e u
sefl
_ 
mu
tt 

e。n
umb
er 

ha
t 
is 

lwa
ys 

osi

ive 

r 
ze
ro. 
Th
en 

he 

est 

ys
te
m i
s 
de
fi
ne
d 
as

yst
em 

hat 
mi
nimi
zes 

his 

ndex.
A 
  

uit
abl
e p
erf
orma
nce 

nde
xis 

he 

nte
gra
l of 

he 

qua
re 

f t
he 

rro
r, 

SE 
whi
ch 

s 
d,
in
f e

as

二=
f 

,e 
2 


)d
t. (1
.20)

Th
e up
per 


mit 
T 

s 
a 

ini
te 

ime 

hos
en 

ome
wha
t 
ar
bi
tr
ari

y s
o t
hat 

he 

nt
egr
al 

ppr
oac
hes 


te
ady
-s
ta
te 

alu
e. 

t 
is 

sua
ll
y c
onv
eni
ent 

o c
hoo
se 
T a
s t
he 

et
tl

ng 

ime
,兀.Th
e s
te


espo
nse 

or 
a 

pec
ifi
c 
fe
edb
ack 

ont
rol 

yst
em 

s s
hown 

n Fi
g. 

.16 
b)
, 
an
d t
he 

rro
r i
n Fi
g. 

.16
c)
. 
The 
er
ror 

qua
re 

s s
hown 
in 
Fig. 
1.
16 
d), 

ci
d t
he i
nt
egr
al 

f t
he 
er
ror 

quar
e i
n Fi
g. 

. 
16 

).
Thi
s 
cr
it
er
ion 
wil
l 
di
scr
imi
nat
e b
etwee
n e
xce
ssi
vel
y ove
rda
mped 
and 
exc
ess
ive
ly 
under
damped
sy
ste
m. 
The 
mini
mu m va
lue 
of 

he 
int
egr
al 
occ
urs 
for 
a 
compro
mise 
val
ue 
of 

he da
mpi
ng. 
Th e
pe
rfo
rman
ce 
in
dex Fi
gn.(
1.2
0) 
is 
ea
sil
y a
dap
ted 
`f
or p
rac
ti
cal 
mesu
a re
ments 
be
cause 
a 

qua
rin


ir
cui
t 
is 

ead
il
y 
ob
tai
ned. 
Fu
rt
her
mor
e, 

he 


qua
red 

rro
r i
s'
mat
her
nat
ic
all
y 
co
nve
nie
nt 

nal
yt
ic
al

nd 

omput
ati
onal 

urpose.
An
  
oth
er 

eadil
y 
inst
rument
ed 
pe
rfo
rma
nce 

rit
eri
on 

s t
he 

nt
egr
al 

f t
he 

bsol
ute 
ma
gni
tud
e o

23

he 

rr
or, 
IAE, 
whi
ch 

s 
wr
it
te
n a




-(0




11


  
a) r 
- -1

00


    

e(
t)」

e=(
t)

41
  


        

f 

=(t
)d

e)

Fi
g. 

.16 
The 

alc
ula
tio
n o
f t
he 

nte
gra
l 
squ
are
d e
rro


A:一
fl 


t)
dt
l 
. (
1.21)

Th
is 

ndex 

s 
part

cular
ly 
usef
ul 

or 

omp u
ter 

imul
ati
on 
st
udi
es.
To 
  red
uce 
the 
con
tri
buti
on 
of 

he 
lar
ge 
ini
ti
al 
er
ror 

o t
he 
val
ue 

f t
he 
pe
rfo
rma
nce 

nte
gra
l, 


we
ll 

s 
to 

mph
si
a z
e 
er
ror
s 
oc
cur
ri
ng 

at
er 

n 
th
e r
espo
nse
, 
th
e f
ol
lowi
ng 

nde
x h
s 
a b
een 

rop
ose
d:

二二一
f 
0 

Tt

e(

 
)l

t. (
1.22)
This i
nde
x i
s d
esi
gna
ted 

he 

nte
gra
l o
f t
ime 
mu
lt
ip
li
ed 
by 

bsol
ut
e e
rro
r, 

TAE.
24
Ano
the
r 
si
mil
ar 

nde
x i
s 
th
e i
nt
egr
al 

f 
ti
me 
mul

ipl

ed 

y t
he 

qua
red 

rro
r, 

TSE:



SE・
f 


te 
2 

t (1
.23)

  
The 
perf
orma
nce 
in
dex I
TAE 
pro
vid
es 
the 
bes
t 
sel
ecti
vit
y o
f t
he 
per
for
man
ce 
ind
ices


hat 
is
, 
the 
mini
mum val
ue 
of 

he 
in
teg
ral 

s 
re
adil
y di
sce
ni
r bl
e a
s t
he 

yst
em 
par
amete
rs

re 
va
rie
d. 
The 
gen
era
l 
form 
of 

he 
per
for
mance 
int
egr
al 
is


一ff 
(e
, 
(t
),

(‘
),
y(

), 

)d
t, (1
.24)

whe
re 
fi 
s 
a 

unc
tio
n of 

he 

rro
r, 

npu
t, 

utp
ut, 

nd 

ime
. One 

an 

bta
in 

ume
rou
s i
ndi
ces

ase
d o
n va
ri
ous 

omb
ina
tio
ns 

f t
he 

yst
em 
var
iab
les 

nd 

ime
. I
t i
s wo
th 
r n
oti
ng 

hat 

he
mi
ni
miz
at
io
n o
f I
AE 

r I
SE 

s 
of

en 

f 
pr
act

cal 
si
gni
ic
f a
nce
. 
Fo
r 
ex
amp
le, 
th
e mi
ni
miz
at
io


f a 
pe
rfo
rma
nce 

nde
x c
an 
be 

ire
ctl
y 
re
lat
ed 

o t
he 
mi
nimi
zat
ion 

f f
uel 
con
sump
tion 

or 

ir
cra



nd 

pace 
ve
hicl
e.
Pe
  rf
ormance 

ndic
es a
re 
use
ful 
fo
r the 

nal
ysi
s a
nd 

esi
gn 

f c
ont
rol 

yst
ems
. 
Two 

xamp
les
wi
ll 

ll
ust
rat
e 
the 

til
iyo
t  
f 
th
is 
app
roach.

EXAMF生E1.
1 PERFORMANCE 
CRITERI

A 
  

ing
le-
loo
p f
eed
bac
k c
ont
rol 

yst
em 

s s
hown 

n Fi
g. 

.17, 
wh
ee 
r t
he 
na
tur
al 
re
f qu
enc
y i
s 
th

no
rma
li
zed 

alu
e, 

)二1.
The 

los
ed-
loo
p t
ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 

s 
th
en

      
T(
s)= (1
.25)
S2+2    

S+1
2 -5


    


s+J‘)

Fi
g. 

.17 
Si
ngl
e-l
oop 

eed
bac
k c
ont
rol 
sy
ste

1 



          



          

\ /

IT.1
E 10 /
ITSE/

           I
      


I入 / ( ,

\ \ / 11/

尸尸
卜‘_ 一‘
叮 曰曰 尸尸口
      

WW'-'

议 声
目侧.口‘翻口
口口户
尸 声 IS石

叹二二二二a


.0 
 0.
2 0.
4 
 0.
6 0
.8 
  1.
0 
 1.
2 
 1.
4 1.
6 1
.8 2.
  


  
Fi
g. 

.18 
Th
ree 

erf
orma
nce 

rit
eri
a 
fo
r a 

eco
nd-
ord
ersyst
em

,5
Thr
ee 

erf
orma
nce 

ndi
ces
叫ISE,
ITSE,
and 
I7
AE 

cal
cul
at
ed 

or 

ari
ous 

alue
s 
of 

he 

amp
ing

at
io否a
nd f
or 
a 
st
ep 

npu
t a
re 
sh
own i
n F
ig.
1.
18. 

hese 
cur
ves 

how 
th
e s
ele
ct
iv
it
y o
f t
he
IT
AE i
nde
x i
n 
co
mpar

son 
wit
h 
th
e I
SE 
ind
ex. 
Th
e v
alu
e o
f 
the 
da
mpi
ng 
rat

o杏s el
ec
te
d on

he 

asi
s 
of 

TAE 

s 
0.
7, 
wh
ich, 
fo
r a 

eco
nd-
ord
er 

yst
em, 

esu
lts 

n a 

wif
t 
re
spo
nse 

o a 

tep
wi
th 
a 4.
6% 
over
shoot

EXAMPLE 
1.
2 SPACE 
TELESCOPE 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM
Th
  
e s
igna
l-Mow 

rap
h o
f a 

pac
e t
el
esc
ope 

oint

ng 

ont
rol 

yst
em 

s s
hown 

n Fi
g.1
.19
. We

esi

e t
o 
se
le
ct 

he 
ma
gni

ude 

f 
th
e g
ain 
K3 

o 
mi
ni
miz
e t
he 

ff
ec
t 
of 
th
e d
ist
ur
ban
ce 
D(
s)
. 
Th


ist
urba
nce 

n t
his 

se 
a i
s 
equ
iva
len
t t
o a
n i
nit
il 
a a
tit
ude 

rro
r. 
Th
e c
los
ed-
loo
p t
ran
sfe
r f
unc
ti
on

or 

he 
di
stur
bance 

s obt
aine
d by 
us
ing 
Mas
on'
s 
si
gna
l-low 
f gai
n f
ormul
a a
s f
oll
ows

S)_只(
Y( S)0, 
(s)_ 1
・(1
+K,凡S一
,) S(
S+凡凡S 一
,) (
1.26)
D(s) 0(
    
s) 1+K,
K3S-
,+K,
K2KP
S-
2 
 S
2+K,K3
S_
1+K,
K2KP
脚 ‘t
nrb4l
tPe
In 
    

R/x

At
titude

R(
S)

Pos
                                 
it
ion 
fe
edba
ck
b)
                                 

Fi
g. 

.19 
A 
spa
ce 

el
esc
ope 
po
int
ing 

ont
rol 
sys
tem. 
a) 
Bl
ock 

iag
ram. 
b) 
Fl
ow 

raph

Ty
pic
al 

alue
s f
or 

he 

ons
tant
s 
aeK
r ,=0
.5 

ndK,
K2K,二2
.5・
The
n 
th
e 
na
tu
ra
l 

fe
que
ncy

f 

he 

eh
ic
le 

s 
f 
=了 

.5 
/ 
27
r=0.
25 

ycl
e/
s. 
Fo
r a 

nit 

te
p d
ist
ur
ban
ce, 

he 
mi
ni
mum 

SE

an 
be 

nly
a t
ic
all
y 
ca
lcul
at
ed. 
The 

tt
it
ude 
y(t
) 
is



;)
一迎[

。My 
si

(粤,
十、

P L 


        
       Z 」

1.27)

26
wher
e 刀=K3
寸(K孑/
8)一5
. S
qua

rng 

(t
) 

nd 

nt

gra
ti
ng 

he 
re
su
lt
, 
we 
ha
ve


o.

K3

si
ne
 

粤 t、、)、
,一厂 奖。 一

,‘

,(
喜一 喜Co
s(
刀,
十:
、)
)J



I二 「一兰竺

o n 
月z L 
              
           

U P一 L 
  L
(1
.28)
    

二(
,二,,+U. 
1K,)

  
K3
Di
fer
ent
ia
ti
ng 
I 
and 

qua
ti
ng 

he 

esu
lt 

o z
ero, 
we 
obt
ai


l二一
Kz 

+0.
1=0
. (1
.29)
d尤3

her

fo
re 


e 
mi

imu
m 
IS
E 
is 
ob

ai
ne
d 
wh
en 
K3
=俪 =3
.2
. 
Th

s 
va

ue 

f 
K3 
co
rr
es
po
nd


o a 
da
mping 

at
io杏of 
0.
50. 
The 
va
lue 

f IS
E a
nd IAE for 
thi
s 
sy
ste
m ar
e 
plo
tt
ed 

n 
Fig. 
1.
20.
The 
mini
mum f
or 
the 
IAE  pe
rf
or
mance 
in
dex 
is 
obt
ai
ne
d when K3=4 .
2 
and否=0. 6
65.
Whil
e 
the 

SE c
ri
te

ron 
is 

o t 
as 

el
ect
iv
e a
s 
the 
IAE cit
reri
on, 

t 
is 

lea
r 
tha
t 
it 

s 
pos
si
bl
e t

so
lve 
ana
lyt

cal
ly 
for 

he mini
mum val
ue 
of 
ISE.The mi
nimum of 
IAE is 
obt
ai
ned 
by
meas
uri
ng 

he 
act
ual 
val
ue 
of 
IAE f
or 
se
ver
al 
va
lue
s 
of 

he 
par
amet
er 
of 

nt
ere
st

I了
.5

了.了
  

1.
1 \““ /

\ \ 踌

0.

E、、、火
尸一


S /

,/

-9

7-


} .阮
}"
.  ̄
劝‘召.口巨.

1 ̄一‘川p,
...月..网一

仪j
4  5 ‘ 夕 s 9 10

K;
  
Fi
g. 

.20 
The 

erf
orma
nce 

ndi
ces 

f 
the 

el
esc
ope 

ont
ro
l 
sy
ste
m v
ers
us 
K3

  
A c
ont
rol 

yste
m is 

pti
mum wh e
n t
he 
sel
ect
ed 
per
for
mance i
ndex 
is 
mini
mize
d. 
Howe v
er, 

he

ptimum va
lue of 

he 
para
me t
ers 
dep
ends 
dir
ect
ly 
on t
he def
ni
i ti
on of 
opt
imum, 
that 
is, 

he

erfor
mance 
in
dex. 
The
ref
ore, 
in 
Examples 

.1 
and 
1.
2, 
we f
ound t
hat 

he 
opti
mum s
etti
ng 
vari
ed

or 
di
ff
erent 
pe
rfor
mance 

ndi
ces

Ta
ble 

.1 
Th
e Opt

mum 
Co
eff
ic
ien
ts 

f T(
s) 
Ba
sed 

n t
he 

TAE 
Cri

eri
on 

or 
a 
St
ep 

npu

S+叭
          


      
2+1

4o)

, 
s+。万
s+
5 
      
     
31
.7
500S2 
+2.
15
嵘s +嵘
5 
      
s+
     
42. 
1o,
, 

'+3.
A 
4 
  
 
t)

2S
2+2.7 
  
   
_J

3 
nS+。‘
S+2
      

8a
)s 
4 
+5.
0可S3+5.5
叫S 2+3.
4心S+嵘
5 
      
S+
     
63.25
0),
s5+6.
6 
 
   

0)
n2
S4+8.
60武S3+7.
45
叫5S+
23.9
5嵘S+。分

27
  
The 

oefic
f i
ent
s 
th
at 
wil
l 
mini
mize 

he 
ITAE  p
erfor
man
ce 

rit
eri
on 

or 
a 

tep 

npu
t ha
ve 

een

eter
mined 
fo
r t
he 
ge
ner
al 
cl
ose
d-lo
op 
tr
ansf
er 

uncti
on:
Y(
s) 
           
bo
T 

s)=

(s
)一,
‘+b

-, 
sn 

' 
 -


. 

・+
、、+
bo (
1.30)

Thi
s t
ra
nsf
er 

unct
io
n has 
a 
st
eady-
st
at
e er
ror 
equa
l 
to 
zer
o f
or 
a 
st
ep 

nput
. 
No
te 
th
at 
th
e t
ra
nsf
er
fun
cti
on 
hs 
a n 
pol
es an
d no 
ze
r o
s. 
The 
opti
mu m 
coef
fi
ci
ents 

or 

he IT
AE cri

eri
on 
aeg
r  i
ven

n Ta
ble 

.l. 
Th
e r
esp
ons
es 

sin
g o
pti
mum 
coe
fic
f i
ent
s f
or 
a 

tep 

npu
t a
re 

ive
n i
n Fi
g.1
.21

or 

SE,
IAE 

nd 

TAE.
The 

es
pon
ses 

re 

rov
ide
d f
or 

orma
li
ze
d t

me, 
0t

nt. 
Ot
he
r 
st
an
dar


orms bas
ed 
on di
feen
r t 

erf
ormanc
e indi
ces 
ar
e a
vai
lable 
an
d can 
be 
us
eful 

n ai
din
g th


esig
ne r 

o d
ete
rmi
ne t
he 
ra
nge o
f coe
fic
f i
ent
s f
or 
a s
pe c
iic 
f pro
ble
m. A 
fi
nal 
exa
mple wi
ll

ll
ust
ra
te 

he 

ti
li

y o
f 
th
e s
ta
nda
rd 

orms 

or 

TAE.

EXAMPLE 
1.
3 TWO-
CAMERA 
CONTROL
  
A vey 
r ac
cura
te 
and 
ra
pidl
y 
resp
onding 
co
ntr
ol 
syst
em i
s 
requ
ire
d fo
r a 

ystem 
that 
al
lows iv
l e

cto
rs 
seemi
ngly 
to 
pe
rfo
rm i
nsi
de 
of c
omple
x min
iat
ure 
set
s. 
Th
e t
wo -
camera 
sys
tem 
is 
shown i


ig. 
1.2
2, wher
e one 
camera 
is 
tr
aine
d on 
the 
acto
r an
d the 
other 
on t
he mini
atu
re s
e t
. 
Th e

hal
len
ge i
s t
o o
btain 
rap
id a
nd 
acc
ura
te 
coo
rdi
nati
o n 
of 
the 
two 
camer
as b
y usi
ng s
enso


nf
ormat
ion 
ro
f m 
the 
for
egro
und 
ca
mera 

o c
ont
rol 

he move
me n
t 
of 

he 
back
grou
nd c
amera
. 
The

loc
k di
agr
am 
of 
the 
bac
kgrou
nd 
ca
mera 

yst
em 
is 
shown i
n 
Fig. 
1.
22 
fo
r o
ne 
axi
s 
of 
movement 



he 

ack
gro
und 

ame
ra. 
Th
e c
los
ed-
loo
p t
rans
fer 

unc
tio
n i

、的uo冬之 P、芝.』

1.夕

10
协 认人甲.了吧补妙

互\ ,,
二之一

产二、
X、.
二《、 云嘴扮:

1 
1` 
1 
           
i 
           
 


£心代


    

口召

n6

1, 2


  
L刁f

卜’
n 

01 {


+ 

} 
}-

 一’
「”


02



t  {

15 20

Nonnahz
ed 
0me

28
、六二0身之 P、,1

  


尸 代 声翻.月沁之.
、、

乞1
.... 口.. 曰口. _ .....‘‘. _

吧洲巴巴巴日甩护脚-
啼二留,,




17-

‘匀\’
/I



  

  


  

傀 i。
,:
、 尸
,昌J
La万

刀湃厂n=


1 
 1 
}/

匆 b)
15 
               
10
Cor
        
mnl
red 

ime
a认‘

门名
井 .
』0冬七飞 “,I。攀屯护一


才甲群份会"
r。一,

.夕

对r
人 ,,
  
  


)1
一/

                

刀 叫1石 !

   
I 
1 



( 



了j


- n


L 




’厂/ }
i 厂

一”一


1了 2口

八or
      
rna石“ d打”r

Fi
g. 
1.
21 
Cont
inued

T(
s)=
KQ 
K. 
(0
0 (1
.31


3+2
甄SZ+叫S+K,
K, 

耐‘
Th
e s
tan
dar
d f
orm 

or 
a 

hir
d-o
rde
r s
yst
em 
gi
ven 

n Ta
ble 

.1 

equi
res 

hat

甄 =1

75(
),嘴=2
.15
可,K. 
K.
耐==嵘.
Exami
ning 
Fig.
1.21 c
) f
or 
n=3, 
we es
ti
mat
e t
hat 

he 

eti
ng 

ime 

s a
ppr
oxi
mat
el
y 1
4 s
eco
nds
(no
rmaiz
l e
d t
ime). 
There
for
e we 

sti
mate
).
0 T
s二8

Bec
aus
e a 
ra
pid 
res
pon
se 
is 

equ
ire
d, 
a 

arg
e叭 will 
be 

ele
cted 
so 

hat 

he 
se
tt
ing 


me wi
ll 
be

ess 

han 1s 
ec
ond. 
Thus
,叭 will 
be 

et 
equ
al 

o 10 
ra
d/s
. The
n f
or 
an I
TAE  s
yst
em 
it i

ne
ces
say 
r t
hat 

he 
pa
rame
ter
s o
f t
he 

ame
ra 

yna
mic
s b


                         
OO=1
4.67r
ad/s

29
and

杏=0.
597

Backrot
utd
矛飞
,J
egJ
’ 刀“,
才d






F c口即sera
  
ca月2era
POSl
   ttol
posi
tron

Fi
g.1.
22 The foregr
ound c
ame r
a, 
wh i
ch may be ei
ther a 
fi
lm or v
ide
o camera, 

s t
rai
ned on

he b
lue 
cyclor
a ma s
tag
e. 
The e
lect
roni
c 
servoc
ontrol 
in
stal
lat
ion 
per
mits 

he 
slav
ing, 
by means 
of
el
ect
roni
c ser
vo de
vices
, 
of 

he t
wo camera
s. 
The back
g r
ou n
d ca
me r
a r
eac
hes 
int
o t
he 
mini
atur
e se

wi
th a 
peris
cope l
ens a
nd i
nst
anta
neousl
y r
eproduces 
all 
movements 
of 

he f
oregr
ound 
camera i


he sca
le of t
he miniat
ure
. The vi
deo con
trol i
nst
alatio
n all
ows t
he co
mp os
ite 
image t
o be
moni
tor
ed 
and 

ecor
ded 
ive.

Th
e a
mpl
if
ier 

nd 
mo
tor 

ain 

re 

equi
re
d t
o b

。, _ n_
之、 _才、_ = 一-井 = —
n_
_(0n_
_,‘
一 —
二 一 , 。uJ.

叫 2
      

15心 2.
15
Then 

he 
cl
osed-
loo
p t
rans
fer 

unc
tion 


1000
            
T 

s)

3+1
7.5, 
2+21
5s+1
000

1.32)
1000
                        


                
s+7.08)(
s+5.21+j10.68)(
s+5.21一j10.
680)
The 
   l
oca
ti
ons 

f 
th
e c
los
ed-l
oop 

oot
s d
ict
at
ed by 

he 

TAE  s
yst
em a
re 

hown 

n 
Fi
g. 

.23. 
Th


amp
ing 

at
io 

f 
th
e c
omp
le
x r
oot
s 
is杏=0.
44. 
Ho
wev
er, 
th
e c
omp
lex 

oot
s 
do 

ot 

omi
nat
e.
Th
e a
ctua
l 
re
spo
nse 

o a 

te
p i
npu
t 
us
ing 
a 

ompu
ter 

imu
lat
ion 

howe
d t
he 
ov
ers
hoo
t 
to 

e o
nly

% a
nd 

he 

ett
ing 

ime 

o wi
thi
n 2
% of 

he 

ina
l 
va
lue 

qua
l 
to 

.75 

eco
nd.
Fo
  
r a 

amp 

npu
t, 

he 

oefi
ci
ent
s 
ha
ve 

een 

ete
rmi
ned 

hat 
mi
ni
miz
e t
he 

TAE 
cri
te
ri
on 

or

he 

ene
rlc
a  
los
ed-
loo
p t
ran
sfe
r 
fu
nct
ion:

, 
s+bo (1
.33)
T 

s)=一
i+方 。n
-1+…十b
        

, 
t , 
s十b

30
了口


12-


\ l ,  ̄

0 -


一{\ 9.

4夕



一 a一


自 \ .





]o 一

Fi
g. 

.23 
Th
e c
los
ed-
loo
p r
oot
s 
of 
a 
mi
nimum 
ITAE 

yst
em

Thi
s t
ran
sfer 
fu
nct
ion h
s 
a a 
st
eady-
st
ate 
er
ror 

qual 
to 

ero 
fo
ra r
amp i
npu
t. 
The 
opt
imum
co
efic
ient
s f
or 
thi
s t
ran
sfe
r f
unct
ion 
ar
e g
iven 

n Ta
ble 
1.
2. 
Th
etr
ansf
er 

unct
ion 

equ
ire
d t

pr
ovi
de 

ero 

teady-
sta
te

Tabl
e 1.
2 TheOpt
imu
m Co
efic
fien
ts 
of 
T 

s) 
Ba
sed 

n t
he 

TAE 
Cri
te
ri
on 

or 
a 
Ra
mp 

npu

  
s 
2 
+3
.2o
),s
+。厂
S 
  
3+1
.75
o)
,, 
S2+3
.25 
   
 
(1

n+
2S。灵
S 
  
4+2
.41
(t
). 
S3+4
.39
叫s 2 
+5
.14
o刃
( S
+W4

  
S+2
.1
9(
t)
" 
s 
4+6
.5
0耐s
3 
+6
30}n
s2 
+5
.2
4叫s
+。刃

31
CHAPTER 
2 ANALYSI
S OF 
HYDRAULIC

SERVOSYSTEM S

2.
1 I
NTRODUCTION
  
T he
re 
is 
a 

arg
e v
ari
et
y o
f h
ydr
aul
ic 
mo
tor
s 
an
d va
lve
s t
o b
e c
ombi
ned. 
We 
di
st
in
gui
sh 

see 

lso
Fi
g. 
1.
15)


1) 
As
ymme
tr
ic 


nea
r 
mo
tor(
A,”2
A2)
con
tr
ol
le
d 
by 
a 

-wa
y v
al
ve


2) 
As
ymme
tr
ic 


nea
r 
mo
tor(
A, 
#A2
)co
ntr
ol
le
d 
by 
a 

ymme
tr
ic 

-wa
y v
al
ve.

3) 
As
ymme
tr
ic 

ine
ar 
mot
or(A, 
#A2)c
ont
rol

ed 
by 
an 
as
ymme
tr
ic 
4-
way 
val
ve

      
a, 
¥ 
a3
,a2 

#a 
4)・

4) 
 S
ymme
tr
ic 

ln
ear 
mot
or(A,=A2)c
ont

oll
ed 
 b
y a 

ymme
tr
ic 
4-
way 
va
lve

      
a,=a3
,a2=a4)


5) 
Symme t
ric 
ro
tay 
r mot
or 
con
trol
led 
by 
a s
ymme tic 
r 4-way 
valve


  
n 
each o
f t
hese 
cse
a s 
one 
can 
di
sti
nguis
h open-
c e
nte
r a
s wel
l a
s c
rit
ica
l-c
ent
er va
lve
s h
aving 


osi
ti
ve under
lap 
U and 
zer
o l
ap 
U=0  r
espect
ive
ly. 
So 
thi
s an
alysi
s 
could 
be e
xtend
ed t
en t
imes,

ut 
thi
s would o
f c
ours
e be 
ra
ther 
la
borio
us. 
Therefor
e t
he a
pproach 
in 
thi
s cha
pter 
wil
l 
be t
he

oll
owi
ng.
  
Firs
t t
he 
mo s
t s
imple 
cas
e of 
an 
sy
a mmetr
ic 
li
near 
mot
or co
ntr
oll
ed 
by a 
3-way 
val
ve wi
ll 
be

rea
ted, 
bot
h for 
an ope
n-cen
ter 
val
ve 
and 
for a 
cr
it
ica
l-c
ent
er va
lve. 
Aft
er l

near
iza
ti
on and

pproxi
ma t
ion 
a 
univ
ersa
l 
mo del 

cco
rdi
ng 

o th
e bl
ock 
di
agram s
how i
n Fi
g. 
2.
1 wi
ll 
be 
der
ive
d,

et
er
min
ing 

he 

ydr
aul

c 
lo
ad-
st
ifn
ess 

h 
an
d t
he 

el
oc
it
y 
ga
in 
K.=o 


}Ia
x 
of 
th
e 
mo
to
r-
va
lv


ombi
nat
ion 

tsel
f.

么F



r+ 凡,
, +

Fi
g. 
2.
1 
Si
mpl
e 
bl
ock 

iag
ram 

or 

he 

pen 

oop 

f a 

ydr
aul
ic 

erv

To 
  av
oid 
re
peat
ing 

his 

roc
ess 

ndle
ssl
y, 
some s
hot-
rcut
s 
ar
e mad
e. 
As 3-
way-
val
ve-
cont
rol
led

symme
tri
c 
li
nea
r mot
ors 

nd 
4-wa
y-val
ve-
contr
oll
ed 
symmet
ri
c mo
tor
s (
li
near 

nd 
rot
ary) 

ifer

rom 

ach 
ot
her 
on
ly 
by 
a 

act
or 
2 

n t
he 

oad 

nlu
f e
nce(
Ch 

s 
dou
ble
d i
n s
ymme
tr
ic 
mo
tor
s, 



her
e a
re 
2 
compatme
r nt
s 
wher
e t
he 
pres
sur
e c
an 
rea
ch on 

he 
loa
d), 
open-
cen
ter 

alv
es 
ar
e t
rea
ted

nly i
n c
onnect
ion 
wit
h 3
-way-va
lve
-cont
rol
le
d asy
mme t
ri
c mot
ors
. I
n all 

ther 

ases 
only

32

ri
ti
cal
-c
ent
er 

alv
es 

hav
ing 
a,=a2=a3=a4 

t 
x=0)a
re 

rea
ted. 
Pr
agma
ti
cal
ly 

pea
kin
g,

lec
tro
hyd
raul

c se
rvo
val
ves 
commerc
ial
ly 
avai
la
ble 
no
rmall
y h
ave 
ze
ro 
la
p, 

.e. 

rit

cal
-c
e n
ter

alve. 
A (
somet
imes 

xag
gera
ted) 

eson 
a f
or 
th
is 
is 

he 
abs
ence 
of 

il 

ons
umpt
ion 

n t
he 
neutr
al

ta
te(x=0,
夕=0)
,wh
ich 

s 
imp
ort
ant 

n 
ma
ny 

ppl
ic
ati
ons

  
Howe
ver, 
und
erl
ap-
val
ves 
al
so 
hav
e a
dvanta
ges 
(mai
nly 
bec
ause 
sys
tems 
be
havio
r i
s 
far mo
re


nea
r) 
res
ult
ing i
n g
ood c
onst
ant 
val
ues o
r sy
stem pa
ramet
ers
. Advan
ced c
ombinat
ions 
of

eedf
orwa
rd 

nd 

eed
bac
k c
oul
d r
esul
t 
in 

upe
ri
or 

yst
em 
be
hav
ior
, 
es
pec
ial

y a
rou
nd 
x=0

nd夕二0.
Af
  
ter 

his 

nt
rod
uct
ion, 
we 

egi
n wi
th 

he 

nal
ysi
s o
f v
ari
ous 

erv
omo
tor
s, 

imi
ng 

t t
he

ydr
aui

c s

ifn
ess 

h a
nd 

he 

el
oc
it
y 
ga
in 
K,
.=妙/
ax.
Int
ro
duc
in
g t
he 

il 

pr
in
g s

ifn
ess
c, 
ac
cor
din
g t
o 
Fi
g. 

.11
, 
we 

et
丫F V 户
          
夕=Km 

x一匹州‘一)一盛月 ̄
一.. (
2.1)
Ch 
                                  
   CO
The 
math
emati
cal 
mode
l wil
l 
b e 
co
mplet
ed 
in 
the 

st 
a sec
ti
on of 

his 

hap
ter
, 
de
riv
ing 

he 

yst
em

rans
fer 

unc
tio
n n
eed
ed f
o r 
dynami
cal 

naly
sis 

nd 
syn
thes
is.

2.
2 ASYMMETRIC  M OTORS CONTROLLED  BY  3-
WAY  VALVE
Th
  e 
mos
t 
si
mpl
e 
se
rvomo
tor
s 
ar
e 
sy
a mme
tr
ic 
mo
tor
s 
co
ntr
oll
ed 

y 3
-way 
va
lve
s (
see 
Fi
g.
2.
2)

They 
ar
e re
f q
uen
tly 
use
d i
n mac
hine 

ool 
copy
ing 
syst
ems wi
th 
mechan
ical 

eed
bac
k. 
As
sumi
ng
tu
rbu
len
t 
lo
f w 
and 
us
ing 

he 
bsi
a c 

ormul
s 
a o
f Cha
pte
r 1 

or 
th
e mo
tor 

eha
vior
, 
we 
fi
nd


  

、一
。、=
:;,

o 

s二
AZ
, 丫F
  
PS 
  
A,-



=・


, 

Cd
d 
   

2(

S 
P一
- 

, 
)c

rP
S) )

(A,
一AZ
)2艺F
A,  PS
     人


奋酬‘具

Q,
一Q2
Qr
  
、.
曰洲
r一 、

交) ar

映二 p =口 P,
Fi
g.
2.
2 
As
ymme
tri
c 
mo
tor 

ont
rol
led 
by 
a 

-wa
y v
alv

33

  
又F


一C 
几d

P,
一C
0 


_{ 

A,
2 十 一一二二二二一一

Ps 
A,


一Q, 
_Q2一JF一
A,  CO 
      

, 
_Q
      

Al 
一李y
    
LA,一
, 


t 

an*se
en 


at 

or 

,/
A2
=2。。l
oa
d-
ca
pa
ci

y 
is 

ymme

ri
c, 
mea
ni
ng
艺F .==一艺F;・

hou
ld艺     
F 
co
nt
ai
n 
a 

dc-

omp
one
nt
" 
Fs
r 


o 
be 

ons

der

d a
s 
a 

ons

ant 
pr

-l
oad
), 
an 


ea

at
io 
A2 

A,=0.5一Fs
t 
I 
P, 
A, 
co
ul
d 
compen
sat
e 
for 


. 
Si
nc
e t
he 

fec
t 
of 
a 
cons
ta
nt 

re
-l
oa

Fs
, 
wi
ll 
be 

re
at
ed 
ag
ai
n 
la
te
r 
on
, 
we 
no
w as
su
me Fs,=0 a
nd 
ch
oos
e 
th
ere
fo
re 
A,=2A2 
= 
A・

乏一
At 
  t
he 

ame 

ime 
we 

ntroduce 

he 

o-cal
led 

oad-
pres
sur

F 一。5
1 一2
1 凡

AP
  

o二
  

 

一   
二 一 +

PS
     2 PS
Now 
the 
lows 
f become

Q1一
,。

伶2P
,,
01
_。。

一 ‘“

_F

PS 
 1 
U户N 
+ 

  
PL
Ps
and



A 
d 
     
       

l 
f 

I 
_


Ps
L 一
。,I 
 

+ 
 , 
2P
,]

  
V 只」 E
一一 尸L
L 生
  

2.2)

He
  
re 

he 

pee
d夕o
f t
he 
mo
tor 

as 

een 

olv
ed 

s a 

unc
ti
on 

f t
he 

ari
abl
es 
a,
,a2 

nd
PL=I 
FI
A.Eq
n 
(2
.2
) 
ho
ld
s 
fo
r 
al
l 

or
ts 
of 
val
ve
s, 

pen
-c
ent
er 
as 
we
ll 
as 

ri
ti
ca
l-
ce
nt
er 
va
lv
es.
Th
e on
ly 
ss
a u
mpt

on 
ma
de 

o f
ar 

s 
tu
rbu
len
t p
ort 
lo
f w.
Fo
  
r t
he 

pen-
cent
er 

alv
e of 

ig. 
2.
3 
a) 
we 

an 
wr
it


                        
x<-U,a
,= 
0, 
a2=7

d (
U一x)

一U<x<十U,a,=i
                

d (
U+x)
,a2=i

d (
U一x
),
x>+U,a
                      
,=耐(
U+*
),a
2=0・

ubs
ti
tu
ti
on 

nt
o 
Eq
n. 

3.
2) 

iel
ds 
wi
th 
a.=rd 

一夕
二A 
Cd 
 

P-
S 
- 

1 于)

,1
厂2

l十一
,一
 
I L。
 
V Ps」 七
卜 _ PL

一U <x< +U, 
            
a  
 F
v二 一=c,_
A “



_-
FJ_
= 1 
VpL’
0+ 于)
            
一 U 1
- 
2P

4一


v V YS」
    
一x
), 
1+
2P
L}
一冬、 乙
L一

一,

aA

调(1 
+ 

    


Th
e v
elo
cit
y g
ain 

har
act
eri
st
ic 

s d
rawn 

p i
n Fi
g.2.
3 
c)
, 
sh
owi
ng 
a 

ema
rka
ble 


nea
r c
har
act
er
wi
thi
n t
he 

nde
rla
p r
egi
on一U<x<+U.

{ /
      



    




l 
 




PY
a 


川目 卜一 一


    

_}







l"






N 芳
 

/r 



 


r(




-1
 蒸
      
/ o
 






矛 -

  
}i
! 
+nde
      
ll+


pen 
-ce
nte
r-3 

n qr 

alr




      
/ 
   


a 夕
尸z
   /
s产
+了

 ̄叫., 戈 _3
              
月... .勺. .日.口 .

・乙
       +I

b)

Fi
g.
2.
3 As
ymme
tr
ic 
mot
or 

ont
rol
le
d by 

n o
pen
-ce
nte
r 3
-wa
y v
alv
e. 
Th
e s
ame 

elo
cit
y-
gai


ha
ra
ct
er

st
ic 

ol
ds 
fo
r 
sy
mme

ri
c 
mo
to
rs 
wi

h。4
-wa
y 
va

ve 

f 
2P
L 
I 

, 
is 
re
pl
ac
ed 

y之/
PS

Th
e l
oad 

s i

mit
ed 
by 

res
sur
e b
oun
dar
ie
s 0<P,<P, 

or 

bvi
ous 

eas
ons
. 
To 
ha
ve 

ome

afe
ty 
ma
rgi
n, 
we 

equi
re
1 一飞以

1、P
, 
_ 

+PL 
< 
Ss
o 

PLI
 一
<  


2.4)
6 
  
P, 
  2 P, 
                     
6 PS
  


ow
, 

pp

ox
im
at

ng 
  

. 
1 
2 

L 

PS
。,1
1鱼w
PS
e 
ge

, 


si

e 

he 
un

er

ap 
re

io
n,


一ao 

H 
d, 
    

S干
(,

  VPL 
   




,一


L)
一(

一弃



1十
PL 
))一会汽
共 」 C

_2
ao

C,
a_ 
   
-:
PS 
I一竺川一
L 
P,
AU “VPL 凡 一
   」E-

35

ntr
odu
cing 
the 
por
t wi
dth b
=ao 
/U=n
d 
U/
U=r
d a
nd 

ub
st

tu
ti

g艺F二A
PL 

nd

o=E
A/L,
we 

in
all
y 
co
me 

o 
ou
r 
"u
niv
ers
al
" 
eq
uat

on

Y. 
          
F 
  Y户
夕 =K, 
(x一 ̄ )
一三竺
巴一
Ch Co

wher


    
b_ 阿 AP 
     
EA

m二AC
‘V节,
“”一
才’“
“一了‘

or 

he 

rit
ica
l-
cen
ter 

alv
e o
f Fi
g.2
.4 

), 
we 

an 
wr
it



0, 

,一

, 


一黔二一
一1a
x_ 


x 

、,

2一
Su
bst

tut
ion 

nto 
Egn.

2.2
) yi
el
ds

。_}
  ,,「1

・AU
d 
V 
P x一l
L x
12P

」 x Ps

Th
e v
elo
cit
y ga
in 

har
act
eri
st
ic 

s 
dr
awn 

p i
n F
ig.
2.
4 
c)
, 
sho
win
g a 

ar 

ess 


nea
r c
har
act
er




.2

3・

・T

er
e 
is 
a 
j・
二一 0 

n 


e 



oc

ty 

ai

瓮de

en

in
g 
on 
th
e 
lo

d.
Th
us 

ppr
oxi
mat
ing 
mo
re 

oug
hly 

han 

efo
re, 
we 
ge

Y=二 C'
b _
     只「 ,
I_飞乙二

d 一 !x一二丁 ̄rL!
一_ PL

      
PL 芍 」七
Tr
ans
for
mat
ion 

gai
n i
nto 
Egn
.(2.
1) 

iel
ds

b_ {
    
万一 AP 
      



。一Ac
eV奋“
”“亩’C
O“L’

t 
sh
oul
d b
e n
ote
d t
hat 

n s
pit
e o
f t
he 

ppr
oxi
mat
ion 

he 

ri
ti
cal
-ce
nte
r-v
alv
e-c
ont
rol
le
d mo
tor 



ti
ll 
a 
no
n-l

nea
r 
sy
ste
m, 

s 
th
e pa
rame
ter 
Ch 
de
pend
s o
n t
he 

pen 

oop 

npu
t 
si
gna
l 
x・

36
火一

J训-I/.,
 


f  / J产
  岁
,   』

 护 




t 
eC



a 
  



P!

万F 
=:1 +1召
门叫卜 ̄一

十2/_

            

心 目卜 一 一 卜 ̄州..


I 

C.

。公i
cal
-cent
er 
3-
rrpp 

alv
e ・2月 /

一川 一

) ・1召
-1

a价“、

+1/_

aJ
//ma
t{ 十1乙? '
P.一月



Iama
% 
I [amax
+ i

Fi
g.2.
4 As
ymmetri
c 
motor 
con
tro
led 
by 
a 
cr
it
ic
al-
cen
ter 
3-
way 
val

The s
ame 
vel
oci
ty-
gai
n cha
rac
ter
is
ti
c 
hol
ds 

or 
symmetr
ic 
mot
orwith
a 
4-
way 

al
ve 

f 
2P
L/ 

,, 
is 
re
pl
ac
e 
by 

L 
I 

,,

  
Compar
e d wit
h hy
draul
ic 
te
xtb
ook s
' a
nd manufact
urer
s' 
cat
al
ogs, 
our 
pr
esenta
ti
on b
y means 
of
vel
oci
ty 
ga i
n  ch
arac
ter
ist
ics 

s r
ather u
nusual. 
Normall
y "va
lve 
chara
cter
is
tics" 
ar
e pres
ent
ed,
sho
wing 
the lo
f w as 
a 
funct
ion 
of 

he l
oad, t
he 
valve 
di
splac
ement 
bei
ng a 
par
a met
er. 
Us i
ng 
Eqns.
(2.
3) 
an
d (2.
7 ), 

he v
alve 
char
act
eri
sti
cs of 
open
-and c
rit
ica
l-
cent
er-
valve
-contr
oll
ed 
mo t
ors 
ha
ve
bee
n work
e d out 
and a
re 
shown i
n Fig.
2.5. 
These 
chara
cte
ris
ti
cs 
ma k
e sens
e , 
as 

hey s
how t
h e

apa
cit
y 
of 

he 

alv
e wi
th 

esp
ect 

o 
mo
tor 
lo
f w 

A a
nd 

he 

oad 

res
sur
e凡.I
n 
pr
inc
ipl
e, 

her
e 
is

o diferen
ce bet
ween t
he two t
y p
es o
f cha
ract
eri
st
ics
, becau
se bot
h cover 
exact
ly 
the 
same

ehavior
. 
But, 
rom 
f t
he c
ontr
ol 
point 
of 

iew t
he 
vel
ocit
y gai
n ch
arac
teri
st
ic 

s f
ar mor
e i
mport
ant


s i
t 
dire
ctl
y i
ndic
ate
s par
ame t
ers 
th
at 
gove
rn t
he 
contr
ol e
rro
r and 

h e 
dyna
mic pro
peti
r es 

f t
he

yst
em.

To 
  i
nve
st
ig
ate 
a 

ydr
aul
ic 

erv
o i
n 
pr
act

ce, 
on
e s
hou
ld 
me
asu
re 


ist 

f 
al
l 

he 

elo
cit
y 
ga
in 
K.,
whic
h is 
prop
ort
ional 

o t
he 
slope o
f t
he 
str
aight 

lne
s i
n t
he v
e l
oci
ty 
gai
n c
harac
ter
ist

c. 
The 
curv
es
of 

he valve 
cha
ract
eri
st
ic
s o
f Fig.2
.5 
do not 
indi
cat
e d
ire
ctl
y par
amet
ers 
si
gniic
f ant 

or 
the 
co
ntr
ol
er
ror 
and 
the 
dynami
c s
yst
em be h
avior
. 
Ir
regula
rit

es 
in 

he ve
loci
yg
t  ai
n 
charac
ter
ist

c, 
suc
h a


dec
re
as
e 
of 
Km=妙/
ax 

ro
und 

=0, 
du
e 
to 

mpe
rf
ec
t 

ur
bul
en
t 
po
tf
r l
 
ow 

ca
use
d 
by 
we
ar 

37

护一
见片

p.
夕;俘弓‘
1、
勺勺飞、‘又』分 奋 :气七‘
、,.,勺‘
右冬、常


  
门 1            


 下
吸                



//0//

de
了 一

l 
lun

ma

a 
/奋今!?/ 」


o 
/一
e t

du
Km 

of 
ics
哟0,{ 咬0・


e 
今乡

is
一r

! 叶

er
act

as
— 一—

  
心 ・
t’q 一
 
trl

今i


I、1

char


、,之冬』趁,
0之、

//
n nc
ve 


和,

38
y 



吸0 1


Val

or 

5 
工//
d 
2.


斗八

g.


Fi


1仁Ik门以犷而

nsa
丁一



mpe

s 



尸勃 、‘

卜仆 1           
 ̄ 一


        一

r 
          

e  e


了/产


gs)
e mo
, ro
                                                                      

1 , 一 一


ln d
d 

.dead 
zone, 
due 

o Coul
omb 

rict
ion,

・l
oca
l 
ju
mp 

n 
K, 

ue 

o 
ba
ckl
as
h i
n 
th
e s
erv
ova
lve 

eedb
ack 
pa
th 

see 

ect
io
n3.
6)

hou
ld 

e me
asu
red 

are
ful
ly
, be
caus
e i
mpe
rfe
cti
ons 

oul
d d
ete
rio
rat
e t
he 

ompl
et
e s
yst
em,

ncl
udi
ng 

ts 
dyna
mic 
behavi
or.

Fi
  
nal

y, 
we 

umma
riz
e s
ome 

mpo
rta
nt 

ife
ren
ces 

etwe
en 

pen
- a
nd 

rit
ica
l- 

ent
er 

alv


ont
rol
led 

symmet
ri
c mot
ors:


1) 
Th
e o
il 

ons
ump
tio
n of 
a 

rit
ic
al-
cent
er 

alv
e i
s p
ropo
rti
ona
l t
o t
he 
mod
ulus 

f t
he 
mot
or

  
pe
ed. 
QS
P 

ly=0
.5
AJy
J.S
o 
at 
st
an
d-
st

ll 
no 

il 
su
ppl
y 

s 
ne
ce
ss
ay. 
rAt 
an 

pe
n-
ce
nt
er 
va

ve

  

e 
oi
l 
co
ns
um
pt
io
n 

s 


mos
t 


de
pe
nd
en
t、t

e 
mo

or 


eed 
j 

s 

on
g。、

习<U
. 

n 

pp

ic
at

on
  
wit
h o
ne s
ing
le 
se
rvo-
mo t
or 
fe
d by 
a 

onsta
nt 
deiv
l e
y 
r pump, 

his 

s h
ard
ly a 

rawba
ck 
bec
aus


  
he 
energ
y wil
l 
be 
dis
sip
ated 
any
way, 
ei
the
r i
n t
he 
ser
vova
lve 
or 

n t
he pr
ess
ure 
co
ntr
ol 

alv


  
eep
ing 
P5 
=c
ons
ta
nt.

2) 
Th
e v
elo
ci
ty 

ain 
Km=a
yla
x o
f a
n o
pen
-ce
nte
r v
alv
e o
per
at
in
g i
n t
he 

nde
rl
ap 

egi
on

  

x1<U)
is 
tw
ic
e 
as 
la
rg
e 
as 
Km 

f 
a 

ri

ic
al
-c
en
te
r 
va
lv
e.

3) 
Wi
th 

ega
rd 

o t
he 

oad 

ens
it
iv
it
y t
he 

ri
ti
cal
-ce
nte
r v
alv
e i
s s
upe
ri
or 

s t
he 
hy
dra
uli


  

ifn
es
s 
c.=P
S 
A1

x},e
sp
ec
ia
ll
y 
ar
ou
nd 
x=0,i
s 
fa
r b
et
er 

ha
n i

s c
ou
nt
er
pa
rt
, 

he

  
pen
-c
ent
er 

al
ve 

avi
ng 

h=P
S 
A/
U.Ho
wev
er
, 

he 

pen
-ce
nt
er 

ys
te
m b
eha
ves 

erf
ec
tl


  
in
ear
ly 

roun
d x=0.F
or 

hi
s 
re
aso
n t
he 

oad 

rr
or 

oul
d 
be 

ompe
nsa
ted 
by 

eed
for
war
d, 



  
s shown 

n t
he 
next 
sect
ion.

2.
3 LOAD-
COM PENSATION
Th
  
e l
oad 

rro
r。=艺F/
ch 

n a
n o
pen
-ce
nte
r-v
alv
e-c
ont
rol

ed 
mot
or 

an 
be 
exp
lai
ned

hys
ic
al
ly
. 
In
tr
odu
ci
ng 
a 

oad 
YF 
 i
n F
ig.
2.
6, 

he 

res
sur
e只wi

l r
is
e i
n o
rde
r t
o ma
int
ai


qui

ibr
iu
m o
f 
fo
rce
s. 
Co
nse
que
ntl
y 
th
e p
res
sur
e 
dr
op 
PS一Pl 

cro
ss 

he 

nl
et 

ort 
wi

l 
de
cea
r s


nd 

o d
oes 

he 

nl
et 
low 
f QI
.On 

he 

the
r h
and, 
Q2 
wi
ll 

is
e owi
ng 

o i
ncr
eas
ed 

res
sur
e 
dr
op
P, 

cro
ss 

he 

utl
et 
po
t. 
r S
o wi
th 
Q,<Q2,
the 

yst
em 
wi
ll 
ge
t 
a 

pee
d, 
un
les
s 
a 

han
ge 

n 
al 
an

a2 

omp
ens
at
es 

or 

he 
lo
f w 
du
e t
o 
the 

oad. 
As 
al一a2 

nti
l 
no
w h
as 

een 
pr
opo
rti
ona
l 
to 
x 

nd
£,t
he 

mpl
ic
aio
t n 

s a 

ont
rol 

rro
r. 

rom 

his 

iag
nos
is 
a 

her
apy 

oul
d b
e f
oun
d. 
A 

han
ge 



he 

res
sur
e只 (
re
pre
sen
ti
ng 

he 

oad
) mus
t 
ca
use 
a 

han
ge 
a, 
an
d /
or 
a2 

nde
pend
ent 

f t
he

ont
rol 

rro
r s
ign
al 
E.
Fro
m Eq
n. 

2.2
) be
ing 
de
riv
ed 
wi
tho
ut 

est
ri
ct
io
ns

39
m em brane
a 
    


( el
ear
2-
tr


p h


l 
hl

#F

穷碑次欢欢长长州
..目口. “ .一

Fi
                
g.
2.
6 
As
ymme
tr
ic 

oad
-comp
ens
at
io

Th
e i
nle
t 
ope
ning
s o
f t
he 

yst
ems 

) a
nd 

) a
re 

nf
lue
nce
d by 

he 

yli
nde
r p
es
r s
ure

,=0
.5P
,+尺,c
aus
in
g 
c,
,=0

40


a 

- 




L一1
+ 
2P


_._
C,
    

y = 一下一

        


onc
eni
rng 

, 
or 
a2
,it 
ca
n b
e 
se
en 

ha
t 
by 
ma
kin
g a
, 
so
lel
y 
de
pen
den
t 
on几a
nd 

2 
onx ,as

hown 

n Fi
g.2.
6, 

he 

irs
t or
der 

fect 
of 

he 

oad 
coul
d be 

ancel
led.

Li
  
nea
ri
zi
ng 

rou



CA

丹。(


2P
S 

     
) 

- 
d几 =0 






一(



d 
) 

+ 
P5

x=0 



sul

s i
n 
c,=0
0.Ex
amp
les 

f l
oad
-co
mpe
nsa
ted

2.8)

sys
tems t
hat 
hav
e been o
per
ati
ng s
ucces
sfu
lly a
re s
hown i
n Fi
g.2.
6. 
Fig.
2.
6 a) i
s part 
of 

numeri
cal
ly 
cont
rol
led 
machi
ne, 
b) 
of 
a copyi
ng l
at
he (o
ne 
pot 
r onl
y) a
nd t
her
efore not 

ull

eff
ect
ive 
at 
la
rge l
oads
, a
s c
an be
en s
een ro
f m the 
"loa
d c
hara
cter
is
ti
c" of 
Fi
g.2.
6 c ) 
wher

2P
L 
/Pr 
is 

lo
tt
ed 

s 
a 

unc
ti
on 

f x
l 
U 

t y=0.
Sub
st
it
ut
io
n 
of 
y 
=0 

n 
Eq
n. 

2.
8) 

ie
ld



PT
L 

2・
‘,

音,
’一


On
  
ly 

t s
mal
l 
lo
ads 

s t
he 

lo
pe 

f t
he 

har
act
er
is
ti
c i
nfi
ni
te
, c
aus
ing 
c,
,=0
0・Sy
mme
tr
ic

oad
-co
mpe
nsa
ti
on-t
hou
gh 
me
cha
nic
all
y mo
re 

omp
lic
ate
d-g
ive
s b
ett
er 

oad 

har
act
eri
st
ics
. 
He
re

he 

wo 

pen
ing
s a, 
an
d a2 
bo
th 
de
pend 

n尺 a
s 
we
ll 

s 
on 
x.
The 
op
ti
mal 
de
sig
n es
r u
lt
s 
in

41
刀己。广r
'az'

一UL
LOC
pt'
PSS
ua'

plot
pre
ssur

一, 

X1
_Y

y 
   
' 
Ll -

一 ,


  
L-
一 S 


cul
pp 
ar
oYt
em b 
rc
ut 

一 nt
"nt
brane

瓢黔


J 1


’. L\ I t
一 -一J

二U

0-
ivt

M OM "

如J


Fi
g.2.
7 
Sy
mme
tri
c 
lo
ad-
comp
ens
ati
on

  
、阿「 /, x.凡 、 x 凡、
      

2.9)
— !aol1十丁丁十 一
Y = 一广 ,} 二一) 一ao 
l1一 丁丁一 ̄二一J
A 
    
VPL U 
    
  PS U 
        
  PS

Fi
g.
2.
7 
a) 


lus
tr
at
es 

he 

esi
gn 

onc
ept
. 
By 

upe
rpo
sit
io
n t
he 

nf
lu
enc
e o
f b
oth尺 a
ndx  on
al 

nd 
a2 

s 
efe
cte
d. 
No
w c
omp
ens
ati
on 

s 
ef
fec
ti
ve 

or 

ar
ger 

oad 

lso, 
as 
ca
n b
e s
een斤'
OM


he 
Fi
g.
2.
7 
b)
, 
de
ri
ved 

rom 
Eqn. 
2.
9) 
wi
th夕=o
x 1
一0.

(2P
L 
I 

,)
’一了
1一(
2P
L 
/P
s)
’ 2只 、
, 1 
(_ 厂+丁丁(

2只 、;
二 二)一+.

U 2
PL/
P 8   
代 16 代
A 
  

ery 

ompa
ct 

xamp
le 

f a 

ucc
ess
ful 

ppl

cat
ion 

n p
rac
tic
e i
s 
sho
wn 

n c
) wh
ere 
a 

irc
ula
rly

uppo
te
r d 
le
f xi
bl
e 
membr
ane 
bet
wee
n t
wo 
noz
zle
s a
cts 
ik
l e 
con
tr
ol 
la
f pper
. 
The 
membr
ane 

nd

he 
2 
noz
zle
s 
in
cor
por
at
e 
th
e s
eco
nd 
st
age 

f 
an 
open
-cent
er 

-way 
va
lve. 
The 
membr
ane 

nd 

he
po
rt 
op
eni
ngs 

re 

nf
lue
nce
d ir
fstl
y b
y t
he 

ilo
t s
tag
e p
res
sur
es 

f t
he 

erv
ova
lve
, 
an
d s
eco
ndl
y 
by

he 

yi
ln
der 

res
sur
e P=O
.SP+尺 a
ct
in
g o
n o
ne 

id
e o
f 
th
e me
mbr
ane 

rou
nd 

he 

ozz
le.
Th
e l
oad 
pr
ess
ure 
ma
y c
han
ge 

he 

nl
et 

nd 

utl
et 

res
sur
e d
rop
s, 
bu
t a
t 
th
e s
ame 

ime 

he 

nl
et

nd 

utl
et 

pen
ings 

re 

nlu
f e
nce
d i
n t
he 

ppo
sit
e d
ire
cti
on. 
He
nce
, wi
th 
a 
pr
ope
rly 

esi
gne

me
mbr
an
e, 

he 

nl
et必a
s 
we
ll 

s 
th
e o
ut
le
t Q2 
ar
e 
al
mos
t 

nd
epe
nde
nt 

f几,P 
or 
E 
F.I


he 

in
al 

esi
gn, 
th
e c
ir
cul
ar 

uppo
rt 

f t
he 
me
mbr
ane 

as 

een 

st
abl
is
hed 

y s
tee
l 
ba
ll
s, 

eaka
ge
be
ing 
pr
even
ted 

y o-
ri
ngs.

  
n a
ppic
l a
ti
ons 

nvolv
ing 
al
 i
nea
r e
lec
tro
-hyd
rau
lic 

tep
ping 
mot
or 

nd 

or 
a 
co
pyi
ng 

hap
er,
42

are
ful 

esi
gn 

f t
he 

oad-
comp
ens
ate
d 3
-wa
y v
alv
e r
esu
lt
ed 

n 
a 
me
mbr
ane 
wi
th 
a 

iame
ter
价26
mm 
and 
a 
thi
cknes
s 0.
9 mm.

2.
4 SYMMETRIC 
M OTOR 
CONTROLLED 
BY 
A SYMMETRIC
4-
      
WAY 
VALVE
  
As t
her
e i
s a
n al
mo s
t 
perf
ect 

nal
ogy 
wit
h a
n sy
a mmetri
c 
moto
r c
ontr
oll
ed b
y a 
3-
way 
va
lve,

eriv
ati
ons 
devel
op s
imil
arl
y. 
Usi
ng 

he 
too
ls 
of 
Sec
tio
n 1
.8, 

he 
be
havio
r of 

he 
symmet
ri
c 
motor

f Fi
g.2.
8 
is 
def
ine
d勿

                  
P,一P
2 
)A二1
: 
F二FQ+F
,+W}+M},

。一。{
2(

, 
 P
,一。F 

2P


_


一A

4 
',
 


_ 
a3


d 
 F

P2
一C 
 
d 
   



S 
P+
- 
P2 
)A

LZ
“・
As
sumi
ng 
a 

ymmet

ic 
va
lve(
a,=a3 
, 
a2=a4)and ap
ist
on pos
it
io
n wi
th几 =Lz=L, 
we

nd只+凡二只.
i Comb
ini
ng 

hi
s 
wi

h 
P一P 2二Y
,F /A,we f
ind

凡-
艺-
F -

1 -2

  一伪‘

只 =生+IF二1 +立
             P
z=生_

!Ps
 

    

一   
尸目
PS   
            
2 
  
2A只 2 
  2Ps Ps 
  2
He
re 

gai
n, 
,F
Y  
/A 

s 

he 

oa
d 
pr
es
su
re几.
Subs
tit
uti
on 
yi
elds


  
a阿「 厂
y =-.、
 I
甲可
—   
I马 ,


甲可飞 L二
i一 下于 一a,jt十二升 !
一二一
二料 . (
2-10)
    
A V 
P 
L  V 
  r, 一V S」 2E -
Ex
cep
t f
or 
a 

ac
to
r 
2 

n 
th
e l
oa
d p
res
su
re几=
=E 
F/
A,E
gn.

2.1
0) 

s 
id
ent

cal 

o 
Eg
n.(
2.
2)

Co
nsequ
ent
ly
, 
3-way
-va
lve-c
ont
rol

ed as
ymmetr
ic mo
tor
s a
nd 
4-way-
valve
-con
tro
ll
ed 
symmet
ri

mot
ors 

eha
ve (
in 
a 

tat
ion
ary 
co
ndit
ion 
as 
we
ll 
as 
dyn
amica
ly) 

x a
ctl
y t
he 
same, 

rovi
ded 

he

}Y  L2

Fi
g.2.
8 
Sy
mme
tri
c 
mo
tor 

ont
rol
le
d b
y a 
4-
way 

alv

asymmetr
ic mot
or 
has 
a pi
st
on a
rea 
and 
a s
pool 

alv
e d
iamete
r t
wice
as 

arge 
as 
sy
mme t
ri
c motor
and pr
ovided the pi
stons ar
e  h
alf
-way a
longthei
r cyli
nders.  
As  3-
way-
val
ve-co
n t
rol
led
symmet
a r
ic motor
sa re more 
simple 
and e
asi
erto manufa
cturetha
n 4-way-
val
ve-
control

ed

y mmetr
ic mot
ors i
s s
urpri
si
ng t
hat 
asymmet
ri
c mot
ors 
are 
so se
ldom us
ed. 
They 
des
erve 
mo re
po
pul
ari
ty.
Co
  
nse
que
ntl
y, 


nea
riz
ati
on 

nd 

eri
vat
ion 
of 

yst
em 
par
ame
ter
s f
oll
ow 

xac
tly 

he 

ame 
in
l e


s i
n s
ect
ion 
2.
2. 
Fo
r a 

ymme
tri
c 
cr
it
ic
al-
cent
er 

alv
e we 

an 
wr
it

x> 0 a
l=。
。=4 
a- 
I二二b
x a2=a4=0,
x.
            

x<0 .a___
                  

al=a3=0; a2“a4二一!
-- I 
x二一b
x.
xn
1a


ubs
ti
tut

on 

nt
o 
Egn
.(
3.1
0) 

iel
ds

Li
nea
rizat
ion 
gi
ves



b。- 

P 
S 
       
     
x 

-}




L}


LE
人・
wh
ich 

an 

e b
rou
ght 
in
to 

he 

tan



_






d 

    


 
d 
        








 






_


E 
_P

、崖
r‘“
・F 一

。「 Y川
  
一co
      

Y二A司x一. }

      
Ch」
wher

凡-
。二
,‘ 一

b_ I 
    

P 2五A
      
阮.

入 ,= 一 C、_}
一二 c,
,= c = — _

2.1
1)
A “VP
      

     -


        
As 

oul
d 
be 

red
ict
ed, 
th
e v
el
oci

y g
ain 
K, 
is 

qua
l 
to 


sco
unt
er-
par
t 
fo
r a
n sy
a mme
tri
c mo
tor

whi

e c
. 
an
d c
o 
ha
ve 

een 

oub
led 

see 
Bqn
. 
(2
.7)
).

2.
5 ASYMMETRIC 
MOTOR 
CONTROLLED 
BY 
A SYMMETRIC
4-
WAY 
CRITICAL-
CENTER 
VALVE

  
t wil
l 
be 
prove
d he
re 
that 

n a
symmet
ri
c l
inea
r mot
or 

s i
nco
mp a
ti
blewi

h a 
symmetr
ic 
4-
wa y

rit
ical
-ce
nte
r v
alve, 
even 
under 

o-l
oad 

ondit
ions. 
Ac
cor
ding 

o Se
cti
on1.
8 
and 
Fig.
2.
9 we 

ind,

or 
the 
asymmetr
ic 
motor
, 
th
at
君A;
                  
一PZ
A2=IF二Fe+F
,十砂 +My,


=a

, 
      
Cd 
 2 


s 
p一

P,
)a

2 
, 
    
Cd 
 2


,一
4 
EF



  
,_ 2
P2。
、_ 2
(P, 
- 

2).
L2。
Y二T Ud,
l— 一下万户
Ud、
{一一一-- t0 '2・
A2 
    
  V P 
     
A2 
     
V 
                       
P 
      

Th
e i
mpl

cat
io
ns 

f 
a 

ymme
tr
ic 

-wa
y c
ri
ti
cal
-c
ent
er 

alv
e a
re:
Ei

her 
a,
=a3>0 
wi
th 
a2=a
4=0 

r a
,=a
3=0 
wi
th 
a2=a4>0


 山

L1

 
州件 一 一  ̄ ,.,

址(
气)
一(
a3{
「a

了 可 }Q3瓦 PS

S !’ !

Fi
g.2.
9 
As
ymme
tri
c 
mo
tor 

ont
rol
le
d b
y a 
4-
way 

alv


he 

res
sur
es只 a
nd凡 wi

l b
e 
 c
al
cu
lat
ed 

or 

he 
 s
imp
le 
 s
it
uat

on 
 I 
F=0 

nd
a,
,a2,
a3,
a4,
只an
d凡 a
re 

ll 

ons
tan
ts.
At 
a,=a3>0 

nd夕>0 

he 

res
sur
es君 a
nd几 c
an 

e f
oun
d ro
fm

a2=a4>0.a
At  nd夕<0 

he 

re

, 




一P
2 

ur

2 
an
d 
s 



' 
. 

n 
S 
- 


be 





3 

  


2 
d 

ro
f m
气一
  

厂丁-
   “, 「,,--一 ̄竺一

  

只A,二凡A2
   .

/P二A ̄ 
} 

s一P・
“ 2
                

The 

esul
ts 
ha
ve 
bee
n s
ummar
ize
d i
n t
he 

abl
e (
2.1)

To 

how 

he 

sto
nis
hing 

fec
t o
f t
he 

pee
d夕o
f a
n u
nlo
ade
d s
yst
em 

n i
ts 

res
sur
es, 

n Fi
g .
2.1

P 

nd 

Z h
ave 

een 

lo
ted 

or 
Aa
/AZ=2 

s 
a 

unc
ti
on 

f 
th
e 
pi
st
on 

pee
d 
y.
Th
  
e f
oll
owi
ng 

onc
lus
ion
s c
an 

her
efo
re 
be 

rawn:

1) 

xce
pt 

or 
A,
/AZ=1
,th
e c
omb
ina
ti
ons 

how 

nor
mou
s p
re
ss
ur
e 
ju
mps 

ro
und 
y=0,

  
aus
ing 

impl
osi
ons
" o
r "
exp
los
ion
s" 

f o
il 

wing 

o i
ts 

ompr
ess
ibi
it
l y
. 
Con
seq
uen
tly 

moo
th

  
per
at
ion 

rou
nd夕=0 

s 
impo
ssi
bl
e.


2) 
At 
A1
/AZ
>1.
71 

he 
pr
ess
ure
s c
anno
t s
tay 
wi
thi
n t
he 

afe
ty 

ang
e 工P 、P、旦
6 ' 
     

P 

ve
n 

nd
er

o-l
oa
d c
ond
it
io
ns. 
Co
nsi
der

ng 

he 

ppo
si
ng 

fec
ts 

f t
he 

oad 
_F 
Y  o
n君a
nd凡,
mot
or

wi

h A,
/AZ<1
.71 

ann
ot 

per
at
e 
wi

hin 
a 

af
e 
pr
es
su
re 

an
ge 

it
he
r.
45

3) 
Fo
r a
ccu
rat
e a
nd 

moo
th 

ont
rol 

he 

nco
mpa
tib
ili
ty 
of 
a 

ymme
tri
c v
alv
e a
nd 

n a
symme
tri

mot
  or 

s c
lea
r. 
To 

voi
d p
res
sur
e j
umps 

nd 

nsu
re 

moo
th 

per
ati
on 

n a
symme
tri
c v
alv


  
nor
mal
ly 
no
t a
vai
la
ble
) mu
st 

e u
sed
, wi

h p
ort 

pen
ings 

rop
ort
ion
al 

o t
he 

orr
esp
ondi
ng
pi
  
st
on 

rea
's

仇"

  


a,二a

  


a4

 

一 

2.1
2)
Al 
                        
AZ A2

Tabl
e 2.1


IF=

0 
P=P 

=。 { A,,}_
I — = 1 
11.

71 }2 生 =1 1.71 2
} }A, 
   I } 只=P,=0 AZ
夕>0 二= 式
        
a,二a3>0
a,=a,=a
P,

+(
会)
’ 0.
50 0.
167 
10.
111 凡_
只 . ,
A,
A,、

1十 t一一 )-
        
0.
50 0.
285 0.
222

A,
          
夕<0
a,=a3=0 只 l 
A,
) 

, 0.
50 0.
487 }0.
444 二二
立 0.
50 0.
833 0.
889
a==a,>0. P,

・(

, 

3 P
S,・

A}

),
_
一t1

旅  14
                                  
1.-一

Jump
比.


t1,=(
,b`1
t)t) -钊

r_

, 
     
.1

1)

17



1;

备 儿


名二1

, 
i31


‘日
‘.

一一一一一一一一一l 
;r
1. 喇 乡
印丫万



,>0             


’<0
Fi
g. 
2.
10 

ump
s i
n 
th
e c
yli
nde
r 
pr
ess
ure
s 
ar
oun
d夕=0,
due 

o t
he 
sy
a mmet
y 
r o
f t
he 
mo
tor
(A, 
                        


-A 
L Z)

Thi
s combi
nat
ion 
wi
ll 
be 

nal
yze
d i
n s
ect
ion 
2.
6.

n t
he 
for
ego
ing 
an
aly
si
s i
t 
has 

een 
as
sume
d t
hat
艺F=0. I
t c
an 
be 
sh
own 
esi
aly 
tha
t 
at
IF=c o
nst
ant
, 
on
ly 

he 
lo
cat
io
ns 
of 

he 

res
sur
e 
ju
mps 
wi

l 
ch
ang
e, 
but 
no
t 
th
eir 
ma
gnit
ude
s.

2.
6 ASYMMETRIC 
M OTOR 
CONTROLLED
BY 
    
AN ASYM M ETRIC 
4-W AY 
VALVE

inc
e as
 
ymme
tri
c v
alv
e i
s i
nco
mpa
ti
ble 
wi
th 

n a
symme
tri
c mot
or, 

n sy
a mme
tri
c 4-
way

46

.一人
口4

 


ri

ic
al
-c
ent
er 

al
ve 

n w
hic
h丘 =五 a
nd

一 
wi
ll 
be 

nal
yze
d he
re. 
Ac
cor
ding 


A, 
  A2 A2
                          
Fi
g.2
.9, 
th
e mo
tor 
be
hav
ior 

s 
de
fin
ed 


, 
A,
一P2 
A:二IF二Fe+Fc+My+W}


・a

, 
      

d 
 2

P, 

- 
P, 

一a

2 

Cd
俘一_

E“ (
2.1
3)

Th
e i
mpl

cat
ion 

f a
n sy
a mme
tri


c 



3 
2 
    


d 

  
wa


2一


y 


4 
2 
      



{ 
 





, 

- 













ent
er 

alv
e i
s:
, ., a, 
          
   a
“王 _
“3 、 八 .、 _ _ ___ a, 
八 分 2  
_ ad ‘__‘
分4 、 n _
:几_ , _ 。 _ 。

Ei
ther 一一二.= 一一二 ̄> u wi
th a,= a,
,= u 
or 一 =— > u 
wit
h a,= a,= u
1.1 
            
   " 2 
                                  
+ , 
    
A'2

At 
L,=L,=L,
the 

res
sur
es月 a
nd几 c
an 

e s
ol
ved 
ro
fm E
qn. 
(2
.13

只 A2
”一
艺FI
P¥ P
2 
 A
,一艺F
,Ps (
2.1
4)
只 A,+A2
   P
s 
    

,+A2
We 
now 
int
roduce 

he 

cor
rect
ed" t

ta
l 

oa
d叉F
',a
nd 


e l

ad 

re
ss
ur
e 
PL 
of 
an 

sy
mme

ri

mot
or, 
cont
rol
led 
by 
a 
4-
way 
va
lve

又;

,=y;一
A,
典P}


F,
+F,
+My
+Wy
--'
华PS
, 2 一 z

2.1
5)

凡=
J 
  
F' (
2.1
6)
0.
5(A,+AZ)
Th
e 
di
fer
en
ce 

n 
ar
ea 
A,一AZ 

cau
ses
", 

n 
a 
wa
y, 
a 

ons
ta
nt 

re
-l
oa
d 
Fs
r=0
.5(
A,一AZ 
)P
S,

o 
th
e 
in

rod
uc
ti

n o
f艺F
'an
d P
L 
ma
ke
s 
se
ns
e. 
Co
mbi

in
g 
Eg
ns
.(
2.
14
), 

2.

5) 

nd 

2.

6)
几一

外el
ds
只一
1 一2

1 一2

I 
  
F' 几 Pz
  

Ps

  

 

 

-   

一   


2.1
7)
只(
A,+A:
) 2
P,’P
S-2
Su
bst
it
uti
on 

nto 
Eqn
. 
(2
.13
) g
ive


  
d阿[ 厂可 厂万 1 L二 (
2.1
8)
Y= 一丁一,
}— !a,,I
1一二丁
 ̄一a2,
11+.
二一 I
一二.
二几
A, 
    
V 
P 
L V 
  r, 
   V 
  r」 :


Th
is 

qua
ti
on 

xac
tl
y e
qua
ls 

he 

olu
tio
n (
2.1
0) 

eri
ved 

arl

er 

or 
a 

ymme
tri
c mo
tor 
wi

h a

ymmet ic 
r val
ve, 

o f
ur
the
r de
rivat
ions 
wi
ll 
be 

imi
lar

Subs
tit
uting

a, 
  
a, 
 l
a,_
。,}x 
  b, _ a
t x>0

       ‘月 . ‘ 吕....J. . 占 1  ̄ _ , 、

—  

= —J =i

— i

—盛 = —J x and “,

二 “,

=V
八, 八, i x __ _ I八 , 八,
凡一

执一
气一


     ‘ 1 ‘盆目丹 I 五 皿
人 47


 


 
    

一   

一   

a,=a3=0 
 an
d at 
x< 0
外el
ds





b,
, 
    

d 
 

p 
s 
      
x 
1- 

x 

, 
pP



一_


E 




・A 
Cd 
  

S 
x一
21 


I 

PL
一2

wher


一「一F

h'
一c
0 
 

艺F'
=艺F一0
.5
(A,
一A2 
)P


_一鱼 。,.
Pr
A; 一V 
     P 

 
b,一
     
b2
              
A, A2

2.19)

E(
A,十A2


‘二(
A}
j+A2 
)'

's
co

x}
,‘
      

  
Comp a
ris
on wit
h t
he 

esul

s of 
Sect
ion 
2.
4 s
hows 

hat 
the 
pa
ramet
ers 
of 
a 

ymmet
ric 
mot
or
wi
th 
a 
symme t
ri
c 
4-way 

alve 
ar
e v
ali
d f
or 
an 
as
ymmet
ri
c mot
or 
wit
h a
n a
symme
tri
c 
4-
way 
val
ve
by 

epl
acing
L 
          
F 
by艺F‘
二艺F一
0.5
(A
,一A
2) 
Ps

A 
                      
  b
y0.
5(A,
+A2
), (
2.
20)
叼A 
            

y 
b1
/式二b
2/A
2.
He
re 
b=a
al 

x i
s 
th
e wi
dt
h 
of 
th
e p
oto
r  
pe
nin
g a
rea“

2.
7 PUM P-
CONTROLLED 
HYDRAULICS
  
Fig.2.1
1 shows const
ruct
ion deta
ils 
of a pract

c a
l syste m. The pump  d
isplacement conro
t l
shown t h
ere us
es manual 
input (
cont
rol h
a ndl
e) t
o a sma ll val
ve-c
ontroll
ed servo s
ystem, and
me c
h anic
al f
eedback ro
f m the 
pu mp swash-pl
ate 
a n
gle. Ei t
her o
r both t
he input 
and feedback
fu
n cio
t ns ca
n be 
perf
ormed el
ecri
t cal
ly 
in 
the 
e l
ecro
t hydraulic s
ystems 
o f 
th
is 
type.
We 
   now st
udy i
n more d
etai
l 
v a
lve-c
onro
t l
led hy
d r
aul
ic s yst
ems such as 
th
at used t
o s
tr
o ke 
the
pump in many pump-contr
oll
ed syst
ems an
d for 
the d
ire
c t 
c onrol 
t of l
o ad 
motio n 

n my r
iad ot
her
appl
ications
. 
Wh ereas 
in 
pump-contr
oll
ed s
ys t
ems the 
fl
uid  powe r 
su
pp ly 
must be 
incl
uded in 
the
syst
e m mo d
el, 
anal
ysis 
of va
lve-c
on t
rol
led s
ystems can 
p roc e
ed wit
ho ut 
consider
ati
on of power

upp
ly 

eta
il
s 
if 
on
e a
ssu
mes 

he 

xis
ten
ce 

f a 

owe
r s
our
ce 

f c
ons
tan
t s
upp
ly 

res
sur
e 
p,


rr
esp
ect
iv
e o
f low 
f de
man
d. 
Po
wer 

uppl

es 

hat 

ppr
oxi
mat
e t
hi
s b
eha
vio
r a
re 

vai
la
ble 



evera
l di
ferent 

orms that 
tr
ade of
f comple
xit
y, 
cost, 
eff
ici
ency, 
and s
tat

c/dy
namic 
pr
essur


egul
ati
on ac
curac
y. 
Fi
g.2.12a
) s
hows t
he si
mples
t 
supply
, 
the 
reli
ef-
valv
e t
ype. 
Th
e s
pri
ng-
load
ed

eli
ef va
lve i
s compl
etely s
hut u
nti
l  p
res
sure 
rea
c h
es the l
ow  end 
of th
e re
gul
ati
ng 
range,
wh
ere
upo
n i
t 
op
ens 

uff
ic
ient

y t
o 
by
pas
s 
an
y pu
mp 
low 
f n
ot 

equ
ire
d b
y t
he 

erv
ova
lve
. 
The 
lu
f i

po
wer 

vol
ume 
low 
f r
ate 

ime
s r
eli
ef 

alv
e p
res
sur
e d
rop) 

f t
he 

ypa
sse
d lo
f w 

s 
co
mpl
et
ely 

ost

48
匀欲1
11
)‘
飞芍 、
1乙之
国二 瞬口

)、1
-定 P灿七 七1巴

Fi
g.2.
11 
Co
nst
ruc
tio
nal 

eta
il 

f p
ump
-co
ntr
oll
ed 

ydr
aul
ics

49
r,
-一 _;_
_ t_刁一 一 ̄一 Yet.cl
ue

一T 
RI

ul
an
ng





Loud 

?oi

Bi
pas
s 
fl
ow, 
QB 

`4
-一一一一 CI
  

Re
lie
f Lul
ve 一 一 ̄ ̄砂-叫卜 .


  
pelti
ng


  
Pump刀。、

a)

b)

c)

Fi
g.2.
12 
Powe
r s
uppl

es 

or 

alv
e-c
ont
rol 
hyd
rau
lic


nd 

onv
ert
ed 

o h
eat
, 
wh
ich 
ma
y r
equ
ire 

nst
al
la
ti
on 

f a
n o
il 

ool
in
g s
yst
em. 
Whe
n t
he 

erv


ero 
ef
fic
iency

sy
stem 
re
qui
res 
no 
lo
f w, 
all 

he 

ump-g
ene
rat
ed 
powe
r i
s c
onve
rte
d t
o 
he
at, 
gi
ving
Suppl
y p
res
sur
e p, 
var
ie
s by 
abo
ut 
13% o
ver 

he 
regul
ati
ngrange 

or 
st
eadycondi
tions 
and


esp
ons
e t
o t
ran
sie
nt 
lo
f w 

equ
ire
men
t i
s q
uit
e f
ast
; t
hus 

hes
tan
dar
d a
ssu
mpt
ion 
of 

ons
tant

p, 
us
ed i
n s
ervo
-syst
em ana
lys
is 

s u
sual
ly 
re
asona
ble
. Pu
mp 

ize 

gal

min) 
mus
t b
e c
hos
en 


ma
tch 
the 

arg
est 
ant
ici
pat
ed 
ser
vo-
sys
tem 
demand.
an 
accumul
ator 


Si
nce 

erv
o-s
yst
em 
lo
f w 
dema
nds 

re 

y n
atu
re 

nte
rmi
tt
ent
, 
ad
dit
ion 


50

ig.
2.
12 
b) 

ll
ows 

se 
of 
a 

mal

er 
pu
mp 

inc
e p
art 

f 
th
e r
equ
ir
ed 
ra
tnsi
ent 
lo
f w 

s 
no
w s
uppl

ed
by the acc
umu la
tor, 
which 
is 
recharged duri
ng servo 
idle 
peri
ods. 
Th e 
sma lle
r pump  wast
es 
less
energy duri
ng peio
r ds when a
ll 
the low 
f is 
bypasse
d, inc
reas
ing efici
ency a n
d  p
erhaps al

owing
deleti
on of 
the hea
t excha
ng e
r. 
Pump  pressu
re pulsat
ions 
(re
lat
ed to 
pu mp  sp
ee d 
and numb e
r of
cyl
ind ers
) a
re al
so r
educed by 
the accumu l
ator. 
Futh
r e r 

ncrese 
a i
n eficiency is 
provided 
by t
he
unloaded-val
ve type of s
up p
ly o f 
Fi g
.2.12 c). 
He r
e  a
n accumulato
r  i
s  man d
atory si
nce t
he
unloader va
lve d
isconnect
s 
the 
pump  ro
f m th
e load 
wh en t
he 
p r
ess
u r
e-sensing i
lne 
report
s t
hat 
set
pressure 
has 
been r
eached. 
Although the 
pump  con
tinues 
to 
pump at 
ful
l lo
f w, 
li
ttl
e energ
y i
s us
ed
sin
c e t
he chec
k valve 
isol
at
e s 

he  p
u mp ro
f m syst
em  pre
ssur
e and t
he unloader val
ve provi
des 

bypa ss 
to t
he re
servoi
r at 
near
ly zero gauge pres
sure. 
Unloader 
v a
lves have a regu
lati
ng ra
nge
si
mi lar 
to 
rel
ief 
valves, 

he pump  cycing 
l bet
we en lo
a d 
and unl
oad to 
ma intai
n syst
em  pr
essur

ne
ar 

he 

et 
po
int
. 
Fi
g.
2.
12d
) s
hows 
a 
pr
ess
ure
-co
mpe
nsa
ted 
pu
mp 

ype 
of 

uppl
y. 
He
re 


ari
abl
e-d
isp
lac
eme
nt 

ump 

ses 
a 
pr
ess
ure 

ens
ing 

che
me 

o a
djus
t 
it
s di
spl
ace
men
t s
o a
s t

ke
ep 

yst
em 

res
sur
e 
ne
ar 

he 

et 
va
lue 

nd 

uppl
y 
on
ly 

he 

ump 
low 
f n
eede
d by 

he 

oad
, 
gi
vi
ng
hi
gh 
ef
fi
cie
ncy.

2S 
FROM 
MATHEMATI
CAL 
MODEL 
TO 
TRANSrtR 
FUNCTI
ON
The 
   ma
the
mat
ic
al 
mo
del 
de
riv
ed 

or 

ari
ous 
hy
dra
uli
c 
se
rvo
sys
te
ms 

ela
tes 

he 

pee
d夕t
o 
th


al
ve 
di

pl
ac
eme
nt
二an
d 

o 

he 
to

al 


ad艺F
丫 
          
F 丫户
夕=Km 

x一Ld-
一)一通已一.‘
Ch 
                               
    CO
As 

ndi
cat
es 

n 
Fi
g.
2.
13 

he 

neti
rlf
a  
or
ces 
My a
nd 

he 

isc
ous 

ri
ct
io
n砂 c
an 

e d
eiv
r e

mo
tor 

is
pla
ceme
nt 
y 

The 

xte
na
r l 

or
ces 

e a
nd 

he 
Co
ulo
mb 


rct

on 
Fc 

an 


di
stur
banc
e s
igna
ls
=Fe+F,+My+吟 .

API 
=刃  
F 凡 十F,



I护十”.

el
l C口

+ K,
,! 十

Fi
g. 
2.
13 
Bl
ock 
di
agr
am 

or 

phys
ica
l" 
mod
el 

f h
ydr
aul
ic 

erv

Th
e v
el
oci

y g
ain 
Km,
th
e h
ydr
aul

c s

ifn
ess 

h a
nd 

he 

il 

pin
rg s
ti
fne
ss 

o d
eri
ved 

or

ari
ous 
val
ve-
mot
or 
combi
nat
ions 
ar
e s
umma
rize
d i
n t
abl
e 2.
2.

As 

ndi
cat
ed 

n F
ig. 
2.
13, 
th
e c
ont
rol 
lo
op 

s 
cl
ose
d by
51
E二 r一 y (
2.23)

an

x=K, 
G, 
(s)
E (
2.24)

th
wl

卿GS 
(s
)=1
Tab
le 

.2 

yst
em 
pa
rame
ter
s 
Km,
Ch 

nd 

.. 

or 

ydr
aul

c s
erv
o's
As
ymme
tri
c (
A,=2A2
=A) Sy
mme
tri
c 
(Al
=A2
=A)
val
ve 3-
way 4-
way
Cent
er Open Cri
tical Open Cri
tical

K, 2
b_厉 b_厉 2
b 厉 b 
   (

— C、.{
一二一 一 C、、I
= — C、‘I 一 C.
,_】
一二
A 一VP: A 一VP: A 一VP: A “丫P
PS 
A 2P, 
A 2P, 

Ch

S 
A 一

  
,}
一x

i U
   1
xI
                                                

Co E
A>E
A 2
EA>兰
EA
L 
   S L 
  
    S

K, 
G, 
(s)
=xl
e i
s t
he 


ans
fe
r f
unc
ti
onof 

he 
mechani
sm (
for 

nst
anc
e a 
leve
r or 
an

lec
tro
-hy
dra
ul
ic 

erv
ova
lve
) t
ra
nsf
ormi
ng 

he 

rro
r s
ign
al 
E 

nto 

he 

alv
e d
ispl
ace
men
t 
x.
Combi
nat
ion 
of 

he 
above 
equa
tions 
yi
elds

IF
+K
. 
I 
F 
+夕
=K }
KSGS

CO Ch
  
F_+ F_ F p

十P C
竺 ;
十(M
K ,
十-
w )y
、(1
十w
. 
_
m) 
K y                   

,‘


、.了
=K_K_
(G}
E一一
一乞一一二 )一 (

        

CO
     Ch CO
     Ch K.
                

ch  CO
  




Obvi
ous
ly,n ew coef
fici
ent
s i
nthe 
di
ff
ere
nti
al 
equa
tion 
ar
e des
irabl
e i
n or
der 

o expr
ess

yna
mic 

har
act
er 

f 
th
e s
yst
em 
mo
st 

ir
ect

y. 
As 

ew 

oef
ic
f i
ent
s 
ar
e 
ch
ose
n 
co
o,杏,
Kv,
Ch 

nd
以,,
Eqn. 
(2.
25) 
cha
nge
s 
int

歹一

_
_‘_ F+F_
、 户_
十左

+2
}上+夕
二K.,I 
U, 
P--L

I “
    
  .

C。
卜一
I C。
. (
2.26)

       \
       1
1 /

Her

C*二KS
   ch, (
2.21)


。二。
。(

1 

+ 
-w
压)
Ch
二。

      

2.28)

Ks 
Km (
2.29)
Kv= “K, 
Km
二 wK,
I 卜 --
一 一泣

  

一厂 』
 ̄|
乙 一


2.30)

0)
n=
}M

52
。 K   
么 = 一一 1

t--     
M 七。十 ̄

- 产二=二= 二一
Kv 

o十止竺- (
2.31


    
Ch’ 一 2
V 
MC, 2(
  
o,C
 h 
 M.

Ch,
Co 

nd 
K a
 
re 

he 
hy
dra
uli
c 
st
ifn
ess
, 
th
e o
il 

ping 
r s
ti
fne
ss 

nd 

he 

elo
cit
y 
ga
in 

f t
he

ompl
et
e 
 s
yst
em, 
 r
esp
ect

vel
y. 
 1
t 
 sh
oul
d b
e 
 n
ote
d t
hat 
 i
n 
 p
rac
ti
ce 
wK,

,/
ch<
<I,

o 
Co“c
, 
an
d K,
,“KS 
Km・
Mos
  t i
mpo
rta
nt 

or 

he 
dy
nami
c be
hav
ior 

re 

he 

nda
mpe
d na
tur
al 

re
que
ncy以,
and 

he

el
at
iv
e d
amp
ing杏,
rep
res
ent

ng 

he 

ydr
aul

c ma
ss-
spr

ng 

yst
em 

f 
th
e a
ct
uat
ed 
ma
ss 

nd 

he
oi
l 
spri
ng. 
Eqn (
2.26) 

s depi
cte
d vi
sua
ll
y in 
th
e blo
ck di
agr
am 
of Fi
g.2.1
4, 
which 
can 
al
so 
be
de
riv
ed di
rec
tly 

ro m 
Fig.2
.13 
by e
lement
ary 
bloc
k dia
gra
m man
ipula
ti
o n. 
Fi
gur
e 2.
14 
shows 


ont
ro
l 
lo
op 
wi

h a
n i
nt
eg
rat
or 

n 
se
ri
es 
wi

h a 

eco
nd 

rde
r 
sy
st
em. 
Ex
tena
r l 

oad 
Fe 
an
d 
F, 
ar

di
st
urbi
ng 

he 

yst
em.
Th
  
e t
ra
nsf
orma
ti
on 
of 

he 

phy
sic
al" 
mo
del 

hown 

n F
ig.
2.
13, 
wi
th 

ts 

ara
met
ers 
Km,
Ch,

o,M 

nd 
w i
nt
o 
th
e "
con
tr
ol
" 
mo
del 
sh
own 

n 
Fi
g 
.3
.14 
wi

h i

s s
yst
em 

ara
met
er
s K,

,Ch

Co
,Co
o 
an
d杏wi

l 
en
abl
e 
us 

o 
st
ar
t 
dy
nami
c 
an
al
ys
is 

nd 

ynt
he
si
s 

n 
ch
apt
er 


  
Some ina
f l 

emar
ks 

egar
ding 
the 

inea
ri
ty 
of 
hyd
raui
lc 
sys
tems 
must 
be 
mad
e. 
Figs 
2.13 
and
2.
14 
su
gg es
t f
ir
mly 
al
 i
nea
r sys
tem, 
i.
e. 
a s
yst
em ac
cord
ing t
o al
 
ine
ar d
ife
ren
tial 
eq
uati
on.
Ho
wev
er
, 
ev
ery 

yst
em 

re
at
ed 

o f
ar 

s 
fa
r 
fr
om 


nea
r. 
No
t 
on
e o
f 
th
e p
ara
met
er
s 
K,
,Ch 
an
d 
co

n 
Fi
g. 

.13 

s 
a 

eal 
co
nst
ant
. 
The 

in
ear
iz
ati
on 

roc
ess 

s 
ch
armi
ng, 
of 

our
se, 
bu
t 
it 
sug
ges
ts 

oo
mu
ch. 
Neve
rth
ele
ss, 
Fi
gs.
2.1
3 a
nd 

.14 

re 

xtr
eme
ly 

sef
ul 

f 
ha
ndl
ed 
wi
th 

are

FR+F,
1一

兰心


        
K VI+
S 
G I


} 。2 __ S

氢+
2“可2

Fi
g.2
.14 
Bl
ock 
di
agr
am 

or 

con
trol
" 
mo
del 

f h
ydr
aul
ic 

erv

Fo
  
r e
xampl
e, 

ne 

as 

o 
re
membe
r t
hat 

he 

il 

pri
ng 

ti
fne
ss 

. 
va
ri
es 

ons
ide
rabl
y wi
th 

he

ist
on 
po
sit
ion 

see 
Fi
g. 

.11
). 
Th
us 

nal
ysi
s b
ase
d o
n al
 

nea
r mo
del 

olds 

nly 

or 

mal


sci
ll
at
io
ns 
ar
oun
d one 
pos
it
io
n. 
In 

not
her 
pos
it
ion
, 
ano
the
r 
c. 

s 
val
id. 
In 
pra
cti
ce 

ne t
akes 

he

osi
ti
on 
whe
re 
c, 

s 
a min
imum. 
The 
ve
loc
it
y g
ain 
K o 
f 
a勿draui

c mot
or 
depe
nds 
on 
the 

oad
APL 

see 
Fi
g. 
2.
3). 
If 

ece
ssa
y, 
r a
dequ
ate 

orr
ect
ion
s mus
t 
be 
ma
de.
Re
  
gar
din
g t
he 

ydr
aul
ic 

ti
ff
nes
s 
ch,Ta
ble 

.2 

hows 
a 

igh
ly 

on-
li
nea
r c
har
act
er
. 
On
ly 


open-
cent
er 
val
ve sC
s 
i ,
, a
ppr
oxi
mat
el
y, 
a 
co
nst
ant 

s t

e u
nd
er

ap 


gi
on 


x)<U)
,bu
t 


cri
tica
l-cent
er 

val

, 
pr

ves 


po
rt
io
nlt
a o 

x}
一‘SO 
 Ch=-  a
t 
X=0.In 
cal
cula
ti
ons 
re
gar
din


tab
il
it
y 
and 

amp
ing
, 
a 

ar
ge 

. 
up 

o Ch=- wil
l 
al
ways 

rove 

o 
be 
a 

afe 
ass
umpti
on.

  
n t
hes
e c
omp
lex 
mat
te
rs 
on
e c
oul
d e
asi

yfo
rge
t t
he 
mai
n n
on-
li
nea
riz
ing 

act
or. 
Th
is 


Co
ulo
mb 
ri
fct
io
n F,,r
eve
rsi
ng 


s s
ign 
wi
th 

hes
pee
d夕.Thu
s, 

f 
no
n-l
in
ear 

ont
ro
l 
an
aly
sis 

as

o be 
ca
rri
ed 
out
, t
he 
Coul
omb 

rict
ion 

houl
d beconsi
dered 
fi
rst

54
CHAPTER 
3 DYNAM IC 
ANALYSIS 
AND 
SYNTHESI

3.
1 INTRODUCTION

  
or 

he 

yna
mic 

nal
ysi
s 
of 

ydr
aul

c s
erv
o me
cha
nis
ms 

he 

iff
ere
nti
al 

qua
ti
on


'_
一二.
,,+ V.
二 + LL
. =
,,「
= A A 
_ F+F1
U _E 一 一
F十F
I一 -. (
3.1)
L 
     r ‘、 扩 }i 
   } 
       
n     t      n
(l) 
           
W _  I  L ‘ I 
     V n
一 o 
   }  L ,
. J u

de
riv
ed 
in 

ect
ion 
2.8 
will 

e us
ed. 
Fi
g 3.1 
sh
ows 

gai
n t
he 

loc
k di
agr
am
wher
e r=clos
ed 
loop 
input 
si
gnal

£=r一y=o
       pen 
loop 
inp
ut 
si
g na
l,
Y=o
      

tput 
moti
on,
      
凡 =ex
te
rnal 
fo
rce,a
nd
FQ=Co
      

lomb 

ri
cti
on.
FB
                    
+F,

三} 厄
Ck 
I 
           
1C,

石1
卜曰.

Gs匕
_



p十
,c

- 
s0
+1
Fi
g.3.
1 
Bl
ock 

iagr
am 

or 

ont
rol 
an
aly
sis

Th
e s
yst
em 

ara
met
er
s a
re 

he 

elo
ci
ty 

ai
n 
K,

,th
e h
ydr
aui

c s
ti
ff
nes
s 
Ch 
an
d t
he 

il 

pr
in


ti

fne
ss 
Co 
of 

he 

omp
le
te 

ys
te
m a
s 
we
ll 

s 
th
e n
at
ur
al 

re
que
ncy 

00 

nd 

he 

amp
in
g杏o
f 
th


il
-s
pr
in
g-ma
ss 

yst
em. 
Th
ey 

re 

eri
ve
d f
ro
m t
he 

phy
si
ca
l" 

ara
met
er
s 
KS
,K,
,Ch
,Co
,M 

nd
w 

see 
Eg
ns.
2.
27-
31 

nd 
Fi
g.
2.
13 

n Se
cti
on 
2.
8)
. 
Th
e t
ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
Gs 
re
pre
sen
ts 

he 

yna
mic

ato
r  
f 
the 
mechani
sm r
ela
tin
g t
he 
er
ror 
si
gnal 
E=
=r一y  t
o t
he 
va l
ve d
ispla
cement 
x.
Dy
  namic 
ana
lysi
s a
nd adj
ust

ng c
ontro
l a
cti
on wi
ll 
be 
bse
a d mainly 
on fr
eque
ncy 
res
pon
se. 


iic
f ul
ty he
re is 
the no
n-l
inea
r beh
avior 
of Coul
omb fr
ict
ion, ma k
ing con
ven
tio
nal 
li
nea

re
f qu
enc
y a
nal
ysi
s 
impo
ssi
ble
. I
n s
pit
e 
of 

ts 

arg
e i
nlu
f e
nce 

n s
yst
em 
be
havi
or, 
Coul
omb 
ri
fcti
on
ha
rdl
y a
fec
ts 

he 

dju
stme
nt 
of 

he 

ont
ro
l ga
in 

n p
rac
ti
ce. 
Th
is 

ta
teme
nt 
wi
ll 
be
come 
mo
re
plaus
ibl
e whe n, 
at 
the 
end of 
thi
s cha
pte
r , 

t will 
be pro
ved mathe
ma t
ical
ly i
n two  d
iferen

sit
uat
ions 
that 
Coulomb 
fri
cti
on 
does 
not 

nlu
f en
ce the 
sys
tem s
tabi
li
ty 

n prac
tic
e.
Th
  is 
at 
leas
t i
s s
ome jus
ti
fi
cat
ion 
for 
our 
approach, 
which 
ig
nores 
Coulomb f
ric
tio
n  (
except 
fo

one t
ri
vial 
ca
se) 
at 
the 
begi
nning 
of 
thi
s 
chapte
r, 
enabl
ing us 

o pr
oceed 
to 
clas
sica
l 
in
l ea
r anal
ysi

and s
y n
thesi
s. 
This 
does 
not 
mean t
hat 
Coulomb ri
f c
ti
on has 
no 
inlu
f enc
e on s
ystem behavi
or i

gener
a l
, o
n the cont
rar
y. 
In many a
ppli
cati
ons, Coulo
mb  ri
f ct
ion 
ma y 
d e
ter
iorat
e the sy
stem

omp le
tel
y wi
th 
res
pect 

o s
peci
al 
sp
eci
fi
cat
ion 
such 
s 
a a
ccur
acy 
(owi
ng t
o d
ead 
zon
e), 
ba
ndwi
dth

owing to dyna
mic dead zo
ne) or 
si
lp-
sti
ck mot
ion (
demonst
rat
ing i
ts
elf 
by a
ccel
er
ati
on

ist
urbanc
es c
aused 
by 

rre
gula
r ri
fct
ion 
beh
avior
).

55
3.
2 PROPORTI
ONAL 
CONTROL

The op
en 

oop 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
H( 
s)=Y/£c
an 
be 

oun
d Eg
n(3.
1) 
orFi
g.3
.lby 

et
ti
ng
bandwi
dth 
of 

he
Fe=0 a
nd 
F “Q.
Ass
umi
ng 

urt
he
r, 
GS 
(s)=1
,wh
ic
h i
s 
al

owe
d wh
en 

he

erv
ova
lve 

s 
mu
ch 

igh
er 

han 

he 
na
tur
al 

re
que
ncy姚 ,
we 

in

Y Kv (
3.2)
H 

s)=


! {

   _
C s  ̄ 。 s

一a 
+L
 S一
刃一十1

U        
(先

Eq
n. 

3.2
) s
hows 

n i
nte
gra
tor 

n s
eri
es 
wi
th 
as 
eco
nd 

rde
r s
yst
em. 

n t
he 

pen 

oop
0 
                                             
               


req
uen
cy 
re
spo
nse 

he 
ampl

tud
e r
at
ion 
    
a a
nd 
phse 
a l
ag价c
an 
be 

ound 
by

ett

ng 
s=j
w a
nd

0H
0 a

夕一

Kv
  

 

 

 

 

 .

 

了 

、 


3.3)
一   

-   

一   

 、

. 

 、

一 ,  ̄ ̄  ̄,, 一 分一 一 - . ,一
了 
 


o, 

(1一 C




2)
2 
、(

} 
鱿


) 
) 

0=Ar
g H(
j()二 一一


         兀
      
一 arct
an

} 
' 




0 (
3.4)




0D


2 

    

Th
e Bod
e di
agr
am 

s 
sh
own 

n Fi
g.3
.2 

), 

he 
Ny
qui
st 

lot 

n b)
. 
Bo
th 
di
agr
ams 

hou
ld 
be 

tudi
ed

are
ful

y. 0 
                            

A 
   e 价=-7
phas r 
oc
cur
s a
t。“叭 ,whe
r C二Kv/
e 
G 2甄 .
To 

e s
ta
bl
e 
th
e 
Ny
qui
st 
pl
ot

houl
d note
nci
rcl
e 
th
e po
int
一10
,. 
 Thu
s t
he 

tabi

ity 

ond
iti
on 


Kv
             (
3.5)
<2}
WO
                


nd 

ons
equ
ent
lythe velo
city 
gai
n 
Kvi
s l

mit
ed 
by 
th
e pr
oduc
t ofnat
ura
l re
fquenc
y叭a nd


amp
ing .T
o t
ransl
ate t
his 

ntophy
si
cal 

ara
met
er
s, 
WO 
an
d杏o fEqns 
(2.
30)
, (
2.31
) of
Se
cti
on2.
8 mus
t be 

ubs
tit
uted. 
The 

esul
t 
is
C _ w
        
K.
, 
I 
1一 - ,I< — . (
3.6)
      
Ch一 M

o t
he 
ra
ti
o o
f o
il 
sp
ri
ng 

ti
ff
nes
s an
d hy
dra
uli
c 
sti
ff
nes
s a
s wel
l 
as 

he 

at
io 

f v
isc
ous 
fr
ic
ti
on

oefi
ci
ent 
wa 
nd ma
ss 
M 
ar
e 
ext
remely 

mpor
tan
t. 
The
ir 

onsequ
enc
es 
wi
ll 
be 
di
sc
usse
d l
at
er


  
o 
pr

vi
de 

ot 
on

y 
st

bi
li

y, 
bu
t 

de
qu
at
e 

am
pi
ng 

s 
we

l, 
th
e 
so

ca
ll

d 
M 

1.
3-

ri

er

on

oul
d be 

sed
, i
mpl
yin
g t
hat 

he 

los
ed 

oop 

mpl
it
ude 

ati
o ne
ver 

xce
eds 

..
5. 
Ob
eyi
ng 

is


ri
te
rion 

he 
cl
ose
d l
oop 
st
ep 
res
pons
e 
normal
ly 
sh
ows a
n ov
ers
hoot 

f a
ppro
ximat
el
y 2
3% (f
or 


eco
nd or
der 

yst
em 
thi
s 
isex
act.
) 
Thu
s i
n t
he 
pol
ar 
di
agr
am b) 

he 
Nyqui
st 
pl
ot 

s 
not 
al
lo
wed t


nte
rse
ct 

he 
M =1
.3-
cir
cle
. To 

voi
d ompl
c i
cat
ed 

alc
ula
ti
ons 

t 
is 
go
od 

ngi
nee
r's 

rac
tic
e t


ocu
s a
tt
ent

on 

n t
wo 

mpo
rta
nt 
po
int
s 
of 

he 
M 
=1 
.3-
cci
rcl
e. 
The
y l
ead 

o t
he 
we
ll 
kn
own
56

口7

仍!l一
’、

『、 十
‘‘了 二
..口
    

户口洲曰
ii


户,‘尸

粼)
了 红
户 ,碑


 

白         硬叫 〕
/产

 一

. ̄‘ .砚 L 
- ̄一一 一  ̄

       
二‘ ̄.户 户门 ̄
巨三 已二二 ‘
{」
夕门

曰 为 + rl

尝阵 、、、 川 阶] / i
汽口口 \ /尸洲/ 门
万 下一n

习声/于 :}
级)

一沪
心 、

b} \


   一


二_

.1
v ,份


   尸一 它

.、
旗 \
U入 \


沪 IO
    





  



+勺/ 

、勺之勺、
I l
l \



     r

X夕尸

之、、灿七之势之』U护端 舒之,
多 

z 卜,O , ,

I a -
泛r " 

`r 
M 
Q o
0 

/ I I
} 

O p 粥 b 勺
N ^'
1卜 劝
、 ,


l }
  
lP 、,

哭 人0


月门 O O 尧 夸 O N -

         门 门

刀’

/ 义0


食 髯氯

尹、
气0 0

O 之 之
万 八


,灿


、气

协 气
火口一.
伪 0・
之知卜
  

队"

只兹

卜 月口.一  ̄
O 
        
}I




冲]

,0 1







气J,
  
、"

.目
口创. 一 林. I
    
一 弘 、、


        
甸‘
气1.1只\

、.

护00、.

、、
  

、 、
尹}口曳,岁 〕Q 叼』匀 几气一弋
‘..‘1


二多

巨口 丫:/一1
.护
尸尸尸产 厂芬
二口

门门
vi


/ a
口日U:/ ; 门门 /
// } 0
l 套 之

乡罕





  


l I

I }
l 二
I ‘





     I
    

     、 0

二}3


1汾I L}14
。户 内-


代J ̄一 毛 O O 自百

CI
8 
遗         

Q   j
T ・

Fi
g 3.
2 
Pr
opo
rti
ona
l 
co
ntr
ol

57

) 
ampl

tud
e ma
rgi
n 
of 

bou
t 1
00%, 
me
ani
ng 
a< 
0.5 

t价= -9r

0 
                                                
              

2) 
ph
ase 
ma
rgi
n 
of 

bou
t 
45
0, 
me
ani
ng功<
_- 
0.751
r a
t a二 1.
Resp
ecti
ng bot
h mar
gin
s i
mp l
ies 
nor
ma l
ly 
that 

he 
cl
ose
d loop 
re
f quency 
re
sponse 
wil
l 
show 
an
ampl
itu
de rat
io 
of 
maxi
mally 
1.3 
and t
hat 
the 
st
ep 

espons
e wil
l 
have 
an ov
ersho
ot 
small
er 
th
an
23%. 
Foll
owing 
the 

ule
s o
utl
ined 
above, 

he s
yst
ems 
wil
l 
be s
ufic
ient
ly 
damped.

  
or 

ow 

al
ues 
of
杏,wh
ich 

re 

sua
l 
in 

ydr
aul

c s
er
vo'
s, 
th
e a
mpl

tud
e ma
rgi
n 
is 

omi
nan
t. 
At


)二WO 

s价二一1 a=K, 
r,  /2
枷。,
Thu
s a 
c0
.5 

iv
es

              
一二 (‘
             二 、

,1
2-
EO1
二二 (
3.7)

               ’
          
L Ch
」M
Fo
r t
he 

unu
sua
l) 

ar
ge 

alu
es 
of
gthe 

has
e ma
rgi
n 
is 

omi
nan
t. 
At
W , FI
T-
1 .. 0 
   3
— =一白十V白一十1 
田o

      

s中- --1r 
and



=疏


w0




-_ 

}v
+ 
 
 }

+1


o a 
- 
< 1 gi
ves


v、
Do





-J
_
?}
;、
.f 
2 
+l, (
3.8)

The 
re
sul
ts 
of 
Eqns. 

3.7
) a
nd (
3.8) 

ave 
bee
n pl
oted 
in 
Fi
g.3
.2 
c) 

oge
ther 
wi
th 
exa
ct 

esul
ts 
of
th
e M=1.
3 -
cri
te
rio
n i
tse
lf, 

bta
ined 
by 
co
mpu t
er. 

t 
sh
ows 
an al
mos
t 
perf
ect 

gre
ement 

etween

he 
cr
iteri
a.

Ta
  
king 

alu
es 

f凡 /
au
, ro
f m 
Fi
g.
3.
2 
c) 

n d) 

ci
d 
e)
, 

he 

los
ed 

oop 

mpl

tude 

at
io 

<1
,  

3)

nd 
uni
t 
st
ep 

espons
e (
maxi
mum 
over
shot
<23%) 
ar
e s
hown
Sa
  
tis
fac
tor
y r
espo
nse
s a
re 
ob
tai
ned 
wit
h 0.
3<咨<03. 
At杏<0.
3 t
he 

tep 

espo
nse 

s v
ey


erv
ous 

nd 

he 

req
uenc
y r
esp
ons
e s
hows 

n a
mpl

tud
e di
p l
owe
r t
han 

.7. 
At
杏X0.
7 t
he 

tep

espons
e is 

lowi
ng down a
nd t
he 
bandwi
dth 

i.
e. 

he 

requ
enc
y u
p t
o wh
ich 

mpl

tude 

ati
os 



ot f
all 

elow 
0.7
) d
e c
rea
ses 
ra
pidl
y.
Co
  
ncl
usi
on: 

ydr
aul

c c
ont
ro
l s
yst
ems 
wi

h a
n a
deq
uat
e 
da
mpi
ng 

oef
fi
ci
ent 
0.
3<百<0.
7 
an
d a
we
ll 

djus
te
d v
elo
cit
y 
ga
in 
K,
, s
how 
a 

andwi
dt
h C
)h 

qua
l 
to 

ts 

atu
ral 
re
fque
ncy 

oo・

3.
3 DYNAM IC 
LOAD
Fo
  
ll
owi
ng 

he 

alc
ula
ti
on 

ule 

f Fi
g. 

.3 

), 

he 

ffe
ct 

f a 

inu
soi
dal
ly 

ayi
r n
g l
oad 
FQ 
on 

he

utp
ut 
y 

t r=0 

nd 
F,=0 

an 

e f
oun
d d
ir
ec
tl
y.
Kv一
CO一
5一

「K   
 1

} {
sz

+2
杏一上+1
  


I-
— + 一一
y L
Lch

s 
   
s 
  co 

l叫o
. 
    (
0o 」 1
护一

Fe 1
    
未    
K Ca 」。、 、, _ 「 _z

+2
}一二+1

S  I S
1+


o’
‘(

o 
L(

+2
杏二+1 叭
      

      

        
(K.
, C,}(0
)}
I 
          
       
I一 ・一 1
+1— 1
C. 
v } i 
)(
0I C
 t
i I 
1w 


3.9)
一拼.
=I, “一 、
弓‘ “ 一‘
凡 1
1(K. __0
) 
2丫 (

) 
2(
_(A
) 
2丫

    
}0

o一2
‘0

02
!十W

2\
‘一
U)



he 

ta
bil

ty 

ond
it
io
n Kv/
loo<2
杏,d
eri
ve
d e
arl

er, 

an 

e r
eco
gni
zed 

asi

y s
in
ce
Co
yl 
Fe二- a
tK,
/)o=2
0 } a
nd 

o二No.

2 ++ H 

    

尸 _ 万 H H H
Hr Y=了H 
-H艺十1
+H 
H护


        
凡 + 


1-心


Co

尸  ̄ S十 K v 
I+

到‘
片月m
}+a
sm 





Co

-x - t

F,’2
鱼-
  
,C

h - 尸/ 李

ni
几 .,
  
Ch -
   一
一一洲/ .
夕 气
__
_
_
且J

了 1
_
1价不一 卜
、一
_军二
一F-

   次

忿

3i

}-
于于
7- 一
,犷.
丁 一-
   

、 \
  

不 - 「一

一 一 饭 F


-r官目尸吧 J喇,声护

次4 「一 }
、\
  
\_


  



        

/ K


”‘

一一
一B




WY



Y_


r一L4

_
__
! \
        
!_
_立_
饮oa 次Ua叹(
7S吹r 心 众娜 疾‘ 度J 之 口 2
WQ一— ‘
Fi
g.3
.3 
Dy
nami
c l
oad


  
or 

he 

nal
ys
is 
of 
th
e 
lo
ad 

eha
vi
or 
we 

ss
ume 
a 
ve
lo
ci
ty 

ai
n Kv=0.
4wo 

deq
uat
el
y 
ad
ju
st
ed 

o 
an

cc
ep
ta
bl
e 
da
mpi
ng =0
.4,
pov
rid
in
g 
go
od 

es
po
ns
es 

f y 

n;a
t凡=
0. 
Wi

h 
th
es
e 
da
ta 

owe
ve
r, 
th


oa
d 
be
hav
io
r 
ma
y 
st

ldi
 
fe
r 
co
nsi
de
ra
bl
y, 
as 
is 
sh
own 

n 
Fi
g.
3.
3 
c) 
wh
ee 
r Co
刘凡i
s 
pl
ot

ed 

s 
a 

unc

ion 




equ
enc
y 
at 
va
ri
ou
s 
va
lu
es 

f 
Co/
q.Ac
cor
di
ng 

o 
Eq
n. 

2.
31
) 

n 
Se
ct
io
n2.
8,
59


K 一 一 w Kv  一 二 t

.2C
 CO斗 —          。
一、_tc}

一点 、
/M C(
、十一,声二二二二 一一=0.
4 (
3.1
0)
2C`
,” 2y
I 
MCa 2u)
o Ch   
2Mo)o Ch 2M叭
    

ot
h 
vi
sc
ous 

ri
ct

on。
,an
d t
he 

at
io 
Co/
Ch 

ont

ibu
ti
ng 

o .S
in
ce 

t 

s 
pr
ef
er
abl
e 
fo
r 
th


nf
lu
enc
e o
f 
th
e l
oa
d凡o
n t
he 

utp
ut 

o 
be 

s 
sma
ll 

s 
po
ssi
bl
e, 
a 

ydr
aul

c s

ifn
ess 
Ch=0


s des
ira
ble 

the
, 
al
ter
nat
ive 

s PI
-cont
rol
) 
see 
Sect
ion3.
8). 
ht 

hat 
cas
e t
her
e i
s no 

oad 

rror 

t l
ow

requ
enc
ies

1. Co 少 o一
Wi
th吼 二。 ^ =t
11M -_ 二0.

0-
-}
o 户 KV
  
Wh
  
en 

he
re 

s, 

nfo
rt
una
te
ly
, 
no 

is
cou
s f
ri
ct
io
n, 
Ch 
sh
oul
d 
be 

ecr
eas
ed 

n 
or
dert
o pr
ovi
de

dequat
e da
mp i
ng. 
But, 

s Fi
g.3
.3 

) s
hows 

ery 

lea
rly
, t
his 

s do
ne 

t t
he 

xpe
nseof 

he 

oad


rro
r a
t l
ow 
fre
quen
c i
es.
Co夕 co
Wi

h Ch 
# 

-,1
1tH
F 

  ,
L 

-1

, 


cor
res
pondi
ng 

o t
he 

oad 

rror 
der
ive
d ear
li
er.

3.
4 DYNAMIC 
DEAD 
LONE 
DUE 
TO 
COULOMB 
FRICTI
ON

  
n j
ust 
on
e tr
ivi
al 
case 

he i
nf
luen
ces 
of 
Coul
omb ri
fcti
on 
on 

he 
dyna
mic 
beha
vior 

an be

elved e
xact
ly
. Thi
s i
s 
the 
ca
se o
f h
ydr
aul
ic 

ock wh
ere 
Coul
omb 

ri
ct
ion 
pr
eve
nts 
any 
out
put
mo
ti
on. 
Th
e o
utpu
t〕,b
eam 
zer
o, 
Fi

, .
3.
3 b) 

ire
ctl
y p
rov
ide
s t
he 

olu
ti
on. 

f 
y=0,t
hen

n=0 

s 
we
ll
, 

hus 

t凡 =0 
we 


nd
" 
v _
二=0 

nd


一{
一C

h S
C0

;=:二互 +一
F`. a
t y=0.
      
Cy   
K Co
 
This i
s a 

ine
ar di
ff
ere
nti
al 

quat
ion. 
Thus 

t a 

inus
oidal 

nput 

igna
l r 
or£ t
he 
Co
ulo
mb
fr
ict
ion 
wil
l 
be s
inu
soid
al 

oo, 

tay
ing 
with
in 

ts 
ma
ximur
n bor
der


}F(

}m
ax、F
c<+
, 
F,
}。
。.
On
e mi
ght 

ay 

hat 
Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
ion 

ust 

ake
s t
he 

alu
e t
hat 

s n
ece
ssa
ry 

o s
top 

ny 
mo
tio
n.
Us
in- 

he 

ota
ti
on孟 二I
F-{ we 

in
d i
n 
th
e f
re
aue
nev 
do
mai

一 厅 一 二万一万一.
            
,万
F, 
          

(低 } (0
o )
y-
-0 a
t”=£<才
r ̄1
11 

, 

-}+1
一K一} (
3.11

“‘
              
) Vl"h 
J 
   \-`V 

At 

ow 

requenci
es

凡一认

y=0 
 whe
n 
 l
lmr=l
ime< 口-A 臼-40

60

epr
esent
ing 

he 
wel
l-
known 

tat
ic 
dead 

one.

At 
hi
ghe
r 
fr
equ
enc
ies
(0)>KV 
Co/C,
,)


,=0 
when r=E<

Th
us 

he 

ead 

one 

ppa
ren
tly 

ncr
eas
es 

requ
enc
y a
nd 

oul
d t
her
efo
re 
be 

all
ed 

he办na
mic 
de
ad

one. 
It
s 
exi
stenc
e has 
be
en 

onf
irmed 

xper
iment
all
y s
ever
al 

imes
The 
ot
her 
way 
ar
ound, 
one 
coul
d s
ay 

her
e i
s a 
re
f quency

co一
,妇

/ 1|||.、、

,』



1 .1 1
      

),
0to
P=K, (
3.1
L)


wh
ere 

t 0
)>(
05
tp 

o mo
ti
on 
wi

l 
oc
cur
. 
He
nce
, 
Co
ulo
mb 


rct

on 

oul
d 
be 
a 

er
io
us 

hr
eat 
to 

he
bandwi
dth 
of 
a 
hydr
aul
ic 

ervos
yst
em.

3.
5 DAM PING 
METHODS
二甄

n S
ect

on 

.2 

t 
wa
s p
rov
ed 

hat 

or 
go
od 

ropo
rti
ona
l 
co
ntr
ol 
a 
da
mpi
ng 

oef
fi
cie
nt
K, 几-
    二二-
气 二 — 乙 ,1
1 
v.C1
)+


C,
r+ w

2ch’
     2V 
MCo Ch 2M叽


ang
ing 

rom 

.3 

o 
0.
7 
is 

esi

abl
e. 
As 

he 

wo 

omp
one
nts 

f杏a
re 

rop
ort

ona
l 
to 

he 

at
io 



il 

pr
in
g s

if
fn
ess 

o h
ydr
aul

c s

if
fne
ss 
Co 

Ch 

nd 

he 

is
cou
s f

rct

on 

oef

fci
ent 
w,

esp
ect
ive
ly, 

ne 

r b
oth 

f t
hes
e f
act
ors 
mus
t 
be 

res
ent
. 
In 
Se
cti
on 

.3 

he 
de
sir
abi

ity 

f a 

ow
co
/Ch 

o 
pr
odu
ce 
a 

mal
l 
lo
ad 

ens
it
iv
it
y a
t 
lo
w f
re
que
nci
es 

eca
me 

le
ar 


n c

rti
cal

cen
te


alv
es 
CQ/Ch=0 

rou
nd 
x=0,s
ee 

abl
e 2
.2
,)
. 
He
nce 

n e
xce
ll
ent 

amp
ing 
me
tho
d d
epe
nds

omp
let
ely 

n t
he 

isc
ous 

ri
ct
ion 

oef
fi
ci
ent 
w,ind
ica
ted 

n t
he 

loc
k d
iag
ram 
of 
Fi
g.3
.4.
Un
for
tun
ate
ly, 

n p
rac
ti
ce 

t 
is 

ard
ly 

oss
ibl
e t
o d
esi
gn 

r t
o p
red
ict 
be
for
eha
nd 

he 

mou
nt 
of

isc
ous 

ri
cti
on. 
Ca
ref
ul 

nal
ysi
s o
f s
hea
r i
n o
il 

il
ms 

f b
ear
ings
, 
fo
r i
nst
anc
e, 

hows 

isc
ous

ri
cio
t n 

o b
e n
egl
ect
ed 

ompl
et
ely
. 
Ye
t 
vi
scou
s f
ri
ct
ion 

s 
pr
ese
nt 

orma
lly
, 
ju
st 

s a 

ompo
nen
t 
of

he 

ota
l 
fic
r t
ion
, 
si
nce 
Co
ulomb 

ic
r t
ion 

nd 

isc
ous 

ri
ct
ion 

requ
ent
ly 

o ha
nd 

n 
ha
nd.
  
To i
ll
ust
rat
e t
his
, we 
ref
er 
to 
many e
xperi
ment
s i
n t
he 
hydra
uli
c r
ese
arch, 
whe
re 
in 
olde


ervomotor 
des
ir 

ns 
Coul
omb f
ri
ct
ion 

nd vi
scous 

ri
ct
ion 
wer
e pr
ese
nt 
a 


sw e
ll 
as 
an 
ac
cep
tabl


amp
ing 

oef

ici
entg.T
his 

al
ue 

f百wa
s a
ppa
ren
tl
y c
aus
ed 

y }
is
c 
ous 


ict

on, 



oad
-co
mpe
nsa
ti
on 

ac
cor
di
ng 

o S
ect

on 

.3) 
wi

h C =冈 wa
s p
rov
ide
d. 

n l
at
er 

esi
gns 


whi
ch 
Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
ion 
wa
s e
limi
nat
ed 
lmos
a t 
compl
et
ely 

y i
nst
all

ng 

ydr
ost
ati
c 
be
ari
ngs
. 
ve
ry

oor 
da
mpi
ng,
oe 
fi
ci
ent
s 

as 

ow 

s杏二0.
05)
wer
e 
me
asu
red

6l


fh 
na
uuc
l 
pr
ess
rn 
c户ef
ba以



necl
rtaucal bl
pas
s nr
      
iderl
ap

汁巨d
el
ecfr
irul
厂e


百一
4P

        
厂 i 
is
co
us 

rt
ef
io



1八,
+ ”,

凡 
Gs h



ll l
    


    
‘ 一 一 _ _


E ac
cel
era
tio
n户e
dbac
A _ 』

一 ..山.目.月.....内目.户‘,,.,.. 一

a)
                                        

pi
lot 

ale 





pe

  


z ,-‘
zl

, we盛
Ps
d,


吐 .

_J
pr
ess
uref
eed
boe

! 明 .  ̄ ̄ 份. . 一 一

R QL
                                          
bs
  
pass
一 一  ̄ 一一 一一一 一一一一 一一 资 明卜.,一 .
 ̄‘- .

SS
'1
}Sr
lt
.li
iOf09
' _」

止二二-

PL 
弓 只

也 当
R   r一 气
   产一 、 R扣
         办7
  
nnmi

咋荟叫          
,。-,勺 。 弓 二 ̄p,车r ,
,卜,导 川卜... - 一 -

,I

几 卜 ,- .
、目 .一
              
.产 口I Ts十 l P   
TS十 1 、.- 侧产
Qn2
pressurefeedbaek
  
b)
+,]

几7 . 右
K,
, J,
,一山.
 一


   一

‘三


 叭一

  

,2(
5+e,)

  
 
一 夕

办 ecel
erahc
口 IJ

fe
erl
hnc6 7
、二,


Fi
g.
3.
4 
Da
mpi
ng 
me
tho
ds


  
f 
in
suf
fi
cie
nt 

isc
ous 

ri
ct
ion 

s 
pr
ese
nt, 
ap
pli
cat
ion 
of 
Eq
n. 

3.1
0) 
wi
ll 

ugge
st 

ncr
esi
a n
g t
he

at
io 

O l
qin 

rd
er 

o o
bt
ai
n s
ufi
ci
en
t 
da
mpi
ng. 

in
ce 
Kv/
) 
t i
s 
co
nne
ct
ed 

o } 



nsu
re 
a 
goo
d c
ont
rol 

eha
vio
r, 

nd 
Co 

whi
ch 

s 
pr
opo
rt
ion
al 

o t
he 

ist
on 

rea 
A) 

s 
a t


ove
rn 
bo
th 

oad 

apa
cit
y 
an
d b
and
wid
th, 
Ch 
mu
st 

e r
edu
ced 

o 
ge
t 
ade
qua
te 

ampi
ng. 
Howe
ver

62

he 

ons
equ
enc
e 
is 

ad 

oa
d 
st

ffn
ess
. 
Fi
g3.
4 
b) 
sh
ows 

eve
ral 
me
tho
ds 

edu
ce 
Ch.
A 
  

ery 

ire
ct 
me
tho
d i
s 
th
e i
nt
rodu
cti
on 

f op
en-
cen
ter 

alv
es 
wi
th 
a 

ar
ge 

nde
rl
ap 
U,s
inc

Ch 

s 
pr
opo
ti
r o
nal 

o PS 
A 
/ 
U 

se
e T
abl
e2.
2)
. 
Th
e u
nac
cep
tab
le 

isa
dva
nta
ge 

f s
uch 
a 

ar
ge

nde
rla
p  Ui
 s, 

oweve
r, t
he 

normous 
oi
l c
ons
umpti
on. 
Even i
n t
he neut
ral 
po
sit
ion 
of 

he

nde
rla
p val
ve, 

he 

il 
cons
ump
tio
n c
an 
be 
much 
hig
her 
tha
n t
hat 

orr
esp
o nd
ing 
to 

he max
imu


pee
d夕of 

he 
mot
or, 
req
uir
in
g 
A夕。、.
A 
fa
r 
be
tt
er 
me
tho
d t
o 
re
duce Ch 

s 
th
ere
for
e 
th
e s
o-
cal

ed 

ypa
ss 
me
tho
d a
ppl

ed 

n 
sy
mme
tr
ic
mot
ors 
wi
th 
4-
way 

alv
es, 

ee 
Fi
g. 
3.
4 b)
. A 

ami
nar 
lo
f w 

esi
st
anc
e R 
pr
opo
rti
ona
l t
o t
he

oa
d-p
res
sur
e 
PL=P
,一P
a,wi

l 
pr
odu
ce 
a 

le
aka
ge-
lo
f w"
么 =几/
R, 

ivi
ng 

he 
mo
tor 


n t
he

pen 

oo
p s
it
ua
ti
on) 

n a
ddi

ion
al 

pee
d o
f匆 =QL
/A=AP
,了RA.Ex
ami
ni
ng 

he 

lo
ck

iag
ram 

f F
ig. 
3.
4 
a)
, 
we 

an 

ee 

hat 

he 
by
pas
s 
pr
odu
ces 
a 

shu
nt" 

loc
k wi
th 
H,.p
 
ara
ll
el 



he 

loc
k 1 
/ 

h‘

匆1
K. 1 Aj
Hm一
AAPL AK.△凡


he 

amp
ing 

oef
fi
ci
ent
杏,d
ue 

o 
by
pas
s, 

an 

e c
al
cul
at
ed 

y r
epl
aci
ng 

/ 
c 
h i
n 
Eq
n. 

3.
10)

y 1
/c.+H,

,.Th
e b
ypa
ss 
me
th
od 

oes 

ot 

ave 

he 

is
adv
ant
age 

f e
nor
mou
s e
xt
ra 

il
co
nsumpti
on, and 
in 
hy d
raul
ic 
serv
o's 
with 
mechanical 

eedback 

t i
s t
he on
ly 
da mpi
ng method

hat 

an be 
inst
all
ed i
n a 
re
lat
ive
ly s
hor
t 
peri
od o
f t
ime . 
A 
seri
ous 
di
sadvant
age 
is 

h e 
se
nsit
ivi
ty 
of

he 
la
min a
r low 
f re
sis
tance 
R 
to 
temper
atur
e 
changes a
nd i
ts 
di
ffi
cul
t 
adju
stment 

n pra
cti
ce.
Qu
  ite 
a dif
fer
ent 
but 
vey 
r i
mp ort
ant 
da
mp i
ng method 
is 
call
ed 
pre
ssure 
fee
dback, 
pro
vidi
ng an

xtr
a s
erv
o-v
alv
e di
spl
ace
ment 
Ax 
pr
opo
rt
io
nal 
to 

he 

oad 

res
sur
e尺.
A me
cha
nic
al 

ers
ion 



res
sur
e f
eed
bac
k i
s i
ndi
cat
ed 

che
mat

cal

y i
n Fi
g. 
3.
4 b
). 
As 
wi
th 

he 

ypa
ss, 

ts 

ffe
ct 

an 



har
act
er
iz
ed 

n 
a 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
H 
m 

ara
ll
el 

o 
1 
/ 
ch

A 一A

H.二 Ax _A,AP
L 
/C,_
 -

 2

  C
   

AAP[   
2AA尺
wh
ere 
A i
 
s t
he 

xia
l s
pool 

reapr
ess by 几 a
ed  nd 

pri
ngs 
of 

ti
ff
nes
s 
cv.Me
cha
nic
al

res
sur
e fe
edbac
k ca
ll
s f
or 
a ve
ry 
speci
al 
valve
,which 
has 
to 
be 
des
igned, 
manufac
ture
d, 
tes
ted,

tc. 
This 
me t
hod 
is 

her
efor
e not 

ey 
r a
ttr
act
ive, 

ince 

her
e i
s 
no 
chance f
or 
mass-pr
oduct
ion. 


ery 
us
eful 
equi
val
ent 

s 
ele
ctri
cal 
pr
essur
e f
eedbac
k, 
whic
h pr
ovi
des 
feedbac
k of 
th
e el
ect
ric
all

me
asu
red 
lo
ad p
res
sur
e凡 ‘P ,
一PZ t
o t
he 

npu
t o
f a
n e
le
ctr
o-
hyd
rau
li
c s
erv
ova
lve
. T
he
me
tho
d i
s 

ndi
ca
te
d i
n 
Fig.
3.
4 
a) 
by 
He

Pr
  
ess
ure 

eed
bac
k s
ti
ll 

as 

he 

isa
dva
nta
ge 

f i
ncr
eas
ed 

oad 

ens
it
ivi
ty. 
Thi
s d
isa
dva
nta
ge,
ho
wev
er, 

an 

e a
voi
ded 
by 

nt
rod
uci
ng 

yna
mic 

res
sur
e f
eedb
ack 
wi
th 
a 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 

63

n 
Fi
g.
3.
4 
a) 
pa
ral

el 

o]/
Ch.
H 二K 卫_
姗 十 1
                

At 
lo
w f
re
que
nci
es 
H,=0 

nd 

he 

oa
d-s
ti
fne
ss 

s 
th
ere
for
e 
no
t 
sp
oil
ed. 
At 
hig
her 
re
fque
nci
es

wh
ere 

he 

ff
ec
t 
of 
CO/Ch 
is 

es
s 
(s
ee 

ect

on 

.3
), 
H,
,=Kv 
wi

l 
pr
ovi
de 

deq
uat
e 
da
mpi
ng

f 

/2《 u)
o o
r 
0)
0,
r》 1.
Dyna
   mic 
 (some
times 
cal
led 
der
iva
tiv
e) 
pres
sur
e f
eedbac
k cal
l be 
est
abl
ished 
eit
her
mechani
cal
ly or 
ele
ctr
ica
ll
y. 
Fig
.3.
4b) s
hows sche
ma t
ic
all
y two hydr
o-me
chani
cal 

il
ter

co
nn e
c t
ed 

o t
he 
cy
lin
der 
compa
tme
r nts
. 
The 
fi
lt
ers 

ncor
porat
e a 

lami
nar
) 
low 
f r
esi
st
ance 
Ra 
nd
a 

ey 
r s
mal
l 
(g
as 

r l

uid
) a
ccu
mul
at
or 
wi

h a 

apa
ci
ty 
Ca.
The 


me 

ons
ta
nts 

ndi
ca
te
d i
n 
th
is

ig
ure 

re 
r=R. 
C..Ca
ref
ul 

nal
ys
is 
of 


s e
ff
ect 
wi
ll 

esu
lt 

n 
a 

unc
ti
on 
Hm 

n 
Fi
g. 

.4 


1 r

Hm

R,矛Km’

rs
+1
To 
  d
esi
gn 

n pr
act

ce 
a 
me
cha
nic
al 
dy
nami
c 
pr
ess
ure 

eed
bac
k u
sin
g "
res
tr
ict
ed" 

ccumu
lat
ors


s 
no
t 
to
o e
asy
. 
To 

et
er
min
e R,
, 
and 

h 
(i
nt
ro
duc
ed 

y p
res
sur
e 
fe
edb
ack
) we 

ssu
me 

o i
ni
ti
al

amp
ing 

t a
ll
, 
so 
wi

h w=0

‘一Kv
. 
 
CO
    
two Ch
De
sir
ine 
K.
. 
‘.声

u)二C(
二0.
4) 
we 

equi
re 
C,=0.
                      
F l t沙
5C =0.
.,
5c.
As


umi
ng 
a 

ymme

tr
ic 
mo
tor
, 二 ,舀 ,J 几夕 一 -


ig. 
1.
11 
c) 
gi
ve
s 
c.
。二4A到s,
so


,一0
.5
c。
一2A
E S
                                        

To 

ete
rmi
ne 
R we 
ir
fst 

ook 

t 
hi
gh 

requ
enc
ies 

(or>>1)

      



R  
n2
A2 
K} Ch

Co
mbi
nat
ion 

ive



,1, - 月月』
‘‘ 一L ,

C人 Ch 
   2A到:
二   
 
    

  

  

R,=
J,
5  

K, 2A2K, 2
A2凡
 ,   


A2
To 

ete
rmi
ne 

he 

ccumul
at
or 

olume砚 we 
ha
ve 

o 
fi
nd

几 一E

卜 r }月刹
a  ̄一
、价 一二 丫


  
!一
 

J一 5
 

一    5

崎t=叭R, 

C。二叭
 

』 ,.
-, A

份n

K,
, 
As
卜甘

n                  
 




                       

 

Th
e r
at
io 

ccu
mul
at
or 

olu
me 
V t
 
o 
cyl

nde
r 
vo
lume
匀                             

V  
 K.

币一二— ’
0o丁

AS 田

64
Ha
vi
ng 
K/0Q“0.
( 4 
an
d r
equ
ir
in
g 
O)
OT>1
,th

;ac
 
cumu
lat
or 

olu
me 
wi

l 
ro
ugh
ly 

e t
he 

ame

s 
th
at 

f 
th
e 
cy
li
nd
er
. 
Th
er
ef
or
e 
"d
ia
phr
agm”-

acc
umu
la
to
r 
or 

as-
ac
cumu
la
to
rs(
Cq=Vu 
/1

P,)

re 
mor
e a
ppr
opr
iat
e, 

esul

ing 

n c
ons
ide
rab
ly 

mal
le
r v
olume
s. 
Th
oug
h e
leg
ant 

rac
ti
cal

olu
tio
ns 

re 

nown, 
we 
ge
ner
all
y pr
efe
r t
he 

lec
tri
cal 

qui
val
ent 

or 
mec
han
ica
l d
yna
mic

res
sur
e 
fe
edba
ck, 
whi
ch 

ive
s s
car
cel
y 
an
y h
ard
war
e 
pr
obl
ems

Pr
  
oba
bly 

he 
mo
st 

tt
rac
tiv
e d
amp
ing 
me
tho
d f
or 

lec
tro
-hy
dra
uli
c s
erv
osy
ste
ms 

s 
ob
tai
ned 



cce
ler
ati
on 

eed
bac
k a
s s
hown 

n t
he 
bl
ock 

iag
ram 
of 
Fi
g.3
.4c
). 

t i
s ba
sed 

n e
lec
tri
cal
ly
me
asu
red 

cce
ler
ati
ons 

f t
he 

ist
on 

in 

ota
y 
r mo
tor
s de
ri
ved 
ro
f m 

acho
gen
era
tor 

ign
als
).
Re
arr
angi
ng 

he 
bl
ock 
di
agr
am 

Kv
                        
「 2
     〕
Is
     _。 s _I

H(
s)=

wu
2+
2‘W
O+‘
{ (
3.1
3)
K K-
      
s2

+-下万一二
IS
一 -万
       ̄。 S _I
    

I 
- +LC
,一 +1I
LC
    
0o  C
OO 」

es
ul
ts 

n 
an 

nc
re
ase 
A百of 
th
e 
da
mpi
ng 

oef

ici
en
t杏
△杏=0.
                       
5KaKvt
vo 
                 

3.
14

  
Thi
s v
ery 
el
egan
t 
da
mpi
ng 
met
hod 
hs 
a b
een 
appl

ed n
umer
ous 

imes wi
th 
co
mple
te 

ucc
ess
. 
Yet

ome manuf
act
ure
rs 
of 

xpe
nsi
ve a
nd comp
lex s
yst
ems 
see
m  r
eluct
ant 

o us
e a
cce
ler
ati
on

eedb
ack 

nd 

ome
ti
me 
pr
efe
r 
obs
ole
te 

amp
ing 
me
tho
ds. 
Th
e v
ali
di
ty 

f Egn
s.(
3.1
3) 

nd 

3.1
4)

s imi
l ted 

f c
our
se 

y t
he 

ali
dit
y o
f t
he 
mat
hema
ti
cal 
mo
del 

s s
hown 

n Fi
g.3
.4a
) a
nd 

he

ssu
mpt
io
n G(
s)=1.I
n mo
re 

ompl
ic
ate
d s
yst
ems
, 
in
cor
por
at
in
g c
ompl

ant 

tr
uct
ure
s, 

tc. 

see

ect
ion 
3.
10) 

he 
me
tho
d c
ann
ot 
be 
us
ed 
wi
tho
ut 

eri
ous 

ompl

cat
ions
. 
Ho
wev
er, 

his 

s 
tr
ue 

or

he 
ot
her 
da
mpi
ng 
met
hods 
s 
a we
ll.

3.
6 ELECTRO-
HYDRAULIC 
SERVOVALVE


  
n Fi
g.3
.5 

) t
he 
wi
del
y 
us
ed 

wo-
sta
ge 

lec
tro-
hyd
raul

c s
erv
ova
lve 

s 
de
pic
ted 

che
mat

cal

y.
Th
e v
alv
es 

re 

urr
ent
ly 

sed 

ype 
of 

erv
o v
alv
e i
n i
ndu
str
y, 
wi
th 

he 
mo
st 

opu
lar 

ers
ion 

ein

ma
nuf
act
ure
. 
The 

rma
tur
e i
s 
he
ld 

n a 
ba
lan
ced 

osi
ti
on 

y a 

erma
nent 
magn
eti
c f
ie
ld 

aus
ed 
by

he 

ppe
r a
nd 

owe
r po
le 

lat
es 

urr
oun
din
g i
t. 
Th
is 

iel
d c
an 

e u
nba
lan
ced 
by 

n op
pos
ing 
ie
f l

gene
rat
ed 
by 

he 

rma
tur
e coi
ls. 
Thi
s unbal
ance
d f
iel
d ca
use
s t
he 

rma
tur
e t
o r
otat
e a
bout 

he 
bas


f t
he 
be
yl
r l
ium 

opp
er 
le
f x
ure 

ube 
wh
ich 

s 
an
cho
red 

o t
he 

alv
e b
ody
. As 

hown 

n F
ig.
3.
5, 


ube
-wh
ich 

cts 

s t
he 

lap
per 

nd 

lso 

ont
ai
ns 

he 

ant
il
eve
r s
pri
ng-
is 

it
te
d i
nsi
de 

he 
le
f x
ure

ube
. 
As
sumi
ng 

hat 

he 

lec
tri
cal 

ign
al 

o t
he 

orc
e mot
or 
wi
ll 

aus
e a 

loc
kwi
se 

orqu
e o
n t
o t
he

rma
tur
e, 

his 

orq
ue 
wil
l r
ota
te 

he 
la
f p
per 

ube 

n a 
cl
ockwi
se 
di
rec
tio
n. 

t s
hou
ld

65
r  ̄ ̄

加, 
qne 
矩T


mot

    
or




Bs 

c  b)

ctn an a e



lapper-
nozz
le(
a)

  
pil
ot 
st
age)
fe
edbac
b s
p,r
ng

一 p 
lot 
pressr
a 

叨o
olta,

, 
e,tr,crm n

+)

In
ter
act
ion 

poo
l一刀a
ppe


l, 
j1


R 
a,

h I



S一  1一




,’o
尸s Ct

ot叮t
ie 
mot
or

Ka

ht 


-" 儿 z+ 刀‘"
- 
Cr

R +b R +b s
pool 
as 

ei 

o;,
otor

、十B(
R+b
)奋+、

/b
, Cb

onun
au,
t介e
dbad 
pad,

c)


hr
    
R,b
) C
h 乙、+o(
R +1
r)

e)

Fi
g.3.
SA 
nal
ysi
s 
of 

wo-
st
age 

lec
tro
-hy
dra
uic 
l s
erv
ova
lve


e p
oin
ted 

ut 

ere
, 
th
at 

hes
e mo
veme
nts 

re 

ery 

mal
l. 
Thi
s 
ro
tat
ion 

f t
he 
la
fppe
r c
han
ges 

he

lea
ran
ce 

etwe
en 

he 
la
fppe
r a
nd 

he 

ozz
le 

ace
s, 

ncr
eas
in; 

he 

eaka
ge 

rom 

he 

igh
t-h
and
noz
zle 
and 
decr
easi
ng 
it 
fr
om the 
lef
t-
hand 
one. 
Thes
e noz
zles 
ar
e s
u p
plie
d wi
th 
lu
f id 
via 

ixe

or
if
ice
s i
n a 

il
te
r l
ocat
ed 
at 
the 
val
ve'
s p
res
sure 
con
nect
ion, 

nd t
he 
lu
f i
d c
hanne
l t
o 
th
e n
ozzl
es 
is
al
so 
connect
ed 
to t
he e
nds of
ten 
ma i
n va
lve 
spool 
ch}
ai
ge t
o t
he nozzl
e l
eak
age, 
cha
nges 
the

66
ga
ll
ey 
r pr
ess
ure 
behi
nd 

he n
ozzle
s. 
So, 
as 

h e 

eakage 
fr
om t
he 
ri
ght-
hand 
noz
zle 
is 

ncrese
a d, 
th

pr
ess
ure 
in 

he 
rig
ht-
han
d gal
ler
y is 

educed. 
The 
res
ult
ing 
fo
rce 
imbal
anc
e i
s t
owards 
the 
ri
ght,
ca
usi
ng t
he 
spo
ol 
to 
move 
in t
hat 
dir
ect
ion
. Thi
s s
pool 
movement 
co
nnect
s 
the 
ri
ght
- h
and pi
st
on

rop
ort

ona
ll
y t
o 
th
e pr
ess
ure 
po
rt, 

nd 

onn
ect
s 
le
ft
-ha
nd 

ist
on 

o r
et
un. 
r Th
e s
poo
l 
mov
eme
nt
al
so 
ta
kes 
wit
h i
t 
th
e fe
edback 
cant
il
ever 
spr
ing, 
whi
ch r
eact
s ba
ck on
to 
the 
armature 

n opposiio
t n
to 

he 
gene
rat
ed 
ma gne
tic 
fi
el
d. 
This 

educes 
the 
res
ult
ant 
cl
ockwise 

orque 
on t
he la
f p
per, 
c a
us i
ng
it 

o move 
to t
he r
ight 
and r
eadj
ust 
the nozzl
e l
eakag
es, 
wh i
ch i
n t
urn changes 
the gall
ery
pre
ssu
res
. 
Wh en 
th
e net 
for
ces 
of 
low 
f r
eact
ion, 
ar
mature 

orque, 
ca
nti
leve
r spr
ing, 
and gall
ey

pr
essu
res 
bal
ance, 
the s
pool 
will 
st
op  moving 
in t
he sp
oo l 
posi
ti
on re
qu i
red by t
he  i
nput
el
ect
ri
cal 
si
gnal
. 
The block 
dia
gram (Fig.
3.
6) i
ll
ust
rat
es t
he cl
osed l
oop of 
the va
lve, which
ca
uses 

ny 
ext
raneous 
di
st
urba
nce 

o be 
cor
rect
ed.

.住rl
naw re

10tHdona丈

二!

orque

几a pper S
poo
ifor
re
de
fecti
on ba丈a,
   :亡‘ Ou 

p之‘





ur)
竹t口f夕叶t
ellt


   Fi
g.3.
6 
Bl
ock 

iag
ram 

or 

he 

cti
on 

f 

a 
Cal
  
PI

la
f p

公t

pe


; 


r 


ei

vr

qu

pe 

evo
rva
lve

  
F i
rs
t 
of 

ll 
an 
el
ect
ri
cal 

igna
l 
is 
conve
rt
ed 
in
to 
a 
mec
hani
cal 

igna
l, 

s t
he 

ontr
ol 
cur
ren
t i

esul
t 
in 
a 

orqu
e 
T whi
ch 
cause
s a 

o t
aio
t n 
0 

f t
he 

rmat
ur
e 
toge
ther 
wi
th 

he 
la
f ppe
r-a
rm. 
The

simpli
ie
f d) 
bl
ock 
diagra
m of 
th
e t
orque 
motor 

s 
gi
ven 
in 
Fi
g. 
3.5 
b)

Th
   e 
fir
st 
st
age 
(ote
f n ca
ll
ed pi
lot 

tage) 
of 

he 
val
ve c
onsi
sts 
of 
a s
ymme t
ric 
la
f pper-
n oz
zle

ystem, 
fed 
by t
he cons
tan
t s
upply 
pres
sure 
vi
a t
wo 
rest
ri
ct
ions. 

n t
he s
tat
ionar
y si
tuat
ion an

xc u
rsi
on 
9R of 
the la
f ppe
r r
esul
ts i
n two di
fer
ent 
pil
ot 
pres
sure
s. 
Assuming a symme t
ric

ons
tr
uct
io
n, 

ll 

ri
ic
f e 

rea
's 

ein
g e
qua
l a
t0=0,a
n "
und
erl
ap" 
u 
wi
th一u<朗 <u,t
he

ilo
t 
pr
ess
ure
s c
an 

e d
eri
ved 

ire
ctl
y.
OR
    

PP
A 目
= 
   
Pp
l 
- 
P 
p2
二 1 _ 1 一一止生_ 二
9R

3.1
5)

, 
     
Ps 
    

+(
1一
丝),1
+(
1+
丝),1
、工(
8R
)4 “ “ 4 “
    


s 
lo
ng 

s 

9R
I<0
.8u 


s 
ch
ar
ac
te

rs
ti
c 

s 

lmo
st 
pe
rf
ec
tl
y 

in
ea
r.
  

n t
he 
dynamic 
sit
uati
on t
he fou
r o
if
r ice
s of 
the 
pi
lot 

tag
e co
ntr
ol 
th
e oi
l 
flo
ws to 
and 
fro
m the
"c
ylin
der" 
compart
me nts 
on  bot
h si
des of t
he mai
n spool 
of 
the 
servo
valve, 
by whic
h  t
he
se
rvomot
or i
tsel
f i
s c
on t
rol
led. 
 Accordi
n g 
to t
he 
mod el 
of 
hydr
aul
ic s
ervomoto
rs de
rived 
in
Chapt
er 
2, 

he main 
spool 

tself 
sh
ould 
be co
nside
red 
as 
a v
ey 
r smal
l 
serv
omo t
or. 
Fi
g.3.
5 b) 
gi
ves

he 

loc
k d
iag
ram, 
co
mpis
rin
g t
he 
we
ll
-k
nown 

ara
met
er
s 
Km,
Ch,C
a,M 
and 
w.

67
Th
  
e d
omi
nant 

eedb
ack 
pa
th 

s 
pr
ovi
ded 
by 

he 

eedb
ack 

pri
ng. 
An 

xcu
rsi
on 
x 

f t
he 
mai


alv
e t
oge
the
r 
wi

h a 


app
er 

rm 

ot
at
io
n 8 

esu
lt
s 

n 
a 

or
ce 

x+e(
R+b
)]c
b 
at 
th
e 
en
d o
f 
th


eed
bac
k s
pri
ng. 
Th
e r
esul

ing 

orqu
e a
cts 

s a 

ire
ct 

eedb
ack 

ndi
cat
ed 

n t
he 

owe
r f
eed
bac


ath 
of 
Fi
g. 
3.
5 b
). 
The 

ti
ff
nes
s c,o
f t
he 

eedb
ack 

pri
ng 
ha
s a 

it
al 

unc
ti
on, 
wh
ich 
wi
ll 



isc
uss
ed 

gai
n 
la
ter 
on

By 
  r
eac
ti
on 

he 

eed
bac
k f
or
ce 

x+8(
R+b
)]c
b 
of 

he 

pr
in
g s
hou
ld 

e r
ega
rde
d a
s 
a 

oad。


he 

poo
l. 
An
ot
he
r 
"s
pri
ng" 

or
ce, 
c 

x,i
s 
ca
use
d b
y a
xia
l 
lo
fw f
or
ces 

n 
th
e p
ort 
op
eni
ngs 

f 
th


poo
l. 
The 

ppe
r 
le
ft 

eed
bac
k pa
th 

n F
ig.
3.
5 
c) 
re
pre
sen
ts 

he 

nte
rac
tio
n b
etwe
en 
ma
in 

alv
e a
nd


app
er
, 

s 
th
e 
lo
ad 

res
su
re明 i
mpl

es 
a 

ee
dba
ck 

or
ce 

n 
th
e 
la
fppe
r. 
It
s 

nf
lu
enc
e 
sh
oul
d 
be
smal
l.

  
The wh
ole 
bl
ock d
iagr
am, s
impli
fi
ed 
as 

t i
s, 

ti
ll 

s t
oo c
ompl
ica
ted 

o be 
deal
t 
with 
her
e i


eta
il
. 
Bri
ely 
f we s
imply 
st
ate 
her
e t
hat 

he 

ower 

eedbac
k pa
th 

s 
domina
rt. 
Con
seque
ntl
y a
t l
ow

requenc
ies 

he 

ransf
er 

unct
ion 
becomes

1、
1 x=
M 一   
K,
3.
( 161

-70 
i (
R -
-b)
c,,

t i
ll
ust
rat
es 

he 
wel
l-

known 

act 

hat 

he 
cl
osed 

oop 

rans
fer 

unct
ion 
of 
a 
cont
rol 

yst
em with

H 

s)>>l 

qua
ls 

app
roxi
mat
el
y) 

he 

eci
pr
oca
l 
of 

he 

eedb
ack 

ath 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on.
Thi
   s knowledge e n
ables us to explai
n how  s
e r
vova l
ve charact
eri
sti
c  c
ou l
d  d
eter
ior
ate
compl e
tel
y by 
a cl
earance 
or 
backlash 
betv
N 
een 
the ball 
at 

he end of 
the f
eedback s
prin
g and 
the
slo
t i
n the 
spool
. 
Us i
ng Egn.(3
.16), 
Fig
3.5 c) 
and d) 
sho w how the 
presenc
e of 
su c
h a 
clear
ance
causes a val
ve charact
eri
st
ic with av ert
ica
l "jump" . 
This is ver
y  per
ilo
us in clos
ed loo

ser
vos y
stems, 
as 
a comparable 
jump in t
he vel
ocity 
ga i
n chara
cteri
st
ic of 
the 
servo wi
ll 
appea
r,
making t
he sy
ste
m co mplet
ely 
unst
able 
at 
low spe
e ds.

  
n 
the t
able 
be
low some import
ant da
ta of 

he Mo og val
ve have 
b e
en summa r
ized. 
On th
e bas
is
of 
ma nufa
ctur
er'
s s
pe ci
ic
f at
ions o
n e 
could 
repr
esent 
the s
ervovalv
e tr
ansfer 

u n
cti
on in 
prac
tic
e b

a f
ir
st o
r s
econd 
order s
yst
em, dependi
ng on 
the 
fr
e quency r
ange i
nv o
lved.

十!

Tabl
e11 
Pr
ope
rti
es 
of 
Moog 

ervov
alves
一j }


er
ie
s一   
Q 

n 
dn
i 
hr
un
  
30 
        
1.1一7.6 230 Hz

31 
          
6.
5一26 230 
Hz }

32 
          
26一53 :
50 Hz }

34 
          
} 35 
48一72
        
72 一1 13
Zf
Ol
)HZ
i 



} 76 上一,
6.
5- 

13 一_
2.
3-
39 50-9c}Hz ;

3.
7 DERI
VATI
VE 
CONTROL, 
MODES- 

VEHI
CLE 
STABI
LITY
AUGMENTA'
     T'
ION)
One 
   o
f t
he 
mos
t c
ommo
n a
ppl
ica
ti
ors 

f de
riv
ara
、。c
ont
rol
, u
sua
ll
y i
mpl
eme
nte
d o
n t
he
68
co
ntr
o l

ed var
iab
le, 

nvolv
es th
e i
mp r
ovement 
of 
vehi
c le 
ha
ndli
ng dynamics 
by 
fee
dback 
means.
The 
conce
pt was 
pr
obabl
y or
igina
lly 
devi
sed 
for 
ai
rcr
aft 
but 
is 
no
w  use
d on 
all 

ypes 

f vehi
cl
es.
Ai
rcr
a f
t 
at
ti
tude 
(an
gular 
or
ient
ati
on) 
cont
rol 

nvolve
s thr
ee 
axes 
(pit
ch, 
ro
ll, 

nd ya
w) 
of mot
ion,
howe
v er 
pr
elimi
nay 
r desi
gn usua
ll
y cons
ider
s e
ach axis 
se
parat
ely. 
A si
mplif
ied 
Newton'
s l
aw

nal
ys
is 

or 

he 

it
ch 

xis 

rod
uce
s 
th
e a
ir
cr
af
t 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 

el
at
in
g p
it
ch 

ngl
e 
9c 

o 
el
ev
ato


ngl
e占*


KQ 

z,
, 
s+1

 

一   
_2
      

3.1
7)

     2示 ,

s(一 犷 咔・一 +I

、,、乙
  

山朋
   田n


he 

ume
ri
ca
l v
alu
es 

f p
ara
met
er
s KQ
,2Q
,C
c1

,, 

nd 
}v 

ry 

or
m o
ne 

ir
pl
ane 

r mi
ss
il
e t


not
her
, 
an
d f
or 
a 

ive
n ve
hic
le, 
wi

h a
lt
it
ude 

nd 
Mac
h nu
mbe
r. 
Ae
rody
nami
c de
sig
n f
or 

rag

edu
ct
io
n o
ft
en 

es
ul
ts 

n 
ve
ry 

oor 
(l
ow) 

alu
es 

f 
ai

cra
ft 

amp
ing杏 Us
e 
of 

eri
va
ti
ve 

ont

ol

onc
ept
s a
ll
ows 

s t
o r
adi
cal
ly 

mpr
ove 

his 
po
or 

tab
ili
ty 
wi
tho
ut 

han
gin
g t
he 

irp
lane 

n a
ny
wa
y, 

hus 

res
erv
ing 

he 
de
sir
abl
e l
ow 

rag. 
Fe
edb
ack 

ont
rol 

s t
hus 
a 

owe
rfu
l t
ool 

n v
ehi
cl


esi
gn 

inc
e i
t 
al
lows 

he 

imu
lta
neo
us 

ulf
il
lme
nt 
of 

onli
fct
ing 

erf
orma
nce 

equ
ire
men
ts.
A 
  

asi
c 
pi

ch-
comma
nd 

ont
ro
l s
yst
em 
wo
uld 

or
ce 

he 

ir
cr
af
t 
pi

ch 

ngl
e 
ec 

o f
ol
lo
w t
he

il
ot
's 

ont

ol 

ti
ck 

ot
at
io
n8,
,,u
si
ng 
a 

osi

ion 

yro
sco
pe 

o me
asu
re 

c a
s i
n F
ig.
3.
7. 

he

lec
tro
hyd
rau
hc 

erv
o t
hat 
po
wer
ful

y p
osi
ti
ons 

he 

leva
tor 

n r
esp
ons
e t
o v
olt
age 

omma
nd
e,i
s 
 i
ts
el
f a 

omp
let
e f
eed
bac
k s
yst
em; 

owe
ver
, wh
en 

rope
rl
y d
esi
gne
d, 

ts 

los
ed-
lo
op

espons
e can 
be 

dequat
ely 
model
ed 
as 

irs
t or
der
. We 

ee 

rom 
the 

oot 

ocus 

hat 

his 
bas
ic

yst
em 

s u
nac
cept
abl
e s
inc
e t
he 

los
ed-
loo
p d
amp
ing 

s a
ctu
all
y wor
se 

han 

hat 
of 

he 

irp
lan



sel

, 
wh
ich 
wa
s 
al

ead
y b
ad. 
By 

ddi
ng 
a 

at
e 
gy
ros
cop
e t
o 
pr
ovi
de 
me
asu
reme
nt 

f Sc 
we 

an

mpl
eme
nt 
ir
fst-
der
iva
tiv
e c
ont
rol 

see 
Fi
g.3
.8)
. 
Th
e c
los
ed-
loo
p s
yst
em 
now 

as 
be
ter 

amp
ing

han 

he 

irc
raf
t 
al
one
, 
gi
ving 

and
lin
g q
uait
lie
s a
cce
pta
ble 

o t
est 
pi
lot
s.
  

inc
e t
he 
air
pla
ne i
ts
elf 

as 
not 
be
en 
cha
nged, 
the 
re
ader 
may 
fin
d i
t 
di
fic
f u
lt 
to 
be

l e
ve t
hat 

he

mprove
d da
mp ng 
i r
eal
ly 
occu
rs. 
This 

magic
al" 
as
pect 

f de
riv
ati
ve 
con
trol 
ca
n be 
dis
pel
led 
by

eme
mbe
ri
ng 

ha
t 
th
e e
le
vat
or 

s 
a 

gen
era
l-
pur
pos
e 
to
rqu
e p
rod
uce
r"; 
ro
tat

on 

f c

,, 
ca
use
s 

pro
por

ion
al 

it
chi
ng 

or
que 

n t
he 
ve
hic
le. 
The 

eri
va
ti
ve 
co
ntr
ol 

imp
ly 

ends 
a 
0c 

ign
al 

o 
th


lev
at
or 
so 

ha
t i
t 
pr
odu
ces 
a 

orq
ue 
oppos
it
e 
and 
pr
opo
rt
io
nal 
to 
.c,th
e s
ame 

ind 
of 

or
que

rod
uce
d b
y v
isc
ous 

amp
ing 

s t
he 

irc
raf
t 
ro
tat
es 

hro
ugh 

he 

ir. 
Once 

his 

s 
cl
ear
, 
on
e c
an 

lso

69

El
erat
or i二
洲尸
aero
心warni

for
   ce
Cent
er 乓
户洲 o
f ma
ss
已下 ‘ 叫 竺二

Pi
lot'
s 
st
ick Air
craft
and
     Srnnr
ning
El 
  
ect
ro pi
  
tch
pot
ent
iomet
er anrpl

frer 为.r
ranri
cs
hrdrar
dic
se刀,>
    0

KQ(
Tas+1)

尸osi
tion
那 y
ro

Fi
g.3
.7 
Ai
rcr
aft 

itc
h-a
ngl
e 
co
ntr
ol 
wi

hou
t s
tabi

ity 

ugme
nta

ton


ee 
wh
y t
hi
s 
sc
heme 
wi
ll 
no
t wo
rk 

n a 
mi
ss
il
e 
tha
t 
le
ave
s t
he 

tmo
sph
ere
, 
si
nce 

he 
el
eva
tor 



ow  i
ncapabl
e of 
produ
cing any 
to r
que. 
We  c
an now, ho
we ver
, us
e gas 
jet
s as o
ur t
orque

roduci
ng devi
ce, 
an
d der
ivat
ive 
contr
ol c
an a
gain 
produc
e damped moti
on e
ven 
though 
vehic
le

isc
ous 
da mpin
g i
s 
zero 

n empty 
space. 
For 
a 
vehi
cle 
(i

ke t
he sp
ace 
shutle) 

hat 
ope
rat
es 
both 
in

pace 
and  i
n t
he at
mosphere
, a c
o nt
rol s
cheme bl
endin
g both ae
rodynamic 
contr
ol s
urf
aces

elevat
or, 

udder
, 
et
c.) 
and 
gas 

ets 

s 
nece
ssar
y.

70
K 

r}s+1

Fi
g.3.
8 Der
iva
tive 

ont
rol 

ugment
s a
irc
raf
ts 
tabi
li
ty

3.
8 BLOCK 
DIAGRAM 
FOR 
HARDWARE 
COMPONENTS
  
Bl
ock 
diag
ram f
or c
ont
rol 

ys t
ems 
obv
ious
ly r
epr
ese
nt 
hardwar
e c
omponent
s. 
However
, 
the

ela
tio
ns b
etween 
the 
par
amet
ers in 

he t
heor
eti
cal 
bl
ock d
iagr
am and 
th
e  c
har
act
eri
st
ics 
of
ha
rdware 

omp o
nent
s a
re 
some
times 
ha
rd 
to 
fi
nd. 
The
ref
ore
, 
it 
makes 

ense 

o make 

wo t
ypes 
of
bl
ock 
di
agr
am, 
one 

or 

he 

heor
eti
cal 
cont
rol 
beha
vior 

nd 
one 

or 

he 
har
dwar
e. 
As 
bot

di
agr
ams 

hou
ld 

ove
r t
he 

ame 

yst
em, 
the 

ela
ti
ons 

an 

asi
ly 
be 

oun
d.
To 
  i
ll
ust
rat
e t
his
, 
Fi
gs.
3.
9 
a) 

nd 

) pr
ese
nt 

wo 
bl
ock 

iag
rams 

cco
rdi
ng 

o c
ont
rol 
th
eor
y, 

f a


mpl
e 
li
nea
r 
el
ec
tr
o-h
ydr
aul

c s
erv
osy
st
em 
wi

h a
cce
le
rat

on 

ee
dba
ck. 
Th
e e
xt
ra 

amp
ing△百

an 

e f
oun
d b
y e
qua
liz
ing 
bo
th 

oop 
ga
ins 

see 

lso 
Se
cti
on3
.5, 
Fi
g. 
3.
4 
c)
).
△杏=0.
                       
5KQ 
K(o


n Fi
g.3.
9 
c) 

he 

har
dwa
re" 

loc
k d
iag
ram 

s 
pr
ese
nte
d. 

n a 

ive
n s
yst
em 
we 

ave 

he 

oll
owi
ng

omponent
s:

.s
  
erv
ova
lve 
ampl
fe
i r 

o c
onv
ert 

he 

ont
rol 

rro
r s
igna
l£(
in 
Vo
lt
s) 

o t
he 

erv
ova
lve 

npu


    
ont
rol 
cu
rre
nt 

, (
in 
Amp 
? 

es)

.s
  
erv
oval
ve 

onve
rt
ing 

, i
nt
o lo
fw x
, (
in 

n’I
s)
. 
hi 

omme
rci
al 

ata
log
s a
vai
la
ble 
da
ta
mi
    
ght 

ndi
cat
e mi
ll
ia
mps 

nd 

all
ons 

er而n
ute
. Th
ese 

ata 
mus
t b
e c
onv
ete
r d 

nto
ISO-
      
uni
ts.

  
.po
sit
io
n t
ran
sduce
r(K3),
giv
ing 
Vol
ts 

er 
mete
r.
.a
  c
cel
erat

on t
ran
sduc
er(
K4 )
,giv
ing 
Vol
ts 

er 
m/s’

・mo
  tor
, 
wi

h p
is
ton 

rea 
A (

n m 

)an
d ma
ss-
sp
ri
ng 

yst
em 

ara
met
er
s (
00 

nd杏.

  
he 

at
ur
al 
fr
eq
ue
nc
y (

o=沂石
不 m
igh
t 

e 
de

er
mi
ne
d 
by 
ca

cul

ti
ng 


r 
es

ima

in
g) 



ro
m F
ig. 
l.
11. 
 I
t 

s 
al

o p
oss
ibl
e 

o 
me
asu
re 


)o 

ndge
xpe
ri
men
tal

y.
Th
  
e g
ain 
V1 

nd矶i
n 
Fi
a.
3.
9 
c) 

an 

e c
hos
en 
re
fely 

o 
sa
ti
sf
y 
th
e d
esi
re
d a
dju
stme
nt 

f K,
, 

nd

K,o
f 
 
Fg.
3.
9a 

. 
Eq
ual

zin
g t
he 

rod
uct
s 
of 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
ons 

n 
th
e v
ari
ous 

oop
s i
n瑰.
a) 

nd 

ig. 
c)

iel
ds


, 
K, 
K,
.工


K,一K
            


                               

                
1 
K1 
K;
’面‘
K4 

s=KV
K,
Th
e f
ore
goi
ng 

esu
lts 

an 

e s
umma
riz
ed 

n t
he 
ina
f l 
ad
jus
tme
nts
2)C
       AK,
, K} 
K3
式 。= 一 , V = V2二
K,
      
叭 K1 
K, 
K3 K4

Thi
  s e
xampl
e j
ust 

ll
usra
t t
es 

ow 
one 

oul
d t
ry 

o f
ind 

he 

dju
stme
nts
. Ho
wev
er, 

t i
s no


lwa
ys 

oss
ibl
e 
to 

ran
sla
te 

heo
ret

cal 
di
agr
ams 

ire
ctl
y 
int
o h
ardwa
re 
di
agr
ams
. 
By 

ocu
ssi
ng 
on

pec
ial 

spe
cts
, ho
wev
er, 

n ma
ny 

ase
s g
ood 

ppr
oxi
mat
ions 

an 
be 
ma
de 

o e
nabl
e a
deq
uat

pos
sibi
li
ti
es 

or 
ca
lcul
ati
on 
or 
es
tima
tion.

_一一竺工一一-

l买+:
;s十,

U'
  
} 
     
W 


w 4

72
1 

ts
          


ne


. 、‘


mp


.卜 尸 1 ! J


e 

‘勺〕,
心,晚
、二三 ,
』之七 ̄


妇二十x


引.

wa

.,、
产1 夸
尸! 之

rd

ha
r 
| 」 岛

+刁


刀‘

卜,
〕是 月
,,l丫
Jl t
f吸

m 

f共 十

ara


卜对小
?卜储一 夏 、
曹! 、
孙、 冬之 之


k 
个+ 全

 k ,、




,、
  


1 
  
、!


 

. 护 
挂 . 
1 ..
 上  日
   ̄
‘ 巨 
! I
  L
 卜  
. 一
‘ 口 
.JJ., 工 .< 一
三.1怪...1 ‘V 一
.书几笼! }』 』 一

Bl

如翻 I

9 
se wewe曰1.
se
l」 、
家1.
气 ,.
11,.口 七暑 冬、
二、


趁曳诱势 叫之之、
势1好
,1、
、t

g.
Fi 3
3.
9 PI-
CONTROL
  
For 
some 

ppl
ica
tio
ns 
of 
hydra
uli
c s
erv
osyst
ems 
a 
PI-
cont
rol
ler 
mig
ht be 
use
d in 
ord
er t


ncr
eas
e t
he 
op
en 
loop 
gai
n a
t l
ow re
f qu
encie
s a
nd 
to 
de
crea
se c
onst
ant
-lo
ad e
rror
s a
s wel
l 
as

acc
ele
rat

on" 

rr
ors
. 
The 

hoi
ce 

f 
th
e "
es
r e
t 
ti
me" 
Z, 
of 

he 
PI
-c
ont
rol
le
r 
sh
oul
d 
be 

ons
ide
red

are
ful
ly
, 
as 

he 

ran
sfe
r 
fu
nct
ion
2i
s+1
H(
s)= (
3.1
8)
公i


ont
ai
ns 
a 
do
ubl
e i
nte
gra
tor
, 
ca
usi
ng 

eri
ous 

tab
ili
ty 

rob
lems
. To 

ee 

his 
we 

gno
re 

or 

mo
men
t t
he 

eco
nd 

rde
r 
sy
st
ems 

so叭 =0)a
nd 

hoo
se 

he 

al
ue 

f Ko
n 
 t
he 

asi
s 
of 


has
e ma
rgi
n o
f 
45
0。

0.

几, ... . .1
 -

“\声 之乏 义 t 
=‘
尸口,.侧
 

        
0.

{ ) \

a2 z彩 冲 1口
  

)1


尸 夕
尸.,一一一 一
一 一
尸/
.ofr= 16
尸/

I 刀



. l
1 .一- ̄ 口口目叫 一 , ̄

碑洲

尸护

A ?;
— /{

8 Wo 
T,,
..曰.臼....口.口...

一L I

0 04


1.04 0.1 0.
2 0.
4 饮6

t '


 .


tr   口
巨.舀   .


+ 
fi
口,

,J
  

.厅百

‘            

一尸产一 么 分入

一 一 ...印油....自..‘
‘币二 二..自.卜,... 口口.曰曰.户

「-

] 四长 日‘
一一
灯 0.4

\ }

入 。

              


                  

                                                  

、 }

1价_,
s.叹娜 F¥‘,_ \\一
i 花 招 认 v 
!梦 、
00
, rj
= 
2S 时 _ }、 \
叹2 火



坎丁
口-

坎0艺 吹02 吹04 叹06 次I 次2 吹4 口‘



      

Fi
g.3.
10 
PI
-cont
ro

74
The 
result 
is

K,
            
T,:0
.5
万 o
r 
  
Kv/
。。_0
>. 
7 

。。:
‘ (
3.
19


o t
he 

ain 
Kv 

hou
ld 

e c
hos
en 

ot 

oo 

mal
l 

n 
or
der 

o 
pr
ovi
de 

n a
deq
uat
e 
da
mpi
ng・
Re
sul
ts 

f c
omp
ute
r 
ca
lcu
lat
io
ns, 

sin
g t
he 
M =1
.3-
cr
it
er
ion 

nd 
Egn.

3.1
9), 

ave 

een 
pl
ot
te


n 
Fi
g.
3.
10
a), 
wh
er
e K. 

0)
o 
as 
a 

un
ct
io
n o
f } 
wi

h NJ 

s a 

ara
met
er 

hows 

ha
t 
up
per

ound
ari
es 

s we
ll 
s 
a l
owe
r bo
und
ari
es 

ave 
be
en 

esp
ect
ed. 
As 
ac
cur
ate 
kn
owl
edg
e of 

he 

alu
es

f Q
)0 

nd否c
ann
ot 

e 
ex
pec
te
d, 

ne 

hou
ld 

e 
ve
yc
r  
ar
ef
ul 

n 
ad
ju
st
in
g K,
, 
an
dT,
.To 

voi


ega
ti
ve 

nf
lu
enc
es 

r 
ri
sks 

ue 

o 
th
e I
-a
cti
on峨Zr 
>25 

s 
re
comme
nde
d.

  
ig. 
3.
10 

) ma
kes 
mo
re 

lea
r 
th
at 

ne 

hou
ld 

hoo
se 

he 

alv
e o
f K,

/wo 

orr
es
pon
din
g t


he 
uppe
r bounda
ry 

n o
rder 

o obt
ain 
a 
maxi
mum 
bandwi
dth.
Si
  
nce 
PI
-co
ntr
ol 

ntr
odu
ces 

eal 
ri
sks 
wi
th 

ega
rd 

o s
tabi

lty
, 
in 

he 

arg
e ma
jor
it
y o
f a
ppl
ic
ati
on
P-
cont
rol 

s 
pr
efe
rabl
e.

3.
10 
FIRST 
ORDER 
SYSTEM 
IN 
SERI
ES
To 

ive 
am
 or
e c
ompl
et
e p
ict
ure 

f t
he 

yna
mic 
be
hav
ior 

f h
ydr
aul
ic 

erv
osy
ste
ms, 

he

nf
luenc
e of 
a 

irs
t 
or
der 

yst
em 

n s
eri
es, 

mpl
ying 
a 
ra
t ns
fer 

unct
ion
1 K,
H(
s)= (
3.20)
。+1 「.

2  ,
_.; 1

      
I一一
一5-
+2} 
= +1!
L叭一
      
oo 
c  J

s di
scuss
ed. 
Such 
a f
ir
st 
or
der sy
stem 
could 
be i
nt
roduce
d in 
a"nat
ural
" way (
for 

nsta
nce, 



ringi
n g 
int
o a
ccou
nt so
mei nf
luence 
of 
the 
se
rvovalve 
ra
t nsf
erf
uncti
on) or 
del
ibe
rat
ely 
by a

impl
e 
RC-
net
wor
k i
n s
eri
eswi
th 

n el
ect
ro-
hydr
aul
ic 

ervoval
ve.
The 
   i
nfluence 
of 

he 

imeconstant Z 
on 

he 
ma
ximum 

ll
owa
ble 

elo
cit
y g
ain 
K,, 
ha
s b
een

nve
sti
gat
ed 
 s
yst
ema
ti
cal

y. 
 Al
lowi
ng一u
st 
 a
s 
 be
for
e-a 
 clos
ed 
 l
oop 
 ampl

tude 
 rat
io
lee
曰1


=1 

01
0・

0, n ever

xce
edi
ng 

.3, 

he 

elo
cit
y ga
in 
Kco
 
uld 

e c
alc
ula
ted. 
Th
e r
esu
lt

        

                


re 
pre
sent
ed 
in .
3.11
a), 

howi
ng a rem arkable i
ncrease 
of Kv
/叭a
tpoor 

ampi
ng

oefi
ci
ent
s(心<0.
2).As
si
gni
ng va
lue 
to 
the 
bandwi
dth 1 
/ 
r 
of 

he 
fi
rstor
der 
sys
tem

ons
ide
rabl
y l
owe
r t
han 

hen
aturalf
req
uenc
y叭 (
i.
e. 
0c

o'
t>2)
,th
e v
elo
cit
y g
ain 

oul
d b


ncr
eas
ed 
eas
il
y b
y a 

act
or 
2. 
Thi
s 
impr
ove
ment 

s 
ma i
nl
y du
e t
o 
the 
ext
ra 

hase 
la
g o
f t
he 
fi
rs


rde
r s
yst
em. 
At叭Z>>1  t
he 

nlu
f e
nce 
of 

he 
sec
ond o
rder 

yste
m co
uld 
eve
n be 
neg
lec
ted


in
ce 
Kv 
co
ul
d 
be 

s 
la
rg
e 
s 
a 1
.4
/ro
,  
r 
K,
, 
/1
,0
0二1
.4
/o)
oz.
App
roa
chi
ng 

ha
t 
ex
tr
eme 

it
ua
ti
on

owe
ver
, 
th
e b
andwi
dt
h叭of 

he 

ont
rol

ed 

yst
em 

s 
de
cre
se
a d 

har
ply

75
众6
      

二!
wo!0
.4


    


  
尸一扁、二乙: ̄ ・一
/忆, 州乌

几_-


日二‘  ̄ ,晰、



咬一
之 、,、

不谈蒸
一 ,,户

/ 、、、
、、

、、
0.
2 名 / 卜、

乙犷
、、
/ 一  ̄
、 、、
、 、

荞 、、
、、
/一乙V 丫—  ̄.
 ̄  ̄一 ̄ ̄

一  ̄ 肠曰 ̄
— ,

/冷 不 L 臼

d; 
 ,


a 一一 f

04


_
_
0.

0.
04 改1 .夕
0 (
L了 叹‘ 1 _ 2
‘ 一

  


      

}H}
1l十 介 .由

    13

二口口‘口尸口升云启二架、 }
一八



一 、目 口厂

_
__
_ \


一 「
一-—

_ 1 \
丫_

mor-2.

叹2 口{
        



0.
1 L
__
0.
0.了 0.

. 改a 坎4 改‘ r _ 2

一 确一 , ̄,.卜


                    
) 气
Fi
g.3.
11 
Fi
rst 
or
der 

yst
em 

n s
eri
es


  
iog
.3.
11 

) s
hows 

hat 

or 

al
ues 

f t
he 

amp
ing 

oef
fi
ci
ent杏a
s l
ow 

s 0
.1, 
a 

yst
em
ba
ndwid
th 
app
roa
chi
ng 
the 
na
tur
al 
re
fquenc
y肠 i s 
pos
sib
le. 
Thus 
compa
red 
wit
h p
rop
ort
io
nal
co
ntr
ol 

see 
Fi
g.
3.
2), 
the 

nf
lue
nce 
of 
a 

rope
r 
fi
rs
t 
or
der 

yst
em is 
a 
po
sit
iv
e o
ne.

3.
11 
COMPLI
ANT 
STRUCTURES
  
A  way t
o  ch
ange dyn
amic prope
rti
es of 
hydra
uic 
l ser
vosyst
ems  dr
ama ti
cal
ly i
s by th

int
roduc
ti
on of 
compli
ant 
st
ruct
ure
s. 
Fi
g . 

.12 
a) 
gi
ves 
a (
si
mpliie
f d) 
example, 
where 
the 
pis
ton 
is
act
uati
ng am ass
-sp
rin
g sys
tem. 
Such as 

tuat
ion 
can 
be e
xpecte
d i
n  l
arg
er c
o nst
ruct
ion
s where
par
t of 

he a
c t
uat
ed mass 

s 
connect
ed 
mo r
e or 

ess 
le
f xi
bly 
to 

h e 
pi
ston. 
Anal
y si
s o
f Fi
g. 
3.12 
a)
shows

76
1 H1
-S
raz
il
ic 

erv
o‘、
t位’
之VI声apostle
s 
s-s 

)尹rng 琴}
sr}r
rrs

王井
}' 
   






rA

夕 一计
环穷 夕
_
」 巴少司
介:
              

            

1一
co

C孙 J
石s=
凡I ,:
. }3 k
  
,、十C
1 多’

二司f
1 
J;
,祥


[i
t订J
la
h,

十;
),
’ 十
li
}h
',

.F
l J
石s=
+A(
t 
s+C


    
了-


石、:

、 !:
。C,
+1
二何-
漆握一 I

,+ 
-C上+1
田6 分“
‘C
Ol



E 
 _
} 
h 
} 
G,


)-C
J}r 

Oo(
Vl



曰卜一


11,

Fi
g.3
.12 
Co
mpia
lnt 
St
ruc
tur
es

77
F=C, 
(y
。一Y,)
+K, 
(y。一夕1
)=M, 

Y,

K, 
s+C, 

Yo=(M 

s2+K,s+COY
, }
Yo K, 
  
s+C,

                     
, 
  MI 
S 

+K, 
s+C,
Th
  
e b
loc
k d
iag
rams 

), 

), 

) a
nd 

) i
ndi
cat
e h
ow 

he 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
tio
n c
oul
d be 

oun
d. 
Th


esu
lt 

s 
a 

at
her 

omp
lex 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
wi

h t
hre
e n
atu
ral 

re
que
ncy码,C
t)
2 
an
d o
)3.

  

s 
re
f qu
enc
y r
esp
ons
e i
s 
usua
ll
y r
ath
er 
wil
d, 
es
pec
ial

y when t
wo o
f t
he 

atu
ral 
re
f qu
encie
s (
for

xampl
e码 an
d 0
)2)ar
e vey 
r c
los
e, as 
ha
ppens 
fr
equen
tly
. Then 
in as
 
mall 
fr
equenc
y range

aro
und码 a
nd 

c)
2)he
avy 

han
ges 

n t
he 

pen 

oop 

mpit
lude 

ati
o a
nd 
ph
se 
a l
ag 

oul
d b


xpe
ct
ed, 

spe
ci
al

y a
t 
lo
w v
al
ue
s o
f杏;a
nd/
or杏:
.Th
e Ny
qui
st 

lot 

n g
) g
iv
es 
a 

ypi
ca

example 
sho wi ng 
a char
act
eri
sti
c c
url.
As 
   t
he sys t
ema t
ic a
nalys
is 
o f 
co
mpl i
ant 
st
ructu
re wil
l 
le
ad us 

oo f
ar now, 
we res
tr
ict 
our
sel
ves
in 
a more qualitat
ive 
wa y 

o one 
impo r
tant 
sp
a ect. 
Becaus
e c
omplian
t s
truct
ures 
coul
d det
eri
orat

the 
dynami c propert
ies 
of 
a ser
vosyst
em  co
mp l
etel
y th
ey ar
e s
ome t
imes i
ndica
ted s 
a "par
si
a ti
c"
mass-s
pri
n g  s
y st
ems . 
To i
lmit 
it
s i
nf
lue n
ce, t
he nat
ural 

reque
ncy of 
the par
si
a t

c syst
em it
sel

should 
be de s
igned hi
g h 
s 
a possi
ble, 
prefera
bly 1
0 ti
me s 
hi
gher 
(o
r e
v e
n mo r
e) 
than 
the 
desi
gned
bandwidt
h  of 
the complet
e 
syste
m.
A 
  compa rable c
ompl ex 
si
tuat
ion 
is 
depic
ted 
in 
Fig.3.
120,ari
sin
g for 

n s
tance 
when an 
act
uat
or
sta
nds on a lo
f or, 
ha v
ing a 
nat
ural 
re
f quency i
ts
elf. 
Bot
h t
ypes 
of 
comp l
iant 
st
ruct
ures 
re
f quent
ly
occur 
in hy drauli
call
y act
uated 
ma chi
ne tool
s. 
One  s
imple 
sol
uti
on of t
he contr
ol 
proble
m  i


hown 

n t
he 
next 
sect
ion.

3.
12 
LF-
CONTROL 
OF 
COMPLEX 
HYDRAULIC 
SERVO'

  

n Fig. 
3.
13 a 
pr
o p
ort
ional

y co
ntrol
le
d hydra
uli
c s
ervo 
wit
h  a 
par
si
a t
ic ma
ss-s
pri
ng 
sys
tem 
is
re
prese
nted 
by i
ts 

impli
fied 
bl
ock 
diag
ram corr
esp
onding 
to 
Fig. 
3.1
2 e
). 
Fig. 
3.13 
b) 

hows t
he
way 
in 
wh ic
h many 
hydr
a u
ic
l al
ly 
act
uat
ed NC machi
ne t
ool
s a
re co
ntr
oll
ed. 
In 

hose 
mac
hines 

he
sc
rew spi
ndle a
nd machi
ne t
ool 
sl
ide 
repre
sent 
th
e ma
ss -
spr
ing sys
tem and 
ar 
ota
ry 
hydr
aul
ic
mot
or 

he 
act
uat
or.


  
n Fi
g. 
3.
13 

) a 

acho 

eedb
ack 

oop 
ha
s b
een 

ntr
odu
ced 
s 
a we
ll 
s 
a a
n i
nte
gra
ti
ng 

ont
rol

er

H,=K, 
/s)
.Ne
gl
ec
ti
ng 

he 

xt
ena
r l 

oa
d, 

he 

lo
ck 

ia
gr
am 

an 

e s
imp
li
fi
ed 

f 
th
e 
na
tu
ral
re
fque
nci
es 

f GS,Gi 

nd 
G2 

re 

ey 
r l
ar
ge 

omp
are
d wi

h t
he 

esi

ed 

and
wid
th 

f t
he

omp
let
e s
yst
em. 
Th
at 

andwi
dth 
us
ual
ly 

s v
ery 

ow 

n NC 
mac
hine
s. 

n t
his 

ow 
ba
ndwi
dth

ont
ro
l s
yst
em, 

ra
nsf
or
med 

o d
iag
ram 
c)
, we 
may 

ssu
me 
GS 
U00,Gi 
(j
o)) 
 a
nd
G2 
(J
0)=1 

t 
0)
=V;=K,
KK. 
So 

hi
s 
LF
-co
ntr
ol 

yst
em 

s 
si
mpl

fi
ed 

o 
in
te
gra
to
r 
in 

er
ie

wi
th 
a 

ir
st 

rde
r s
yst
em, 

ed 

ack 

ropo
rti
ona
ll
y. 
A 
maj
or 
pu
rpo
se 

f t
his 
me
thod 

f c
ont
rol 



ha
t v
el
oc
it
y t

me 

ons
ta
nt;,=K,
/ 
K,
R (

nve
rs
e o
f t
he 

el
oc
it
y g
ai
n.
) 
is 

et
er
min
ed

omp
let
el
y b
y c
ons
tant 

nd 

ery 

eli
abl
e l
ine
r e
leme
nts
. 
It 

an 

e a
dju
ste
d e
asi
ly 

s we
ll 

s v
ery
pr
eci
sel
y t
o a

79
Pr
opor
ti
onal 
cont
rol ect
ert
tnl 

out

c; 

plc
x s
econd 
or
derWs
teni








G 
e 
) 
        
(8

  
+j

r 
(叭。!

).・
 
W3.
04)
或 ,

Cn

  

  
/ -C
1 1十
+_ j
n 
   
h 

R K


力.
“矛刀C
YIII
6X I
pos
it
ion 
fe
edbac


unI
Gvc
o)I 
=1
恕G
I(
iw)1   
l 
= l
il

(,

(j
w)
I 

1 口p
- o  ̄


                    

Mr
th 

achol
oop 

nd 

nte
gra
tin
g c
ont
roler 几l
ad

!-



, b,卜二吞司丁I-

C YI
_ 
hr一      
G N 
  
  e 
               
r ‘ I


acbol
oop v
  
eloci

y, 

eedbac

K, 

po
sit
ion 
fe
edbac

b)

Ne
gle
chng 

xtr
nal 

oad
丛命

仪.


" 
" 
G, 1
'I
+_


,K

, 


i,
   
+ 
G 


、1 1

I 
c,
Gw) 
I一I
1一几

  


    
aI
      

  

      

  

注s
sur
nrng
 

- 


气6W) 

一1
..


G (
cc川 =I


         J"

-- . 卜
  
十 r, 
.V 
(Z, 
S+ 1)

Kr 1
    
公、
.= 公r= _,
. 
_ 
- 4 f, - .., ‘、里 r
万 

R K.
  
h,.

Fi
g.3.
13LF-Cont
rol


esi
red 

ixe
d va
lue, 

nd 

hat 
is 

recis
ely 
wha
t 
shoul
d b
e d
one i
n 
NC mac
hin
e wi
th 
a 
se
rvo 
for 
ea
ch

xis 
of 
moti
on. 
It
s i
mpo
rta
nce ca
n be d
emonst
rat
ed 
by as
sumin
g an 
NC mac
hine 
mil
li
ng wit

79

onstant 
speed al
ong 
a st
rai
ght 
line, 

n which t
wo ser
vo's part

cipat
e. 
The v
elocity 
err
o r
s of 
th


ervo'
s do not 
caus
e any 
wo r
kpiece 
er
ror 
if 
the 
veloc
ity g
ains 
are 
exact
ly 
equal. 

n that 
par
tic
ular

ase t
he comb i
nat
ion 
of 
the 
velo
city 
err
ors 
re
s ul

s i
n a 
cutt
er pat
h t
angi
ent
al 
to 
the work 
piece. 
For

his 
reas
on the 
vel
ocit
y g
ain of 

ll 
ser
vo's 
should 
be 
examined and 
adju
ste
d e
xpe r
ime n
tal
ly 
to hav


qua l 
va l
ues wit
hin 
a 
few 
p e
rcent
ages.
Th
   e i
mp li
cat
ion 
of 
thi
s method 
of 
LF-control 

s t
hat 
the 
ma xi
mum  obt
ain
able bandwidt
h is 
not

eached a
t all
, 
but 
in 
many NC ma ch
ines 
a l
arge 
bandwidth i
s c
onside
red 
to 
be f
ar le
ss 
imp or
tant

han equal 
velo
cit
y ga
ins. 
Thus 
Fig.
3.13 
shows a 
safe 
and pra
cti
cal 
sol
uti
on 
for a 
complex cont
rol
pr
obl
em.

3.
13 
LOAD 
ACTUATORS
Hy
   d
raul
ic 
se
rvosyst
ems fi
nd wides
pread appli
cati
ons 
in 
ma te
rial
s 
and 
fati
gue 
tes
ti
ng e
qu i
pment
wh e
re t
he f
orces(=load bei
n g i
ntr
oduce d) a
re ess
enti
al. 
There i
s a 
remarka
ble l
ack of 
cl
ear

n fo
rmati
on 
conceni
r ng t
he dynamic 
behav ior 
of 
load 
act
uators
. One 
of 
the 
reso
a ns 
for 
this 

s 
the
enormous 
var
iet
y of 

he mechanical 

tru
ctur e
s i
n which 
loa
d actuat
ors 

re 
incor
porat
ed. 
Ob v
ious
ly,

h e 
str
uct
ure o
f a hy
drauli
c pres
s, 
of f
atigue tes
ti
ng equi
pme nt f
or 
aero 
plane 
wings, 
and of 

simple 
te
nsi
le 
stre
ngth p
robe tes
ter 
are 
co mp l
etel
y di
ffe
rent. 
No r
mall
y, 
each s
pecial 

qu i
pment

e qui
res 
tho
rough anal
ysi
s, 
reveali
ng i
n  ma ny ca
ses di
str
ibute
d para
me t
er s
yste
ms  a
s well 



ump
ed 

ara
met
er 

mass
-s
pri
ng) 

yst
ems


  
ig. 
3.
14 

) ep
r r
ese
nts 
a 

impl
if
ied 
mod
el 
of 
a 

oad 

ctu
ato
r i
n a 

omp
lia
nt 
me
cha
nic
al 

tr
uct
ure

Fi
g.3
.14 

) gi
ves 

he 
blo
ck 
di
agr
am i
n whi
ch t
he 
se
rvo
syst
em i
ts
e l
f 
as 
wel
l s 
a t
he 
mech
ani
cal
st
ru
ctu
re 
can 
be r
eco
gni
zed 

asi
ly. 

nt
rod
ucing 
two 
"con
cent
ra
ted" ma
sse
s Mo an
d M,,t
wo

pri
ngs(
C, 

nd 
C2
)an
d t
wo 

amp
ers 
(k, 
an
d 
k2
)we 

in
d:
M, 
Y1=C 

Yo一Y
1)+k
, 
(Y
。一y
1)一CY,
一k2 
Y2
画1

2+(
、,
、k2

:+C
,+C
2 


!,
一(k
, 
s+C
,)
,。
Y1 k
,s+C,
Yo 一M,
,,+(
k,+k
2)s
+么+C2.
                            

The 

etwa
f rd 

orc
es 
Fo 

ndF, 

n t
he 
pi
st
on 

nd 

he 
ma
ss 
M,
,re
spe
cti
vel
y, 

re:


O=k
, 
(i

。一Y
i)+C,
(,。
一Y1
)=(
k, 
s+CO(
Y。一Y
1)=(
MIs
2+k
2s+C2 
)Y

汽=k2
夕,+C2 
Yt=(
k2s+CZ
) 
Yi

Th
e t
ran
sfe
r f
unc
ti
on 
v, 

v. 

s we
ll 

s t
he 
了 1 才 了 U

orc
es 
F, 

nd 
F, 

re 

ndi
cat
ed 

ii
ect
ly 

n di
agr
am 
b)

                                                                  
V I 班  ̄


t 
sh
oul
d 
be 

ote
d t
hat一i
n r
eac
ti
on一t
he 

orc
es 
F. 

nd 
F a
ct 

n 
ri
ght
war
d d
ir
ect
io
n o
n t
he
st
ructure.

Th
  
ere 

re 

t 
le
st 
a f
our 

oss
ibi
li
ti
es 

or 

eedb
ack

yo 

nd 
y, 

y me
ans 

f a 

isp
lac
eme
nt 

ran
sdu
cer

80
Ct 几



1,

一芍

en,
osy
st
ent
汤el
f ac
tuat
ed 
nj
echani
cal 
st
ruct
ure
b)



1一

C,
-tn
 

_


h A
1s2
+ir
s 气‘十Ct


.+
         J


竺仁

c)
肠一


sGs 
C"

d1

Fi
g.3
.14 
Si
mpl

fie
d mo
del 

f a 

oad 

ctu
ato

81
Fp 
  a
nd 
F, 

y me
ans 

f 
a 

orc
e t
ra
nsd
uce
r 
(l
oad-
cel

).
The ch
oice 

o b
e made 
de
pends 

argel
y o
n t
he 
natu
re 
of 
the 
ap
p l
ica
tio
n a
nd t
he 

alu
es 
of 

he
var
ious 
par
ameter
s. 
Si
nce 
gen
era
liza
ti
ons 
ar
e ha
rdl
y pos
sib
le, 
we t
ake 
as 
exa
mpl
es 
two 

xtr
eme
ly
si
mp if
l i
ed 
cas
es.

  
1) 

n 
th
e c
se 
a t
ha
t C2=0 (
and 

ons
equ
ent

y y
, 
=0
), 

iag
ram 

) 
ca
n b
e s
imp
li

fed 

o 
c) 

nd

    
). 

f GS 
=1
, 
th
e r
es
ul
ti
ng 

iag
ram 

) i
s 
si
mil
ar 

o t
ha
t 
of 
a 

sua
l s
erv
o wi

h p
osi

ion

    
eed
bac
k. 
Fr
om 

he 

ont
rol 

oin
t o
f v
iew 

t 
ha
rdl
y ma
ter
s wh
eth
er 

her
e i
s a 
po
sit

on 
or 

for
      
ce 
feedback.


  
2) 

n t
he 

se 
a t
hat 
C2=0 

nd 
k2二0,
we 

in
d t
he 

omp
li
ant 


ruc
tur
e 
be
ing 

eal
t 
wi

h i

      
Sect
io
n 3.
11. 
 No w posi
tion 
an
d f
orce 
fe
edbac
k di
ff
er 
ess
ent
ial
ly.
Thes
e t
wo s
impl
e c
se
a s sh
ou l
d make 
ver
y cl
ear 
th
at 

he n
atur
e of 

he 
me ch
ani
cal 

tr
uct
ure 

s 
a a

ov
erwhel
ming 
in
lu
f enc
e on 
the 
o ve
ral
l 
dyna
mic be
havi
or.

3.
14 
COULOMB 
FRI
CTION 
AND 
STABI
LITY
As 
  s
ta
bii

ty 

nd 
da
mpi
ng 

re 

ruc
ial 

rob
lems 

n c
ont
ro
lin
lg h
ydr
aul
ic 

erv
osys
te
ms, 

t 
is
wo
rthwh
ile 

o i
nve
sti
gat
e wh
eth
er 
Co
ulo
mb 

ri
cti
on 

ont
ri
but
es 

o s
tabi

lty 

nd 
da
mpi
ng 

r n
ot.

imp
ly 
by 

nt
ui
ti
on 

or 

y mi
sl
ead
ing 

efe
ren
ces
) 
on
e mi
ght 

xpe
ct 

ne 

ene
fi
ci
al 

ons
equ
enc
e o

Coul
omb 
ri
f ct
ion, 
s 
a i
t 
be
hav
es 

n mo
re 

r l
ess 

he 

ame 
wa
y a
s v
isc
ous 

ri
cti
on, 
whi
ch 
do
es
pr
ovi
de 

tab
iit
ly and 
da
mpi
ng.

F,
+ F
1-


co

£ 十一

,.户
5丢+,
s 
  
  I

之 十= .
之夕‘

Fi
g.
3.
15 
  
Hyd
raul

c s
erv
osy
ste
m wi
th 
Cou
lomb 

ri
ct
ion
  
To 
get 
a 
one-s
ided 
but 
ne
veth
r el
ess 
cl
ari
fyi
ng i
nsi
ght 
in 
th
ese 
matt
ers
, 
we make 
the 

oll
owing
hypot
het
ica
l e
xperi
ment 
wit
h a 
hydr
aul
ic s
erv
osyst
em acc
ordi
ng t
o F
ig.
3.1
5, 
in 
wh i
ch 
Coulo
mb
fr
ict
ion 

s t
he onl
y no
n-l
inea
ri
ty. 
We a
ssume t
he sy
ste
m to 
be a
djus
ted 
so 
tha
t i
t 
is 
st
abl
e al
so

t凡 二0,
con
se
que
nt
ly 
K,
, 
/0)
0<2

We 
  gi
ve 

his 

yst
em 
ac 
ons
tan
t s
pee
d i
npu
t s
igna
l r=v 
ro
f m 
t=一 t
o t=+的 and at

he 

ame 


me 

ncr
eas
e 
th
e v
el
oci

y g
ai
n 
"i
ni
fn
it
el
y 
sl
owl
y" 

o 
K/%>2
0 }.
A 
  
sys
tem 
wit
hotC
u o
ulo
mb 
ri
fct
io
n(Fc 

0) 
wo
uld 

howi
nst
abi

lty
, e
xac
tly   
wh
en


ss
a i
ng 
K/0
 
)0=2
} ma
nif
est
ed 
by g
radu
all
y a
ri
si
ng 
os
ci
ll
at
ion
s wi
th 
ev
er 

ncea
rsin


mpl
it
ude
s, 

ugg
est
ed 

in 

n e
xag
ger
ate
dwa
y) 

n瑰 .
3.1
6 b
).

Fi
g.3
.16 

tab
iit
ly a
nd 
Cou
lomb 
ri
fct
ion

Le
  
t u
s a
ssu
me 

or 
a mo
men
t t
hat 
a 
sy
ste
m wi

h Co
ulo
mb 
ri
f c
tio
n ema
r ins 

tab
le 


Kv
/co
o 
>2
百an
d t
he
n p
rov
e t
ha
t 
th
is 
ss
aump
ti
on 

s 
wr
ong 

nd 

he
eb
r y 

rov
e i
nd
ir
ec
tl
y 
th
at
Cou
lomb 
ri
fct
ion 
ha
s n
o s
tabi
li
zi
ng 

fec
t.

  
he 

ni
ti
al 
ss
a u
mpt

on 

mpl

es 

hat 
th
e s
ame 

xpe
ri
men
t 
as 
be
foe, 
r wi

h a 

yst
em 
wh
ere
凡 #0,

hou
ld 

how 
ar
 
espo
nse 


ke 
Fi
g.
3.1
6 b)
. 
St
abi

it
y d
ue 

o Co
ulo
mb 
ri
fct
ion 

mpl
ie
s a
t v
ey 
r l
est


ha
t 
th
e s
er
vo 

t K,
, 
/0% 

2心c
ont

nue 


s r
es
pon
se 
wi

h夕>0 

er
man
ent

y. 
Ho
wev
er
, 
su
ch 


es
pon
se 

s 
imp
oss
ib
le 

eca
use 


s i
mpl

cat

on 

s 
th
at 
Fc=+凡 p
erma
nen
tl
y; 

ee 

ig. 
3.
16 

).
Bu
t a 

ons
ta
nt 

ri
ct
io
n f
or
ce(
凡 =+凡=
con
sta
nt) 

mpi

es 
a 

erf
ec
t 

ln
ear 

yst
em 

eha
vi
or

whi
ch 

s 
inh
een
r t
ly 
un
sta
ble
, 
se
e F
ig.
3.1
6 a
). 

o ou
r i
nit
ial 
ss
a ump
tio
n wa
s wr
ong.
Th
  
e mos
t ik
l e
ly 

esp
ons
e o
f as
 
yst
em 
wit
h Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
ion 

o 户=v=c
ons
tan
t, 
wh
ere

Kv 
X0
)0 

s 
so
mewh
at 

ar
ge
r 
th
an 
2杏,i
s 
il

ust

ate
d i
n 
c)
, 
wh
ic
h s
hows 
a 

unt

ng 

st

ck-
sl

p)
mo
ti
on 
wi
th 

eri
odi
cal 

to
ps(夕=0)
.Ana
log 

imu
lat
io
ns 

onf
ir
med 

hi
s 
pos
si
bil

ty. 
Al
th
ough

ne 

oul
d s
ay 

hat 
a 

esp
ons
e a
cco
rdi
ng 

o c
) i
s 
st
abl
e, 
be
cau
se 

sci
ll
at
ions 
ha
ve 


mit
ed 

mpl
it
ude

83

uch 
a 

esp
ons
e i
n 
pr
act
ice 

s 
si
mpl
y n
ot 

cce
pta
ble
. 
Th
us 
we 

onc
lud
e t
hat 
Cou
lomb 

ri
cti
on 
wi
ll
not 

mpr
ove 

tabi
li
ty 

n pr
act
ice.

3.
15 
ANALOG 
SIM ULATION 
OF 
COULOM B 
FRICTION

Th
  
e i
nf
lue
nce 

f Co
ulomb 

ri
ct
ion 

n d
yna
mic 

eha
vio
r o
f h
ydr
aul
ic 

erv
osy
ste
ms 

an 



nal
yze
d b
y a
nal
og 

imu
lat
ion. 
To 
pe
rmi
t 
th
is, 
Fi
g.3.
1S 

) a
nd 

) h
ave 
be
en 

omb
ine
d a
nd 
wo
rke


ut 

omp
let
ely 

o t
he 

ana
log 
bl
ock 

iag
ram" 

f Fi
g.3.
17 

). 
To 

voi
d i
mpr
ope
r pa
rame
ter

dju
st
men
ts
, 

he 

wo 

omp
one
nts 

f 
th
e d
amp
ing 

oeic
f i
en
t杏 h
ave 

een 

epa
rat
ed. 
Ac
cor
di
ng

o 
Eg
n.(
3.1
0)
K .Cn
   w
C =否,
十杏2


                  
U .

二二 — — 十

2(
   Ch 2M叭
vo 
Fi
g.3.
17 
b) 

eems 

o be 

uffi
cientf
or 
anal
ogs
imul
ati
on, 
as 
Coul
omb 

ric
tion 

ccor
ding 

o Fi
g.
3.
16 
b) 

s 
in
clu
ded. 
Bu
t 
it 

s 
not
, 
be
caus
e 
at夕=0 

he 
Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
io
n i
s 
no
t 
de
ter
min
ed.

F:
十界



:} F

o盛+、c

于黔 一>0_j 

,=+I 

夕<口分 兀‘一}
, 
I 
F'





1n
uc


+ 
           

u+
- 矛呵    



p 似。 /。。 c
o"


             

_
一;(


+}
_
) }
      
力)

84
F,

亡1

+二研
   


r卜+
- +一 )


界一与

了.
   、,
一 = con 
留留 一stunt

oll 臼。


咨,




o ?
}r

o} 
  

o 4

)o 
+ 

E/

ta 
 C


 
O 
    



f 

;广夺 


                          
))

Fi
g. 

.17 
Ana
log 

imu
lat
ion 

f Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
ion


  
n p
hys
ic
al 

eal
it
y, 
ho
wev
er, 
Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
io
n a
t夕=0 

s d
ete
rmi
ned 
by 

he 

act 

hat 

t 
wi
ll

imp
ly 

ake 
wha
tev
er 
va
lue 

s ne
ces
say 
r t
o k
eep夕=(

.As 

ong 

s r
equi
re
d ri
fct
io
n i

一凡 <凡 <+ 
Fr,t
he 

pee
d y 
wi

l r
ema
in 

ero
. As 

oon 

s凡 =+Fc 

at 

Fc/
dt>0)

r 
Fc=一
元 (
at 
dFc/
dt<0)i
s 
re
ach
ed, 
th
e s
ys
te
m s

art
s 
mo
vi
ng 

gai
n. 
Th
is 

roc
edu
re 

as

een 
 imp
le
men
ted 
 in 
Fig
.3.
17 
 c
), 
 whe
re 
  
FC=几I 
 a
s 
 l
ong 
 as 夕# 
0 
and

c=凡:
whi

e 
y 
= 
0.
To 
  s
imu
lat
e ac
 
ons
ta
nt 

nd 
pe
rma
nen
t s
pee
d(户=v=c
ons
tan
t, 

ee 
Se
cti
on 

.14
) s
ome

ear
ran
geme
nts 
mu
st 
be 
ma
de, 

ee 

iag
ram 
d)
. 
In 

his 

et-
up 

he 

tat
eme
nts 
ma
de 

n S
ect

on 
3.
14

re 

ompl
et
ely 

onf
ir
med. 
An
alo
g e
xpe
rime
nts 
wi
th 
j=v=c
ons
tan
t s
howe
d t
wo 

tab
ili
ty

oun
dar
ie
s. 

he 

oun
dar
y 
be
twe
en 

ta
bl
e 
an
d s
emi

uns
ta
bl
e 
is 

ea
che
d a
t 
K,
/0)
o=2
}.Th

bo
unda
y 
r b
etwe
en 

emi
-uns
tabl
e a
nd 

omp
let
el
y u
nst
abl
e i
s d
ete
rmi
ned 
by 

hre
e d
ime
nsi
onl
ess

uan
ti

ie
s, 
K/(

 0,百a
nd 

oo
瓦/ 

Co.
  
The i
nlu
f en
ce 
of Cou
lomb f
ric
ti
on on s
inu
soi
dal
ly 
act
uat
ed sy
ste
ms  wa
s i
nvest
iga
ted a
lso

Ex
per
iment
s c
onf
ir
me d 

ur s
usp
ici
on t
hat 
Coul
omb 
fr
ict

on ha
s n
o efect
ive 

tab
ili
zi
ng i
nlu
f ence

玩t
he 
Se
cti
on 
3.
16 

f t
hi
s 
ch
apt
er 

n e
lega
nt 
me
tho
d i
s 
in
tro
duc
ed 

o p
rov
e t
hi
s 
th
eor
et
ic
all
y. 
At

he 

ame 


me, 
more 

nsi
ght 
met
hod 

s 
ob
tai
ned 

nto 

ome 

ey 
r pe
cuia
l r 

hen
ome
na.

3.
16 
DESCRI
BING 
FUNCTION 
OF 
COULOMB 
FRICTION

  
n t
he 
me
tho
d o
f t
he 
Des
cri
bi
ng 
Fu
nct
ion 

DF-
met
hod
) a
ll 

igna
ls 

re 

upp
ose
d t
o 
be 

inu
soi
dal

85
Th
is 
ma
y b
e r
eais
lti
c i
n in
l e
ar 

yst
ems
, bu
t i
n n
on-
li
nea
r s
yst
ems 

t 
is 

n a
ppr
oxi
mat
ion. 
Th


on-
in
l e
ar 

leme
nt 

onv
ert
in
g s
pee
d夕 i
nt
o Cou
lomb 
ri
fct
io
n eq
r u
ies 
r s
pec
ial 

tt
ent
io
n.

As
sumi
ng 

he 

npu
t 
si
gna
l y 

f t
he 

on-

lne
ar 

le
men
t 
to 

e s
in
uso
ida
l, 

he 

utp
ut 
Fc 
wi

l 
be

loc
k-t
ype 

see 
Fi
g. 
3.
18)
, 
wh
ich 

an 

e e
xpa
nd 

n 
a 
Fo
uie
rr 
se
ri
es.
六。,.

al

^ J
F=万F
,.

Fi
g. 
3.
18 
De
scib
r i
ng 

unc
tio
n o
f Co
ulomb 
ri
fcti
on


nput
: y=y 

in 
wt
1 1内」

1 15

4二
  

  

Ou
tpu
t: Fc=一 户c (s
tn 

x s
in 
3wt si
n 5wt+…)

86

n t
he 
DF-
met
hod 

ne 

ake
s t
he 

ir
st 
ha
rmo
nic 

nly
, 
ig
nor
ing 

he 

ighe
r h
armo
nic
s, 
wh
ich 

hou
ld

ave 

ons
ide
rab
ly 

mal
ler 

mpl
it
ude
s. 

o t
he 
DF
-me
thod 

ive
s a 


nea
riz
ed 

ran
sfe
r f
unc
ti
on

Fc一
Fc_生Fc


4 

 

一   
二 ;   
兀叻

、。。。
not

ti
on宾=4元/
二=c
ons

ant
, 
we 
ge


3.21)

The 
DF
-ap
pro
xima
tio
n i
s a
lso 

ust
if
ied 
by 

he 

o-c
all
ed 
ha
rmo
nic 
ba
lan
ce 

see 

ig. 
3.
18 

)). 
At

ne 

ive
n s
inus
oid
al 

ign
al 
y,t
he 

exa
ct" 
Cou
lomb 
ri
fcti
on 

nd 

ts 

ir
st 
ha
rmo
nic 

hav
ing


0 0 
pha
se 

ead 

o 
y)wi

hdr
aw 

he 

ame 

moun
t 
of 

ner
gy 
ro
f m 

he 

erv
osy
ste
m.

ntr
oduci
ng 
the 
DF-
fri
cti
on 
int
o our 
dife
rent
iale
qua
tio
n o
f t
he 
ope
n l
oop, 
we 
get

y一

F +F,   

e+F}

  

  


=2C = £



o 
2 
Kv 叭Kv Ch   
KyCo






z 


v一
 
;i




K2
v 
        

+      
- 


vy
一C
Fe 
o 
 

Co 
h 
 
+ 
KS

一f

o 

-! 

C 
h 
 + 



Al
l 
si
gna
ls 
be
ing 

inu
soi
dal
, 
th
e o
per
at
or 
s 

an 
be 

epl
ace
d 

      




o 
e 
 
y 


O 
h+
副一
jo
).



` 
y 


Th
O 


副S
us 


y 

te
f r 

ome 

alc
ula
ti
ng
wi

h FQ=0,
we 

et
_
    
,w2 。 P
-.「。‘
_(1
) 
2、C P
 -飞
一二一2; 
- ,一二厂 .
一 ̄七+A 
- I 
1-一一
二}+二二.
二六 .
} (
3.22)
y 
        
wo
K, 
   
Kv 
  
Co
y 
   
LKv 
l 
   
)o)‘*C
O OY 

Her
e a 
not 
too 
compl
icat
ed 
equat
ion h
as b
een de
riv
ed f
or t
he 
inv
e r
se 

pen l
oop 
tr
ans
fer 

unc
tio
n.

t 
is 
vey 
r pr
ofit
abl
e t
o make 
use 
here 
of 
an i
nver
se 
Ny qu
ist 
pl
ot, 
becau
se i
t 
gi
ves 

he mos
t 
si
mple
el
r a
ti
on 
be t
ween 
open 
loop 
an
d cl
o s
ed l
oop 
pr
es e
nta
tio
n (s
ee F
ig. 
3.
19)
. 
In 

he c
ase 
of
-1 一£
oH



‘一.1’

1+H
子, H
 

一 

=1十 一 =2+
1+
H 
    
   

Fi
g.3
.19 

nve
rse 
Ny
qui
st 
pl
ot

87
Eg
n.(
3.2
2) 

he 

dva
nta
ge 

s 
ev
en 

arg
er 

s t
he 

nlu
f e
nce 

f Cou
lomb 

ri
cti
on 
on 

nve
rse 

ran
sfe


unc
ti
on 

s 

in
ear 

se
e 
Fi
g.
3.
20)
. 

t 
sh
ows 


rst 
of 
al
l 

he 

oc
us 

or凡=
0(t
hi
ck 

sh
a e
d i

ne, 
st
ar
ti
ng

t 0)
. 
At 
a 

ive
n re
f q
uen
cy 

he 

ect
or 
OA=£/y 
and 

he 

ect
or 
CA=r/y 

epr
ese
nt 

he

nve
rse 

ran
sfe
r 
fu
nct

ons 

f t
he 
op
en 

oop 

nd 

los
ed 

oop 

esp
ect
iv
ely


  
qua

io
n 
 (
3.
22
) 
 d
ir
ec
tl
y 
 in
di
ca

es 
 t
he 
 i
nl

uen
ce 
 o
f 
 F 

coy 
on 

he 
 (
co
mpl
ex


ect
or 
OA=£/y.
Owi
ng 

o 
Co
ulo
mb 

ri
ct
io
n t
he 

ect
or 
OA 
is 

han
ged 

nto 

ect
or 
OB,
whe
re
B 

s 

ra
vel

ng 

lon
g a 

tr
ai
ght 
li
ne 

th
e DF 


ine
) 
as 
FC 

ncr
eas
es. 
Th
e 
in
ver
se 
Ny
qui
st 
pl
ot
now 
ma kes 
poss
ibl
e a 
dir
ec t 
swit
ch 
from t
he 
open l
oop 

o t
he cl
osed 
loop, 
si
mp l
y 
by 
repl
aci
n g 

he
or
igi
n 0 b
y t
he p
o i
nt 
C(一1,
0). 
So 
the 
same 
locus 

nd t
he 
same DF-i
lne 
can be 
use
d f
or 
open 
loop
an
d cl
osed l
oop. 
Consequent
ly 
th
e cl
osed 
loo
p ve
c t
or 
CA i
s 
changed i
nto 
CB by 
Coulo
mb fr
icti
on.
Thus 
Fi
g.3.2
0 enabl
es 
u s 

o an
alyze 

he i
nf
luence 
of 
Coul
omb ri
f ct
ion gra
phic
all
y.
As 
   t
he in
f al 
analy
sis o
f Egn.
(3.
22) wil
l 
be made a
nalyt
ica
lly
, we res
tri
ct 
our
sel
ves t
o th
ree
obs
erva
tions 
on 
Fi
g. 
3.
20.


  
a) 

o f
in
d t
he 

mpl

tud
e y 

f 
th
e s
ig
nal 
y 

rom 
a 

ive
n r
" a
nd 
a 

ive
n 
FC,
the 

ons

ruc
ti
on 


AA
      
DE 

s 
us
eful
, 
wh
ere 
AD 
=I 

nd 
DE/
/CB.

          

DE 刀A 
  DA' 
   1 .
__. J
CBJ_ y _x, 
Co 



— 二— 二— 二— s
o!刀F}二
CB 
  AB 
  B' 
A' A' 
B'

Th
e l
eng
th 

f DE 
bei
ng 
kno
wn, 

hepo
int 
E c
an 
be 

oun
d, 

nd 

rawi
ng 

he 


ne
CB 

/ 
DE 
we 

in
d t
he 

oin
t 
B 

ls As}
o:  CB}=P
yy
l  
,th
e 
amp
li

ude 
y 

an 

e 
fo
und 


wel
l.


b) 
Co
ulo
mb 

ic
r t

on 
wi

l 
st
op 

ny 
mo
ti
on(
夕=0
) 
if 
CB=0,
and 

s 
DE/CB 

hi
s 
ma
y 
oc
cur

  
f 
IDE
I=I
DAI
.An
al
ys

s 
of 
Fi

. 
3.

0 
yi

ld


DE
{一}

B 
j=
一曰一C
o 
r一一


A’
“‘

c 



    





!・
:_
C 

 

ha

OI
DE卜I
DA卜,
and 
y=0 


3.23)


n f
act
, 
th
is 

s 
th
e dy
nami
c d
ead 

one
, 
de
riv
ed 

arl
ier 

n S
ect
ion 
3.
4.
Th
    
e 
on
ly 

ife
re
nce 
ro
fm E
gn.

3.1
1) 

s 
a 

act
or 

r1
4,d
ue 

o 
th
e DF-
app
rox
ima
ti
on.

  
c) 
A 

in
ear 

yst
em 

s 
co
nsi
der
ed 

o 
be 

nst
abl
e(夕/r=0
0)i
f 
th
e po
int 
C(
一1,
0) 

s 
on 

he 

ocus


    
f 
 F,=0 
 t
his 
wi

l o
ccu
r h
er
e a
t 
 K, 
/C
oo= 2 
} 
 whe
n。=wo 


f 
 F, 
# 


nd 
K, 
/ 
wo=2
心,a
gai
n y/
r=oa
 
t。=w0 

s 
a 

st
ea
dy-
st
at
e) 

ol
ut

on, 
co
nir
fmin
g 
th
at
Co
ulomb 

ri
cti
on 

s 
no
t i
nlue
f nci
ng 

tab
ili
ty

Fi
g.3
.20 
De
scr
ibi
ng 

unc
ti
on 

nve
rse 
Ny
qui
st 
pl
ot 
of 

ydr
aul
ic 

erv
osy
ste
m wi
th 
Co
ulo
mb 
ri
fct
ion


  
o s
tu
dy 

ome 

eyp
r  
ecu
li
ar 

hen
ome
na, 
we 

ont

nue 

urt
he
r 
an
al
ys
is 

f 
Eg
n.(
3.
22
) 
an
aly
ti
cal

y.
Su
bst
it
uti
on 

f£=r一y 
yi
el
ds

。, 。 F
          
二=1一2‘,-二尸 ,
.. 「。} _ 
   
02、。 F
( ,.1
一下厂.朴二二
士+刀:丁-}t一一 二 !
+二子..
二.二:}.
Y wo 
K,
, 
  r,(
              -
 o 
y 
  
L 
K 


l 
        
 c
Oo
_)‘
.、UO
YJ
Ta
kin
g t
he 
mod
ulu
s g
ive


;,2
_「:1
1 
Y。, 。P
C 
1 
!丁 1 ‘! 1一‘5

.「。!
,。,
、.o


o 
 P
宾1
C 
 t

.一 二丁 ̄’二 尸 育 I 
r I 
- I 
I一 -一二 1
, .二罗..t万-万 !

YE 
  

     
  O

oA  
 
Kv 
Lo
yJ 
  

K, 
 l 
  
wo一)Ch 
 L
.0
Y 
J 
Mu
lt

pl
ic
at

on 

it
h仔/
r了a
nd 

ork
in
g 
ou
t 

fn
al

y 
gi
ve

r,,:r/ 。\
2 ,l ,l
2〕 f
-二 ,2「
/ \
2 /_ \
2 

!Y I 
  II. 、, 0 v-
- 
  1 
   tj一 !。 t t)一 I I !It, I 
  I1  to I 
  I L. I I
!份 I ・!I1一 1
.(
1 一— I十 一一二.I1一 一一- I !十 !一一止‘一I ・11— 1 
+ 1一
一- 1 1


r」L
戈 一t

o 
K,
) K,
` 
t 
  

oo)」L
COP
J L
(Kv
)LC
h)」 (
3.24)

。Y 
 P
C。[
Co‘
,(
t 4 -7 .—

) 
2、(
,,,0
.-
) 
2习 ,
I— !1一 一.
尸汀 1
一 i1一 GL
' — 日 一 1= V

‘C
  
O 
F 
Kv
LCh
LN0少L 一t

o 
K,


Ev
ide
ntl
y 
th
e s
eco
nd 

egr
ee 

qua
ti
on 

n y/ 
 
r a
nd 
Fc 
/ 
co 
r r
epr
es
ent
s 
co
nic 

ect

ons
, 
no
rma
ll


ven 

ll
ips
es 

avi
ng 
ac 
ent
er 

oin
cid
ing 
wit
h t
he 

rig
in. 

n Fi
g.3
.21 

) s
eve
ral 

mpl
it
ude

esc
ri
bi
ng 

unc
ti
on
s a
re 

rawn 

p a
t d
ife
re
nt 
re
fque
nci
es 

t K /0
 
)0 

0.2
5,杏=
0.2


ndCh=0
0・

  
ubs
ti
tu
ti
ng夕/r 
=0 

n 
Egn
.(
3.
24) 
we 

gai
n 
me
et 

he 

yna
mic 

ead 

one

* I
   /_
_\2 ,\

夕=0 
  
if c



-=
一c


!K!

3+!
C. 
I .、 vj 、 一n /

Fr
om 
Egn.

3.23
) t
he 

-c
o a
lle
d s
top 
re
f q
uen
cy 

an 

lso 

e de
riv
ed.
/ ,1

                        
2 /。 \


=。i

。一s


p一
、II
I 
70

r1
一 


Co

】 勺、 一‘ l
                                      
、 ’
./

3.25)

This 
st
op re
f q
uency h
as be
en 
deri
ved e
arie
lr a
lso (
in 
Sect
ion 
3.4
) a
nd i
s i
ll
ust
rat
ed 
in t
he
ampit
lude 
char
act
eri
st
ic 
b)


Th
  e 

nte
rpr
etat

on of 

he a
mpl

tude d
escr
ibi
ng 
fun
cti
ons 

s e
xpla
ined 

n mo
e 
r deta
il
, 
acc
ord
ing


igs

3.2
1 c
) 
an
d d
). 
Th
e 
re
la
ti
on 

etwe
en夕/
r"二、
d凡 /
car 
wi
ll 
no
t 
st
op。 夕/r 
=0 

nd

凡,
Co
r=
如/、
,1
2十
(C
O/
丫朴.
As 

ou

om
b 


rc


o。一
凡<凡、
+兀m

gh
t 


ke

mal

er 

alu
es 

han凡 =4凡 l 
It
,if 
it 
is 

uf
fi
ci
ent 
to 

to
p mo
ti
on, 
th
e h
ori
zon
tal 
ax
is 
wi


互c0;
y一"

  

  


 

    

    

一 


houl
d b
e s
een 
s 
a as
 
ubs
tan
tia
l p
art 
of 

he 

ict
ure
. 
 A 

ey 
r pe
cul

ar 

it
uat

on 

s 
now 

res
ent
ed 



), 
wh
ere 

acc
ord
ing 

o 
ou
r 
in
te
rpr
et
at
io
n j
ust 
ma
de) 

hr
ee 

if
fe
ren
t 
va
lu
es 

f夕/
r mi
ght 
oc
cur

t 
on
e s

ngl
e 
va
lue 

f凡 l 
co

".An
alo
g s
imu
lat

on 

eve
al
ed 

owe
ver 

hat 
on
e p
art 
of 

he 

ll
ip
se

oes 

ot 

rov
ide 
a 

tea
dy-
st
at
e 
so
lut
io
n. 
Fi
g.
3.
21d
) 
sh
ows 

ow 夕/r 

an 

han
ge 

isc
ont
in
uou
sl

wi

h v
ayi
rng凡 /
CO户.
The
se 

is
con
ti
nui

ies 

ave 

een 

bse
rve
d d
uri
ng 

nal
og 

imu
lat

ons
. 

ki
nd 
of 

ara
dox 
is 

nclu
ded 
in 
Fi
g.3
.21 d
) s
inc
e u
nde
r c
ert
ain 

ond
iti
ons 

he 

yst
em 

an 
mov
e a
t 

ri
fcti
on 

eve
l 
th
at 
might 

top 

ny 
mo t
ion.
Co
  
nsi
de
ri
ng 

ta
bi
li

y 
fo
r 
th
e 
lst 
a t

me, 
su
bst

tu
ti
on 

f K/
0o=2
( } a
nd 

n 
Eq
n. 

3.
23
) 
gi
ve

90






YZ
=了


. 

Z 

. 
 c
n 



( 
    
   
Kv
{十(
Ch


ts 

epr
ese
nta
ti
on 

nFi
g.3.
21 
e) 

houl
d be 

een 
as 
an 
el
li
pse 
wit
h one i
nfi
nit
ely 

ongaxis

凡l 
co 
r 
=0 

ein
g a
n axis

f s
ymme
ty. 
r Co
nfo
rm 

he 

ore
goi
ng 

nte
rpr
eta
ti
on 



N 


.=r

r  0 
aJ


63\

4J 改止

a以 8 甘

肚.


可 东
、 ,,r

二共、
口户州
V尸
砂洲产 口, .
洲尸口
户口.
  洲
七-一二r叫

口口口口! 1
.口..,二二鱼吧竺竺 C -
   J 〔二二二 二,,,气.日
矛、
-- .百.反 巴妞 r- ̄ ̄...口门脚‘‘ 」

欢月暇 之撼 卜L 仪

1 门限瓜 洲 -

.1
{}i\\.0 !
\’ .


15
/士
一!0,.4才{(
r‘



了一
",1_I

71.1
{)


6 ’} }
‘I




低l


山一

0.
0子 Ol 0.
  
: 0.
4 
   
0.6 
  0.
8 1

L)

91
产r・
一<r


{阁

五卿

Fi
g.
3.
21 
Ampl

tud
e de
scibi
r ng 

unc
ti
ons 

nd 
re
fque
ncy 

har
act
eis
ric

互c0?
里二0


y一

t典

  

 

-   


Co 
    

Un
les
s夕/ 
r 

0 i
s s
een 

s a 

at
is
fa
ct
oy 
r s
ta
bil

zat

on, 
Co
ulo
mb 
ri
fct
io
n d
oes 

ot 

ta
bii

ze

ydr
au

lc 

er
vos
yst
ems
, s
in
ce 

ta
bi

lt
y c
ond
it
io
n K,
, 
/ 
Ct

o 
<2C i
s v
ai
ld 

or 

ys
te
ms 
wi


凡 二0 

s we
ll 

s凡 ¥0.Th
is 

onf

rms 

rev
iou
s s

ate
men
ts 

s we
ll 

s v
ari
ous 

rac
ti
ca

expe
rime
nts

CHAPTER 
4 PERFORMANCE 
DIAGRAM 
AND 
DESIGN

OF 
SERVOM OTOR

4.
1 I
NTRODUCTION
Th
  
e d
esi
gn 

f l

nea
r s
ervo
mot
ors 

nvo
lve
s t
he 

ete
rmi
nat
io
n of 

he 

ist
on 

rea 
A,
the 

tr
oke 



he 

al
ve 

apa
ci
ty 
Q. 

nd 

he 

upp
ly 

res
sur
e 
PS.Th
e me
cha
nis
m t
o b
e a
ctu
at
ed 

orma
ly

equ
ire
s 
ce
rt
ai
n s
pec
iic
fati
ons 

uch 

s 
th
e s
tr
oke 
S 

nd 

he 

ctu
ate
d ma
ss 
M.Ot
her 

pec
if
ic
ati
ons


uch 

s 
th
e ma
ximu
m s
pee
d 
y.,
the 
ma
ximu
m a
cce
ler
at
io
n y.
X 
 
an
d t
he 

equ
ir
ed 

and
wid
th 



pee
d o
f es
r p
ons
e, 

re 

ome
time
s l
ess 

ete
rmi
ned 

efo
reh
and. 

n ma
ny 

ase
s t
hey 

re 

ubj
ect 



omp
romi
ses 

nd 

hei
r c
ons
equ
enc
e. 

requ
ent
ly
, i
t 
is 

he 
pr
ic
e o
f t
he 

nst
al
la
ti
on 

hat 
ma
kes
speci
ic
f at
ions 
mo r
e r
ealis
ti
c.

  
n t
his 
chapte
r, 
the rel
ati
onsh
ips bet
ween spe
ciic
f at
ions a
nd des
ign data 
are 
shown for 

si
nusoid
ally
-act
uate
d i
lnear 
motor 
load
ed by i
neti
ra fo
rces a
nd 
a co
nst
a nt 
pre
-lo
ad. 
An en
ormous
hel
p  i
n the desi
gn process 
is t
h e 
perfo
rmance diag
ram, which 
s hows some f
undamenta

re
laio
t nshi
ps 
in 
a re
f quency 
dia
gram.
As 
   t
he desi
gn pr
o c
ess i
s s
imple
r fo
r a s
ymme t
ri
c li
near mot
or 
control
le
d by a 
cr
it
ica
l-c
ent
er
4-
way 

erv
ova
lve
, t
his 
mot
or 
wi
ll 

e t
rea
ted 

ir
st. 

t wi
ll 
be 
pr
ove
d t
hat
, 
wi

h af
 
ew 
si
mpl


orr
ecio
t ns
, 
th
e r
esu
lts 

re 

ali
d a
lso 

or 

n a
symme
tri
c l
ine
ar 
mo
tor 

ont
rol

ed 
by 

n symme
a tri


-wa
y v
alv
e. 

n p
rac
ti
ce, 

hi
s 
symme
a tr
ic 
mo
tor 
ha
s t
he 

dva
nta
ge 

hat 

he 

pac
e n
eed
ed 

or 

he
mo
tor 

s 
co
nsi
der
abl
y s
mal
le
r, 

eca
use 

her
e i
s 
onl
y 
one 
pi
st
on 

od. 
But 

hen 

n symme
a tri
c 
4-
way

alv
e i
s de
sir
abl
e t
o o
bta
in 

moo
th 

yst
em 
beh
avi
or. 
Thi
s i
s ad
 
isa
dva
nta
ge 

sys
tema
ti
cal
ly

ver
loo
ked 

n it
lera
tur
e), 
be
cau
se 

uch 
an 
asy
mme
tri
c v
alv
e i
s n
orma
ll
y n
ot 

vai

abl
e.
Co
mme
rci
al
ly
, 
it 
ca
n b
e ob
tai
ned 
on
ly 

n s
pec
ial 

equ
est 
an
d a
t a 

pec
ial 
pr
ice

An 
  al
ter
nat
ive 

s t
he 
3-
way-
val
ve-
con
trol

ed 
as
ymme
tri
c mo
tor
. He
re 

he 

owe
r na
tur
al
re
fque
ncy肠 (
see 
Fi
g. 

.11
) 
cou
ld 

e a 
de
cis
ive 

rawb
ack
. 
Re
lev
ant 

ormu
ls 
a f
or 

he 
de
si
gn 

f a

-way-
valv
e-co
ntrol
led 
asymmetr
ic mot
or can 
e a
sil
y be 
fou
nd s 
a the 
des
ign 
proc
ess 
fo
llo
ws

xact

y t
he s
ame in
l es 
as 

or t
he 
symmet
ric 

lnear 
motor.
The 
   s
ame is 
tru
e for 
4-way-
valv
e-c
ontr
o l

ed rot
a r
y mo
tor
s. 
Here
, ho
wever
, t
he mome
nt of

ner
ti
a 
J 

s 
su
bje
ct 

o 
de
si
gn 

s we
ll
, 
as 

he 

ran
smi
ss
ion 

s 
pa
rt 

f i
t. 

n ma
ny 

se
a s 

he 

pti
ona


esi
gn 

f t
he 

rans
mis
sio
n t
o o
bta
in 
a 
mi
nimum 

neti
ra wi
ll 

ntr
oduc
e ma
jor 

omp
lic
ati
ons 

see
Rg.
1.1
1).

4.
2 RELATI
ON 
BETWEEN 
MAX.
STROKE 
S=2
夕、AND
BANDWI
DTH 

Fo
r we
ll-
des
igne
d s
erv
osy
ste
ms 

wit
hou
t 
"p
ara
siic
t " 
ma
ss-
spr
ing 

yst
em 

r po
or 

erv
ova
lve
s)

94

he 

bta
ina
ble 

and
wid
th 

). 

oug
hly 

qua
ls 

he 

atu
ral 
re
fque
ncy 

00 

aus
ed 

y t
he 

il
-s
pri
ng
wi
th 

ti
fne
ss 
co 

nd 

he 
mo
vin
g ma
ss 
M.Fo
r i
nst
anc
e, 
Fi
g.
3.
2 s
hows 

n o
pen 

oop 

ra
nsf
er
「_
        
2 _ 〕

unc
ti
on 
H( 
s)=K.

/,}s +2C
F ,
            
I 乙 时 武、
+1}wh
er
e 
a 

ro


er 

hoi
ce 

f K e
 
nab
le
s 
0)

,二(
on
卜 朴 r , .

              
I n)。 【U八 !
L ’一U
                
u J


rov
id
ed 

he 

amp
ing杏 h
as, 

r h
as 

een 

ive
n (
se
e F
ig.
3.
4)
, 
va
lu
es 

etwe
en 

.3 

nd 

.7.

cco

di
ng 
to 
Fi
g 

1.

1e)
, 
wh
er
e 
0)
a二}
_
C0/
_
M* c
o 
_
>4
, 
:/s
=2A
E / 
y=,
we 


nd
_2AE
      
2AE 2AE

4.1)


M‘一
Co-MC2 Mc
Oo j
)b 

He
re 
we 

ave 
a 

und
ame
nta
l 
re
la
ti
on 

etwe
en 

he 

tr
oke 
S=2夕
二 o
f t
he 

er
vomo
tor 

nd 




and
wid
th叭 .
The 

el
eva
nt 
pa
rame
ter
s 
ar
e 
M,A 

nd 
E.


3 RELATI
ON BETWEE
N VALVE 
CAPACI
TY 
Q. 
AND 
MAXI
MUM
SPEED 
       


A 
given 
ser
voval
ve 
has
-det
ermi
ned 
by 

ts 
maxi
mum por
t ope
nings
-a 
gi
ven 
maxi
mum

lo
fw Q= 
X.
As 
Qn,
X=A 
 y. 
we 


nd 
Q. 

A Y
. _A
>  叻 a
t 
si
nus
oi
dal 
mo
veme
nt. 
So

                    

y 
s= .
二醚 0)
        
泥 *、

4.2)

4,
4 RELATION BETW EEN CAVI
TATION BOUNDARY AND
MAXMUM 
     ACCELERATI
ON 

max

  
n s
ect
io
n 2.
4, 

he 

yli
nde
r p
res
sur
e只 a
nd凡 on 

oth 

ide
s o
f t
he 
pi
st
on 
we
e 
r d
eri
ved.
As
sumi
ng 
a 

ons
ta
nt 

re-
lo
ad 
Fs
t a
nd 
ne
gle
cti
ng 
ri
fct
io
n h
ere 
we 

in


,一1
。士从,
wh

re 

,=迎=


2 ‘ 2 “
      
y+
Fs
r “ A 
     

。 2 。
To 

voi
d cavi
tat
ion 
and/
or 

atur
ati
on 乙 <一 长 must 
be 

nsur
ed, 



   3

M,
y二 十Fst二二:—  
Mc
02夕+只,<_
2 
PL= 一 厂一

       A
        

and

2_ _
一1
' A 一 F'

。_ }I0
3X二二二 3
V c —
了 ,.1 .夕 __z

4.3)
【U
         MO

r 
Pog]

n 一一甲一 ̄ RI


J}
“。
、・
漏\ 八

   、 ‘、

^.r
Y 
=co
;ISf
anf
= rel
l 
st
all 
f 全
力伪口x

            

人儿 -1

R2

M飞阅月划、|〕 山 叮
、、
秘从丫 土 田
人为

山夕 a2

Fi
g.4.
1 
Pr
eli
mina
y 
r pe
rfo
rma
nce 

iag
ram

4.
5 PRELI
M INARY 
PERFORM ANCE 
DIAGRAM
Th
e o
bta
ina
ble 

mpl

tude夕 o
f 
a 

ive
n mo
tor
-va
lve 

ombi
nat

on 

s 
now 

ete
rmi
ned 

n 
th
e l
ow,
mi
ddl
e 
an
d h
igh 

req
uen
cy 

ang
es.
, 2AE
LF v<— 田<C
ot Y=Y. , (
4.4)
Ml
  

)b

MF ,,Y二 _Q = (
4.5)
Ys一 一 码 <田<叭 YI 
>Y> 
Y2
CI A(o
          

全 PA一F


F 
   
y、粤 - 田 一

MC
02
                      
2 <山<妈 Y2 

C >Y
> Y3・ (
4.6)


n 
th
e p
rel
imi
nayp
r  
erf
orman
ce 
di
agr
am of 
Fi
g.
4.1 

a) 

wit
h 
loga
ri
thmi
c s
cal
es 
fo
r夕 and 
o))
,th



nes 
fo
r t
he 
mid
dle 
re
f que
nci
es 
ha
ve a 
sl
ope-
1, 

he 
HF-l
ine
s a 
sl
ope
-2. 
Thes
e l
in
es 

t 
th
e s
ame


me 

ndi
ca
te 

alv
es 

f夕二a
nd 


..

  
he 

osi

ion
s o
f 
th
e p
oin
ts 
R,
(夕,
,A)
O ,RZ
(夕:,
Ct
})a
nd 
R3(
Y3,
魏)a
re 

har
act
er
is
ti
c 
fo


he 

erf
orma
nce 
of 

he 

erv
osy
ste
m.
Co
  
nce
ni
r n
g t
he 

oin
t R,
(夕;
,q)
,Eq
ns. 
(5
.4) 
an
d (
5.
5) 

ive

Yl
=Yma

2AE
码=
Yma
x 二MO

b 
z・
Qma
x Qmax
MO
)h 
2 夕、 2EAZ AY.
wher

96
Ay

            
l 
二;
_一Q
cn

x=、Y
2. 八
                                           

Co
nce
rni
ng 

he 

oin
t R2
(夕:
,峡)
,Eq
ns. 
(4
.5) 
an
d (
4.
6) 

ive

          
r2_ 飞

      
刊 育只A一F I
夕2 MQ 

二 as _ .

!',
fax 
,2一下 一  ̄ 二
     
I 

.S 一 “ I

Y2 -一一 = r.
. ,

        
,,
    
A`I
,I乙 _ ,
一F 

A一r"

. I     
YU    
M MQ.*
_ I

L3 “
              


wher

、,
2=
;_=Q
ma
x二q 
y1

                              

and

2 二
    
呈PA一F
..
3 2,
        

峡 Y2=Yma
x= =(

03 
 Y3・


oi
nt 
R.

(矛,



-1
6)
. 
ca
n b
e f
ou
nd 

y s
ubs

it
ut

on 

f C

),
=(U

,=、
厉面 丽万 i
                            
、 护 口 J ,
nt
o 
Eq
n - .沪 口 , - .‘J.闷j、 一


4.6)

_YD
Y3
=_

)b 

,一
{3 
PS 

一二
」 2AE

4.
6 DESIGN 
OF 
SYMMETRIC 
M OTORS
Al
  
l 
th
e a
bov
e r
esul
ts 

ave 

een 

umma
riz
ed 

n t
he 

esi
gn 

har
t 
of 

ig. 
4.
2. 

t 
en
abl
es 
us 



esi
gn 

he 
mo
tor 
an
d v
al
ve
, 
i.
e. 
to 

er
iv
e 
A, 
Ps,Q. 

nd 
N 

ea
k ro
fm t
he 

pec
ii

ed 
E, 
M, 
O)
b,

max
,ym
ax,y
n=,
and 

sr,
Eq
n. 

4.4
) 
pi
st
on 
ar
ea

一MO

b2
了1 二‘ 一夕
二 (
4.7)
2E

Eq
n. 

4.
6) 

ive
s 
th
e s
uppl
y 
pr
ess
ure 
   Ps= 3
E,
一M
Ft
] z 二
    
叭  Yma


4.8)

Y.. 
Y.
Eq
n (
4.5
) gi
ves 

he 

alv
e c
apa
ciy
t Q
. =A
y二二Ma

b2E

4.9)


3__
   F,
      
1:
Ma
x 
pe
ak-
powe
r 
no
w b
eco
mes 
    
Nn=Q. 

s二 一 M 41
( 0)

,十M-

 
Yn

So 

he 
des
ign 

da
ta 
A.只 。口__and 
N- 
can 
be 
exor
                        
一 J 一  ̄ “.田八
ess
ed 
exvl
ici
tl
y i
n t
he 

peci
icat
f ions.It 



“ “

cl
ear 

hat
, 
if 

he 

pec
iica
f tions 

ead 


o una
cce
ota
ble 
va
lves 
of 
A.只 .口__
_or 
N_,a 
compr
is
                                        
e ’ J  ̄ “翻;人 v ‘
must 
be 
made.

R, 

R, 2AE
              

Y= —
Mc
2AE
    

    
o, Y

一Y
-一
可 Y二:
      
叼二
山 ,= 气丁 ̄- 二 一,丁.

口<u)
,,Y,=Y二
R,
R, Y
  
_x 
    

Y一_
、 .。
夕。 Q、
     ,

2・
-V一

- 
    
      


M 
},

一一,r

1 
Y 
I一

0. 
y2
“夕一二
} 

ma


  

’A2



3 


‘一
凡,
Y= —
Aw

),<。 <0
0 ),

      
. 
    
A(一 只 A一F-)
Y,
        
一3
Yt>Y>Y2

j,=一 = A


-/l
Y} 
      
                                             

}jv ,


                   
)2夕I二( 

)2

}3

R2 
R, }
             

2P
, 
 一F


                                       

二Y
                
-=一下讶一一
呈 PA一
F-

y 一‘
 y

  

2_
                    
_ 、
 


一   
 

- 自 峥

M由 只      
      
Y. 
(} 
PA一户,
,)
六 _ .r j
田2<田<。3 Y3 = 一下.丁 = 一一一一一丁下二丁一- 一
6卫)一
         2A P

Yz>Y>Y3

De
sign 
of 

ymme
tri


一、一
、一} 

2Y



Servormot
or 
wit
h ,_M可 ・
n 一


yma
xo
x 


n Mt

bz・
Y,X・
Y.A
M V - —


-wa
y s
erv
ova
lve           
2E ’一 2E
__ 。 丑.、
      
JL(
    
y+二号) 。 _ 。

x二一 甲些.N,二Q.P=舟M(
端 十书)
.瓜
峨 ’夕ma
        
x 一 J 
             

Vl
As
ymme
tri

servom ot
or wi
  
th Mynx+F

.,
- 

        
a , 
- A
Z_ 


          
asymme仇 c 4-
way A _ 1刀

servoval
ve

Fi
g.4.
2 Des
ign 
cha
rt

4.
7 FI
NAL 
PERFORM ANCE 
DIAGRAM
Ea
  
sie
r t
o h
andl
e t
han 

he 

rel
imi
nar
y p
erf
orma
nce 

iag
ram 

s t
he 

ina
l p
erf
orma
nce 

iag
ram

98

Fig.
4.
3)
, 
whe
re 

he 

pee
d夕a
nd 

he 
re
f q
uen
cy 

re 

he 

rdi
nat
es. 
Now 

he 
LF-
li
nes 

f c
ons
ta
nt

mpl
it
ude夕=夕/ 

) h
ave 
a 

lop
e +1
, wh
il
e t
he 
HF-
li
nes 

f c
ons
ta
nt 

cce
ler
at
io
n夕二夕C


ave 
a 

lop
e -1
. 
So 

he 


nes 
of 

ons
ta
nt夕 a
nd 

hos
e o
f c
ons
tan
t夕 a
re 

erp
end
icul
ar
. 
Ju
st

nowi
ng 

he 

o-c
all
ed 

5%-
ser
ies


                      
一1.
25-
1.60 

2.00-
2.50 

3.1
5-4.
00 

5.00-
6.3
0 -
8.00-
10-


wh i
ch 
div
ide
s t
he 

ang
e I 

o 1
0 i
nto 

ncrement
s 
of 
equal
-pe
rce
nt)
, 
th
e p
erf
orma
nce 

iag
ram 

an

e put 

oge
the
r e
si
a l
y 
by 
any
one 
ro
f m l
ine
ar-s
cal
ed 
pa
p e
r i
n a
ny 
si
ze.

4.
8 DESI
GN 
OF 
ASYMMETRI
C SERVOMOTORS(
A, 
# 
AZ

  
The 
res
ults 
ob t
ain
ed so fa
r are 
rel
ev a
nt for s
ymme t
ric l
ine
ar moto
rs with 
symme t
ri
c 4-way
va
lves
. 
In prac
ti
c e
, a
symme tr
ic motor
s mu st 
someti
mes be u
sed, 
for 

nsta
nc e 
to 
avoi
d one 
of t
he

wo pi
sto
n rods. 
Such 
a motor 
mu st 
be 
comb ine
d with 
an a
symme t
ri
c 4-
way  v
alve
, a
s a 
sy
mme tri

va
lve 
is 

nc o
mpa ti
ble 
(s
ee Sect
ions 
2.5 
and 2.6)


  
t 
can 
be found di
rect
ly ro
f m the c
on c
lusions 
in Se
ctio
n 2.6 
th
a t 

he a
b ove 
resu
lts 
al
so c
over

symme t
ri
c motors, 
pro
v i
ded t
h a
t s
ome typical 
corr
ect
ions 
are 
made. 
In 
Eg n.
(4.
7) t
he 
pist
on ar
ea
A 

hou
ld 

e 
re
pla
ced 

y 0
.5(
A,+AZ
)an
d i
n 
Eg
n.(
4.
8) 

or 

he 

upp
ly 

res
sur
e,凡,s
hou
ld 



ep
la
ced 

y 
F 

一0.
5(
A,一AZ 
)P・
So

A=0
.5(
A,+AZ

M(

)b
z夕二 (
4.11

2E
    

只 =3
E・
My
m+1 
n Fs
,一0
.5
(A,
一A2
)Pl (
4.1
2)
,, z,
M叭 Yn
Wx


一 “ ̄

 nd 
N- 

shoul
d be 

orr
ect
ed 
cons
eauent
lv. “



扭留

R 、


' 


 产

R1
 




' 

 


l.


3  
r=J’刃,“℃

/ \
、产

"'

少/

/ \
、声甲


   万 ^ ^

多 = 
PUnstall 
t J
'-・

 
}3
/ 一 ,1
其 a,

山1 田 . 勿


  
  
(%J
Fi
g.4.
3 
Fi
nal 
pe
rfo
rma
nce 

iag
ram

99
Eq
  
uat
io
n (
4.1
2) 
ma
kes 

lea
r t
hat 

he 

owe
st 

oss
ibl
e s
uppl
y p
res
sueP
r S 
wi

l b
e o
bta
ine


t 
F5
,二0.
5(A,一A2 
)P
S.Co
mbi
nat

on 

f 
Eg
ns.

4.1
1) 

nd 

4.
12) 
gi
ve
s 
ar
eas 
A, 

nd 
A2



2…F


5 

     
    

-2


E・
 

ma

  

3M

 



ma

・ (
4.1
3)

3Ey,

x (
4.1
4)
PS 
mi
n=
Wb夕
叭2。、
Ma
ximu
m v
alv
e c
apa
cit
y 
an
d p
eak 
p rnow 
owe bec
ome

4.15)
Qi
二 =A, 
yma
x,

Ni
p=P,
人夕, ・

2[ 


-.
+F
, 

T  (
4.1
6)

In 
co
mpari
son 
wi
th 

he s
ymmetri
c 
motor
, 
the 

ner
gy 
consumpt
io
n of 
a 

re-l
oad
ed 
asy
mmetr
ic
mo
tor 

oul
d b
e c
ons
ide
rabl
y l
owe
r,es
pec
ill
a y 
when 

he 

inte
grat
ed" 
po
wer 
cons
umpti
on 

in 

Wh)

s cons
ider
ed.
  
In 
man
y c
ase
s 
an 
"o
pt
imal
" 
ar
ea 

at
io 
A,/A2,mak
in
g 
FS,=0.
5(A,
一A2 
)PS,i
s 
not 
po
ssi
bl


or 
pr
ac
ti
cal 

ea
son
s. 
Ta
ki
ng 

he 
ra
ti
o入/ A:二;L a
s 
a 
sy
st
empar
amet
er 
Eg
ns.

4.11
) a
nd 
(4.
12)


ie
ld, 
at

er 

ons
id
era
ble 
wo
rki
ng 

ut:
耐,+F s
,.
2()
.+卫 a
t 几兰

耐二十2
凡 (
4.1
7)
Ps二3
E・ 3
耐 二一2
Fst
M(
Ob
2夕, 5几一1

M’j
  

耐。:一Fs
,. +2F5


S=3
E・
2(}
. 
+ 
1) 

t几全 (
4.18

Mc
)b
2夕,   
5一又 一3My
,一2 Fs
t‘

PS二
3EYf

%r 、
=3Mjy
. + 
2F,
, (
4.1
9)
2 ,
    
3My二 一2Fs

叭   
Yma

4.
9 DESIGN EXAMPLE 

I 
IN 
Fi
g. 
4.
4)
mot
or 

o be 
de
signe
d:
Sp
eci
fi
cat
ion
s o
f a 

ymme
tic

E=1
09 
N/
m 2 F=
 0,
M “1
500k
g,C

)b“l
OHZ二6
3ra
d l 

夕二 =lm 夕
,=2m ls ;
二二1
0m/
,=’
“・
Th
e d
esi
gn 

ata 

ow 

eco
me
U 

, 2 
iv
A=
成,
二 ̄ b
,盯口x

50
0.6
32.
1.1
。一m2
=30
cm2
2E 2。
109


00
3・
109.
P=
3芍I


n 1
0 
=7
5.
10
5聋=
75 

ar


O 

2夕二 632.
1 ___‘
I 
                     
I刀

_ Mo


n2y

,. 
二二

}X 
二 一

50
063
2 

1 

2 
_c 

n-
3 
m3 
_
"c



二—

n3 = V l1V 一 = Juv —

一’ 2E 
         
2.
IOy 
           
s 
    
min

Nr
=Q. 
P,=6
.10
-3・
75・
105=4
500
0Wa
tt=4
5kW.
Furt
her 
we 

ind

2 22
2 
ra
d=0

32
。,Y
2一李=

叭、
— = 0.
4 m 
=40 
cm,

呻 欲
1 10


肠一叭


  
0 _r
ad 10 
       

2,
 

一       
二 — = 5 =0.
8 Hz
, Y3= - ̄二二= — m = 2.
5mm.
63` 
       
400

Th
e r
esu
lt
s(I)a
re 
pl
ote
d i
n 
the 

erf
orma
nce 
di
agr
am 
of 

ig.
4.
4.

  
nt

.,o
duc
ing 
_a 

ons
ta
nt 

re-

oad 

,s

r=Mg
_ =1
__500

_N,
the 
_d
_e

_i

功n 

n3f 
mo
to
_r 
_a
nd 

_a
_l
ve 
_(
A, 
Q.)

eA
ml 

i/A
n 

hZ=5 
e 
sa
m g
e i

, 
bues 
t 
PA;
, 
a=
n5
0c
d m一
NP 1
mu
s; 

t 
b75 
e 
db
oa

u, 

l(

dh二
, 
se=6
e 
Eq
nU
sU
. 
(4.
8),
, 

n Ni
d 

4.
1p

)=
.75kW
Th
  
e c
ons
ta
nt 

re-
lo
ad 
Fs
t=1
500
0N 
ma
y l
ead 

o 
th
e d
esi
gn 

f 
an 

symme
tr
ic 
mo
tor 
wi

h a

sy
a mme
tri
c 4
-wa
y v
alv
e. 
Eq
ns 

4.1
7), 
(4.
18) 

nd 

4.1
9) 

ead 

o:

rm n
                                      


0 c
m 2 100bar 480


0 c
m 2 150bar 360

Thi
s 
ex
ampl
e 
sh
ows 
ve
yc
r  l
ea
rl
y 
th
e 
eno
rmous 

nf
lu
enc
e 
of 

he 
ch
oi
ce 
of 
A1 
/AZ 
on 

he 
su
ppl

pes
rsur
e 
PS
,t
he 
va
lv
e 
ca
pac
it
y 
Q. and 

he 

eak-
po
wer 
Nn t
o f
ul
fi
ll 
th
e 
spe
ci

f c
at
io
ns.

4.
10 
"I
NVERSE" 
DESI
GN 
EXAMPLE 

II 

N FI
GAA)

t i
s a
lso 
po
ssi
ble 
of 

our
se 

o c
alc
ula
te 

he 

erf
orma
nce 

f a
n e
xis
ti
ng 
mot
or, 

oll
owi
ng 

he

inv
ers
e" 

esi
gn 

roc
edu
re. 
As 
an 

xampl
e, 
we 

nvi
sag
e a 

ymme
tri
c 
mo
tor
, 
ha
vin

M=1
              
05k
g,Y}x=0.
045
m, A=9・
10-
4m2

5 一6

  

  

  

 J

 

 

    

j   

E=
    
10
9呱2
,PS
一21
01
05 
NI
m2,Q

  

   

    

-   

/ .
1  

W e 
now 
ind

田I=
Qr
= _2
0.
58
竺 一3
.2
8Hz

芍R
= s
                

)2=


P A2=1
29

6丝 一2
0.
6H
z,Y
2=3MQ赢 =0.00714m=7.14mm,
3MQ. s
                

P,A3


01
自匕 . OnO OO心 00甘 心石

心钊尸 00尸
/八\夕尸
\ .
成权/\/\/\



ae
N-





. ̄ 户,- 一 - 州,
; , ,
                      

一O
1O
-t


 <
一  太舜火

09
行0
丫」 叉淤 V1 又 1

0幻
又交

分 八 00八 启 卜 幻刊护 00户 0口

0, 喊 尹
火又《 只 E }


月 的刊
 匆
阳    
火丫 \ 4 ;EE


/ E又丫兴

0八

b洲丫丫

火只 《 卜0 }

峨刊p
行9

、 0

只又 只只火只火

0目


代.
0哈 峨 石

r一

汉又 又只只又


h 助八


火 t 城 火义又火
心代仍 叹已
0代

I 理

丫义丫 d



0l义又N 峨 到钾




Pr

只 ,

丫试又 义只又丫
a 幻创户
. 乓9 叭


4 丫又 义义 义 黑双只
.。 n:
呼 心气

\/
/ \又丫义只义又义
的.
灼 咬入

州只只丫义又 ̄


幻尸n. 哟叫. 八

\/



` \/
/\\/\/\/\/\声认/

幻刊.
月口0.


?尸

们钊 L



L 一
_
      
口〕


_
.1
_



r,











_
含 名 蕊
                                                      
,.

Fi
g.4.
4 Des
ign 

xampl

102
只夕m
a 
x 八八
八八,
,。_
_
_ 八。,
。__
__
_
_

=} 
M2



E =6
17丝 =9
8Hz y3=—
3E
= v .
V IJV J 1-
)rn = v .j 
i-)r
rcrri

2P, 

。、二Q
; -‘
A 
二0
    
.9
26 

        

y二x=
3M =
12
0畏=12g.
Th
e r
esu
lts 

I) 
hav
e be
en 
pl
ot
ted 
al
so 

n t
he 
pe
rfo
rma
nce 

iagrm, g.4.
Fi 4.

Taci
tl
y i
t was 
as
sumed 
her
e t
hat 

he mas
s M ismoving 

n hor
izon
tal 
pl
ane
. Wh
en 

t i

mo
vin
g v
ert

cal

y, 
a 

ons

ant 

re-

oad 
f, sintroduced. 
,=Mg,i The 
res
ult
s r
ema
in 

he 
same


xampl
e t
hat

2P, 
A 12
0竺 =
Y=X+g=
= 一 一 _2

2g so 
Y= =ll
g.
3M S
        

Co
nse
que
nt
ly
, C

)2 
=1
8.
9Hz
,夕:=
7.7
9mm, 

nd夕
3 
=0
.2
89mm. 
Th
e d
sh
a e
d i

ne 

n F
ig.
4.


hows 

he 

nf
luence 
of 
g.

4.
11 
CASE 
STUDIES 
AND 
SPECI
AL 
TOPICS
4.
11.
1 AN 
ANTI
ARCRAFT 
GUN 
DIRECTOR, 
A 
HYDROMECHANI
CAL
TYPE-
        
2 SERVO 
W ITH 
M ECHANICAL 
COMPENSATION

Fi
  
g.4.
5 s
hows 

n a
nti
air
cra
tg
f  
un 

osi
ti
oni
ng 

erv
o s
yst
em 

n wh
ich 

he 

osi

ton 

omma
nd 



rov
ide
d b
y a 

uma
n t
rac
ker
. 
(An
oth
er 

ers
ion 

f s
uch 

yst
ems 

ses 
a 

ada
r t
rac
ker 

o r
epl
ace 

he

uma
n, 

owe
ver 

he 

un 
po
siio
t n
ing 

erv
o r
ema
ins 

sse
nti
al
ly 

he 

ame
.)We 

houl
d f
ir
st 

ote 

hat

he 

ompl
et
e gu
n d
ire
cto
r mus
t 
pr
ovi
de 

wo 

xes 

azi
mut
h a
nd 

val
uaion
t ) o
f c
onrol 
t to 
po
int 

he
gu
n pr
ope
rly
. I
t 
is 

sua
ll
y a
cce
pta
ble 

or 

niia
t l 

esi
gn 

urpos
es 

o c
ons
ide
r e
ach 

xis 

epa
rat
el
y,

o f
rom 
her
e on 
our 
di
scus
sion 

s of 

he 

zimut
h axi
s onl
y. 

Final 
de
sign 

houl
d c
heck 

or 
any
po
ssi
ble 
pr
obl
ems 

hat 
mi
ght 

ris
e ro
f m 

imu
lta
neo
us 
mo
io
t n 

f b
oth 

xes
, s
uch 

s t
he 

zimu
th
mo
men
t o
f i
ner

ta 
be
comi
ng 

ari
abl
e 
wi

h e
leva
ti
on 

ngl
e.


  
n a 
ma
n-ma
chi
ne 

yst
em 

ike 

hat 
of 
Fi
g.4
.5 

he 

esi
gne
r s
tri
ves 

o r
eli
eve 

he 
hu
man 
op
era
tor

f a
ny 

ask
s t
hat 

re 
be
ter 

erf
or
med 
by 
ma
chi
ney 
r s
o t
hat 

onc
ent
rat
ion 

an 

e f
ocus
ed 

n t
hos


unc
ti
ons 
be
st 

uit
ed 

o h
uma
n p
erf
orma
nce
. 
Compu
tat

on 

f t
ar
get 
le
ad 

ngl
e 
cou
ld 
be 

ssi
gne
d t


he 
gu
nne
r's 
mi
nd 

duc
k h
unt
er 

o i
t 
al
l 
th
e t

me) 
bu
t t
his 

yst
em 
pr
ovi
des 
a 
ma
chi
ne 

id. 
Lea


ngl
e 
de
pen
ds 

n t
ar
get 

ang
e, 

ngul
ar 

elo
cit
y 
COI 
OS 
of 

he 
in
le o
f s
ight
, 
an
d g
un 

all
is
ti
cs. 
If 

he

unn
er'
s 
ins
tr
uct
ions 

re 

imp
ly 

o k
eep 

he 

ros
s ha
irs 

n t
he 

arg
et 

not 

o l
ead 

t)
, 
th
is 

ask 

an

e a
ccu
rat
el
y 
pe
rf
or
med 

nd 
we 
ma
y a
ssu
me 

ha
t 
th
e a
ngu
la
r 
ve
loc
it
y 
of 

he 
9,s
 
haf
t 
is 
)L
O o
s,
wh
ich 
we 
me
su
a r
e a
s s
hown 
wi

h a 

ate 

yro
sco
pe. 
We a
lso 

ssu
me 

hat 

n o
pti
cal 

ind
er 

det
ai
ls
no
t g
ive
n) 

rov
ide
s r
ang
e i
nfo
rma
tio
n. 
Fi
xed 

all
is
ti
c da
ta 

s c
omb
ine
d wi
th 

he 

ary
ing 

ange

nd 

ALO
S 
da
ta 

n 
a 

omp
uti
ng 
me
cha
nis
m a
uxi
li
ay 
r t
o 
th
e r
at
e 
gy
ro, 
th
e o
utpu
t 
of 

he 

ompu
tat
ion


03

ein
g a
n a
ngul
ar 

ota
tio
n t
hat 

ele
f c
ts 

he 

ppe
r p
ris
m t
hro
ugh 

n a
ngl
e e
qua
l t
o t
he 

omp
ute


ead 

ngl
e. 
Th
e o
pti
cal 

yst
em 

hus 

ll
ows 

he 
gu
nne
r t
o l
ook 

ight 
at 

he 

arg
et 
bu
t t
o 
po
int 

sha


ngl
e 
Ov)a
t 
it
s 
pr
edi
ct
ed 

ut
ur
e 
po
si
ti
on 
wh
ere 

ar
get 
an
d a
rt
il

ery 

hel
l 
sh
oul
d 
co
ll
id
e. 

he 

ata

yst
em 

ust 
de
scr
ibe
d i
s 
no
t 
wi

hin 

he 

erv
o l
oop 
bu
t 
is 

f 
in
ter
est 

inc
e i
t 
sh
ows 
whe
re 

he 

erv

书集・

omma
nd 

rig
ina
tes

    

Tar
get
Ra阳刃:
, and Lead
aneie, 洲产 -

.....
. .......... .....

缪仁一7
//‘/
_
  
/ _
//

角 dr
ardi

G un

么,
一ac C

Synchr
o .
Synchro Sy
  
nchr

transnt
i扮er di
fferent
ial tr
ansmi
tter

Fi
                        
g. 
4.
5 
40 
mm 

nti
ai
rc
raf
t 
gu
n d
ire
cto

Th
  
e s
erv
o s
yst
em 

ts
el
f 
pr
ovi
des 

urt
her 

id 

o 
the 

per
at
or 

n 
th
at 

he 

owe
r t
o 
dr
iv
e t
he 
gu


ur
re
t 
is 

upp
li
ed 

y a 

ydr
aui

c s
yst
em 

at
her 

han 

unn
er 
mu
scl
e. 
Co
mma
nd 

ngl
e 0
V i

me
as
ur
ed 

y a 

ync
hro
, 
as 

s 
gu
n a
ngl
e 
0,
.A 

ync
hr
o d
ife
re
nt
ia
l 
mo
to
r r
ec
ei
ve
s 0
, 
an
d 
0.

nf
ormat
ion 
and 
pr
oduce
s a 

hatr
f  
ot
at
ion 
equal 

o t
hei
r 
di
feen
r ce. 
This 

ow-
power 
er
ror 

igna


ctu
ate
s a 
va
lve
-co
ntr
oll
ed 
se
rvo 

hat 
st
rok
es t
he 
var
iab
le 

isp
lac
eme nt 
pu
mp 
supp
lyi
ng 
a r
ota
ry

ydr
aul

c mo
tor 
ge
are
d t
o 
th
e g
un 

urr
et
. 

nt
er
nal 
de
tai

s a
re 

hown 

n 
Fi
g.
4.
6 
an
d 4.
7. 
Th
e S
ync
hro


04

ife
ren
ti
al 
mo
tor
's 

haf
t 
ro
tat

on 

s 9
v一9, 
+9
B,wh
ere 

,,一9
, i
s 
pr
odu
ced 

le
ct
ri
ca
ll
y a
nd

B i
s p
rod
uce
d me
cha
nic
al
ly 

y as
 
pri
ng/
damp
er 

osi

ive 

ee
dba
ck 


nka
ge. 
Th
e p
osi

ive

eed
bac
k r
eco
ver
s a
n i
nte
gra
ti
on 

ost 
by 

los
ing 
a 

oop 

rou
nd 

he 
va
lve
/cy
lin
der 

nd 
mak
es 

he

ver
all 
sy
ste
m t
ype 
2 
wh
en 

omb
ine
d wi
th 

he 

nte
gra
tio
n i
n 
th
e p
ump
/mo
tor
.乃pe 
2 

s 
de
sir
ed


Me c
hanical
de
  l,

net
u-or

Fi
g.
4.
6 
Pu
mp 

tro
ke 

ont
rol 
wi
th 
de
lay
ed 
po
sit
ive 

eed
bac
k a
nd 

ith
er

in
ce 

ypi
ca
l 
ta
rg
et 
mo
ti
ons 

rod
uce 

amp 


ke 

omma
nds 

y a
nd 

er
o t

ack
ing 

rr
or 

or 

uch

omma
nds 
me
ans 

he 

un 

oin
ts 

ire
ctl
y a
t 
th
e p
redi
ct
ed 

ar
get 
po
sit
io
n, 
no
t 
be
hin
d i
t. 
To 
ke
ep

105

ri
cti
on 

rok
en 

oos
e i
s a
ll 
pa
cts 

f t
he 

riv
e s
yst
em; 

he 

alv
e s
lee
ve 

s g
ive
n ac
 
ont
inu
ous


ow-
ampl

tud
e, 
hi
gh 

req
uen
cy 

33Hz
) "
dit
her
" mot

on 
xd 

y a 

am 

nd 
pu
sh 

od 

tt
ache
d t
o 
th


lee
ve 

eed
bac
k l

nka
ge. 
The 

req
uen
cy 

f s
uch 
di

her
ing 

s 
no
t 
cr
it
ica
l 
s 
a l
ong 

s i
t 
is 

igh 

ela
ti
ve

o s
yst
em 
ban
dwi
dth; 
33
Hz 
wa
s u
sed 

ere 

inc
e i
t c
orr
esp
ond
ed 

o t
he 

ota
ti
ona
l s
pee
d o
f t
he

lec
tri
c 
pu
mp 

riv
e mo
tor
, 
wh
ose 

haf
t 
co
uld 

hus 
be 

sed 

or 

he 

ith
er 

ams
haf

An
  
aly
sis 

f t
he 

yst
em 

loe
k d
iagr
am 

Fig.
4.
7) 

eve
als 

ome 

nte
res
ti
ng 

eat
ure
s. 

irs
t 
no
te 

hat

he 

eco
nd-
ord
er 
dy
nami
cs 

sua
ll
y i
ncl
ude
d i
n v
alv
e%yl

nde
r a
nd 

ump
/mo
tor 

ydr
auic
ls ha
ve
been 
ne
glect
ed 

or 

impl
ici
ty 
and 

hat 
we 

gnor
e t
he 
di
ther
. 
We 
ca
n wr
it


1(

9'
-1
9,
,十瓦


ms






s+

 
)。


一K

KP



・}

sV

一K


m口










K 





m 




 
" 


Kv




mr
・制2
 
  + 
z 
+ 
 K

1 
     

r(

r一


fr
) 
s+
1 
8e(



1)

f 
we 
se
t 
K,一K,r二0, t
he 

te
ady-
st
at
e 
er
ror 

or 
a 

amp 
6V 
be
comes 

er
o, 
as 

esi
re
d. 
Howev
er

f 
2j
b wer
e 
zer
o, 
we 
woul
d 
lo
se 

he s t
er
m c
ompl
et
ely 

n 
Egn.
4.
21, 
gi
vin
g a
bso
lu
te 

nst
abi
li

y;

hus 

he 
de
la
y i
n 
the 
po
si
ti
ve 
fe
edb
ack 
is 

ss
ent
ia
l. 
To s
ee 
th
at 
se
tt

ng Ki=Kf , 
r makes 

he

yst
em 

ype 
2 
we 

eed 

o 
re
duc
e t
he 
mi
nor 

oop
s.
r 
          
Wve 
crl
hnder 乃r
nr
p ne
otor
一  ̄.、 ̄...叭 产 .曰..护....气
工丫 臼

or + BJ Re一陇 +)
& x 

j, 二。 I 
K1

C 1,
. 区
   P
m匕二
卜 +.

一 !
一厂

儿 N,

h,

I)el
ared Ad

pow n"



eedhnc
ir A
  
_i

协s+1

Fi
g 4.
7 
Gu
n d
ire
cto
r bl
ock 
di
agr
am



0,

II
L\


十Kf 
'二
;l
一、,

;{
KV

一二
, ‘ 二 J 



t' 
r 1 

1 
             
I  }
_


4.22)

xp
   K, 
(2
' 
bs+
f  1


s)二
6,一8, s
仃.s+1

where

106

    
    
z户 } 


    

T,二 K,
= (
4.23)

十:.
bK 

c凡 1 
+T 
bK
J  

cK,
We 

an 

ow 

edr
aw 

he 

loc
k di
agr
am 

s i
n F
ig.
4.8
, wh
ich 
ma
kes 

lea
r t
hat 
we 

ave 

ype 

. 
Al
so

ote 

ha
t s
in
ce 

l<T
., 

her
e i
s 
al
so 

ea
d c
omp
ens
at
io
n, 

ugme
nt
in
g s
ta
bi
li

y. 

n f
ac
t, 

ur

res
ent 
model 

s a
bsol
ut
ely 
st
abl
e f
or 
any 
pos
it
ive 
lo
op 
gai
n. 

ncl
usi
on 
of 

he 

egle
cte
d dyn
amics

n t
he 
v a
lve
cy
/ lin
der 
and/
or pu
mp /
mo t
or 
hydr
auic
l s 
wi
ll 
of 
cour
se 
make 

bsol
ute i
nst
abi
li
ty
pos
sibl
e.

01
- +
凡(
协S+1
) 朴 K 
pi
, g

s( 
  r,+1
) s
  

9e

Fi
g.4.
8 
Bl
ock 

iag
ram 
wi
th 
mi
nor 

oop 

edu
ced

4.
11.
2 THE 
HAYSTACK 
HILL 
RADI
O TELESCOPE 
POI
NTI
NG 
SYSTEM;
CONDITIONAL STABI
         LITY/
SATURATION PROBLEM S SOLVED
WI
        
TH 
A DUAL-
M ODE 
SERVO

  
n 1
960 

he 
U.
S. 
Ai
r Fo
rce
, t
hro
ugh 

ts 

roj
ect 
ma
nag
er 
MIT 
Li
nco
ln 
La
bor
ato
ry, 

oi
lc
ite


ropo
sal
s f
or 

esi
gn 

nd 

ons
tr
uct
ion 

f a 

arg
e a
nd 

rec
ise 

adi
o t
el
esc
ope 

o b
e i
nst
al
le
d o

Ha
yst
ack 
Hi
ll 

uts
ide 
Bo
sto
n, 
Ma
ssa
chu
set
ts
. 
Pr
opo
sal
s 
ro
f m 
va
rio
us 

idde
rs 
we
re 

val
uat
ed 

nd

he 

ont
rac
t 
wa
s a
war
ded 

o No
rth 
Ame
ric
an 
Av
iat
ion 

Col
umb
us, 
Ohi
o Di
vis
ion)
. 
On
e pa
rt 

f t
he

ropo
sal 
wa
s de
vot
ed 

o t
he 

lec
tro
hyd
rau
lic 

ont
rol 

yst
em 

or 

tee
ring 

nd 
po
int
ing 

he 

nte
nna

ish, 
and 
we 

ase 

ur 
di
scus
si
on 

n t
he 
de
sign 

res
ent
ed 

n t
his 

rop
osa
l. 
De
sig
n a
nd 

ons
tru
cti
on

roc
eed
ed 

ver 

eve
ral 
ye
ars
, 
wi
th 

he 

nte
nna 
be
ing 

rec
ted 

nd 

ut 

nto 

erv
ice 

n 1
964
, 
wi

RF 
axis-

石l
evat
ion

Fi
gA.
9 
El
eva
ti
on-
ove
r-a
zimu
th 

nte
nna 

onf
igu
rat
ion

107

per
ati
on 

ont

nui
ng 

oda
y(1
985
). 
Ou
r di
scu
ssi
on 
wi
ll 

lso 

ncl
ude 

robl
ems 

hat 

ros
e du
rin


ina
l d
eve
lopme
nt 

nd 

equ
ire
d mo
diic
f a
ti
ons 

f t
he 

rig
ina
l d
esi
gn. 
At 

he 

ime 
of 


s e
rec
ti
on,

his 

nte
nna 
wa
s t
he 
mos
t 
pr
eci
se 

nst
rume
nt 

f i
ts 

ize 

n t
he 
wo
rld

  
A so
-calle
d el
evat
ion
-over-
azi
muth 
confi
gur
atio
n was c
hosen 
to 
posi
ti
on t
he 
12 0-f
t-d
iamete

di
sh(
see Fig. 
4.
9). 
Fi
gure
s 4.1
0 a
nd 
4.11 
show mechan
ical 
de
tai
ls 
of 

he dr
ive 
ar
rangeme nt
, 
two
hydr
auli
c motor
s 
(fed 

n pa
ralel 
by 
a 

ingl
e s
erv
o val
ve) 
be
ing 
use
d t
o d
riv
e ea
ch 
axi
s . 
Digi
tal

Fi
g.
4.
10 
Me
cha
nic
al 

rra
nge
men
t 
of 

riv
e s
yst
ems


haf
t a
ngl
e e
nco
der
s wi
th 
ar
 e
sol
uti
on 

f 0.
001
0 a
re 

sed 

o s
ens
e t
he 
po
sit
ion 

f e
ach 

xis

Be
ari
ngs 

or 

he 

lev
ati
on 

xis 

re 

rad
e z
ero 
Ti
mke
n t
ape
red
-ro
ll
er 
be
ari
ngs
, wh
ere
s 
a t
he

lev
ati
on 

xis 

hru
st 

nd 

adi
al 

oad
s a
re 

arr
ied 

y af
 
our
-po
int 

ngul
ar 

ont
act 

all 

ear
ing

141
-i
n. 

iame
ter
) 
wi

h t
wo 

ows 

f b
all
s. 

Aft
er 

he 

ont
ra
ct 
wa
s wo
n a
nd 

esi
gn 

roc
eede
d, 


wa
s de
cid
ed 

hat 
a 
hy
dro
sta
ti
c o
il 

ear
ing 
woul
d i
nst
ead 

e u
sed 

or 

he 

lev
ati
on 

xis
.) 
Th

108

equ
ire
d po
int
ing 

ccu
rac
y i
s 
10.
005
0 a
t 
th
e RF 

rat
io 

requ
enc
y) 

xis 

or 

ny 

omb
ina
ti
on 

f 0 



0/
s, 


ack
in
g v
el
oc
it
y a
nd 
0 

o 0
.01
20/
s 
2 
 t

ack
in
g a
cc
el
er
at

on, 
mu
st 

e l
es
s t
ha

士0
.00
50 


nce 

is
h 
ge
ome
tye
r  

ror
s 
(c
aus
ed 

y 
gr
avi

y a
nd 

emp
era
tu
re 

ndu
ced 

is
to
rt
io
ns, 
et
c.

ca
n cause 
a而s di
rec
ti
on of 
the 
elec
tro
ma gn
eti
c l
ine 
of 
si
ght (
RF a
xis
)even 
when t
he 
shaf
ts 

re
pr
e c
ise
ly 
posi
ti
one
d.
Se
  l
ecti
on 
of 
motor
s a
nd ge
ar 
b o
xes r
equi
res 

sti
ma t
ion 
of 
the 

orq
ues 
th
at 
mu s
t 
be 
provi
ded 

or
ri
fc t
ion, 
win
dage, 

nd acc
ele
rat
ion. 
Ma ss 
moments 
of 
ine
rti
a f
or 
th
e e
levat
ion 
and 
azi
muth 
ax
is
we
re 

st

mat

d a
t 
3 
x 

06 

nd 
4 
x 

06 

b 
f一户一s
2,r
es
pe
ct

ve
ly
, 
wh
er
ea
s 
de
ad 

ei
gh
ts 

er


20,00
01bf 

nd 
240,
000 
lbf
. 
Sin
ce t
he a
zimuth 
axi
s 
th
us 
has 

he 
most 

eve
re 
fr
ict
ion 
and 

ner
ti
al

oad
s, 
the 
pr
opo
sal 

arr
ied 
out 
a 
de
sign 
for 

t 
onl
y a
nd 
sug
ges
ted 

hat 
if 

he 
sa
me c
omp o
nent
s 
were
us
ed 

or 

he 

lev
ati
on 

xis 

ts 

erf
orma
nce 

hou
ld 

lso 
be 

deq
uat
e. 
Th
is 
de
si
gn 
ph
il
oso
phy 

lso
mini
mizes 
the s
ize 
of 
the 
spar
e par
ts 
in
vent
ory 
that 
mu s
t be 
kept 
on ha
nd. 
Note 

lso 

hat
, 
at 

he
pr
oposal 
st
a g
e, e
ngine
eri
n g 
desi
gn efot 
r i
s f
und e
d by th
e pro
po si
ng 
company 
and 
cann
ot 
be

ecover
ed 
unless 
the 
de
sign 
competi
ti
on i
s 
won, 
thus 
th
e compani
es must 

isk 

ome 
of 
th
eir 

api

al

n t
he 
att
empt t
o get 
busin
e s
s.

  
nqui
rie
s at 

he be
ari
ng manufa
ctur
er 
gave

Tf=f
ric
tion 

orque (
4.24)
=(
0.00
2 t
o 0.
003
) (
thr
ust 
lo
ad) 

bea
rin
g r
adi
us)



om 
pu

gl
几 广T
For
ce 
o 
re


mot




or

Serro 
val
ve

SG娇 Tachomet
er
cucoder


角"
draul
ic
场v
lr
auhc

  
uotor


peed _
re汤l
eer
Bul
;ear 一

从e 

r11 



t 
11 
p幼 e
r 山”
切or
ator Di
git
al Com mand

e;八t
er

To 
readou

Fi
g.
4.1
1 De
tai
ls 

f s
erv
osy
ste
m h
ard
war

109
A 
cons
erva
tive 
des
ign 
val
ue 
was 

ake
n a


f=(

.0
2)

24
0,
00
0) 

80 
in

)ft )
一32

00
0. 

t一
1b
, (
4.25)
11
                       
2)
An
ten
na 

pec
iic
f a
ti
ons 

equ
ire 
a ma
xi ma
mu c
ce
le
ra
ti
on 

f 
10
/s2,t
hu
s t
he 

or
qu
e T 

or
accel
erat
ion 


L ,
a=J ,
a=(
4J‘
XI
U一一,
,一f一
Of t一s,
一.
( 

}    
二二1


二万/

,2
- 、_
一万}
=’_

U,_
0_
0__
0 
ft一l
b 
f (
4.26)
又〕/
                      
.3一
/ 
ra
d)

inc
e t
he 

nte
nna 
wi

l b
e i
nsi
de 
a 

rot
ect
ive 

ibe
rgl
ss 
a r
ado
me, 
no 
wi
nd 

ust 
to
rque
s a
re 

oss
ibl
e;
ho
wev
er 

ota
ti
on 

f t
he 

ish 

n s
ti
ll 

ir 

ose 

aus
e a 

rag 

orq
ue. 
One 

ntu
iti
vel
y be
li
eve
s t
his 



mal
l, 
bu
t s
inc
e t
he 
di
sh 

s v
ey 
r l
arg
e, 
yo
u c
an 
no
t b
e s
ure 
wi
tho
ut 
a 

alc
ula
ti
on. 
The 
wo
rst 

se

wou
ld 
be 

zimut
h r
ota
ti
on 

t ma
ximu
m v
elo
cit
y wi
th 

he 

nte
nna 

oin
ting 

ori
zont
al
, 
s 
a i
n Fi
g.

.12
. 
Sp
eci

ica
ti
ons 
ca
ll 

or 
a 
ma
ximu
m v
elo
ci
ty 

f3.
3%s
. 
Th
e 
dr
ag 

or
que 

s 
as
sume
d t
o 
be 

aus
ed

y s
tag
nat
ion 

res
sur
e o
f t
he 

ir 

gai
nst 

he 

ish 

urf
ace, 
whi
ch 

s t
rea
ted 

s a 
la
f t 

lat
e (
wit
h a

orr
ect
ion 

act
or 

f 1
.28 

or 

he 

ctu
al 

hape
).

,e __

_ 」
______
__。 、,,。 。
。*厂py 2飞、。_
_、 _


,产
、..尹
L、= wc
nuage 
or
t que ‘,

1,1-
40 
1- 
I一一
  

.一. 
  

V 
--f 
Ark (

        


                    
”欠 ‘ )

,曰
0八

、.尹

,y=2
.68 
x 

0-G 
R 
5 
208
0 
ft
一1b 
f 
                 

or 
R=60 
ft (

Th
e a
zimu
th 

riv
e wi
ll 

hus 

ave 

o b
e c
apa
ble 

f p
rod
uci
ng 
a 
ma
ximu
m t
orqu
e of

..=乓+T
.+几=1
04,
08
0 
ft
一1b 
f (
4.29)

V 二 尸“

h二2,
fR2一T

Fi
g.4.
12 
An
ten
na 
wi
nd 

ge 

alc
ula
tio

110
We 
  c
an 

ow 

el
ect 
a 
mo
tor 

nd 

ear
box 

o me
et 

hes
e n
eeds
. 
Ge
arbo
x c
ompl
鲜it
y} 

os-

, 
an

backlash 
usu
all
y 
incre
se 
a with 
gear 
ra
tio, 

hus 
we 
prefer 
a 
high
-tor
que mo t
or. 
In 
1960 

he s
ele
ctio

of h
igh-t
orque 
hydr
a u
lic 
motors 

uita
ble f
or 
pr
eci
sio
n ser
v o 
cont
rol 
wa s 
not 
as 
gr
eat 

s i
t 
is 

oday,
thus 
ther
e were 
no
t many c
andidat
es 
to c
onsi
der 
and 
the 
choic
e was 
narrowed 
to 
an 
ei
ght-
cyl
inder
radi
al pi
ston 
desi
gn wit
h ap  
rov
en record 
of 
se
rvo per
formance i
n ma chi
ne 
tool 
dr
ives 
and a

is
pl
ac
eme
nt 
d,
, 
of 

2 
in 
3/

ev. 
Th
is 
mo
tor 
is 

ont

oll
ab
le 

ver 
a 

ang
e 
of 

/6
0,
00
0 
to 

00 

pm.
Whe n r ot
at
i ng 
at 100 
rpm i
t can ber e
ver
sed 

n 0.0
015s 
with 
onl
y 0.
000
6 o
f a 
rev
olu
tio

m ovem ent  ter t
af he s
ignal 

o reverse . Sy
  s
tem 
suppl
y pr
ess
ure 
was ch
ose
n s 
a 10
00 ps
i, 

conservat
ive 
low v
alue 
conduci
ve 

o l
ong 

if and one 
e  f
or 
whi
ch 
many 
st
andar
d hyd
raul
ic

ompone
nts 

re de
sig
ned. 
Usi
ng 

he 
ma x
imu
m powertr
ans
fer 
re
sul
t, 
we 
want 

he 
mot
or 

ressu
re

rop 

o be 
66
7 psi 
at 

he 
ma
ximu
m t
orque 

ondi
ti
on.This 
gi
ves 
fo
r bo
th 
mot
ors 
on 

he 
azi
muth
dr
ive


        
ot
al 
 mo
to
r 
 t
or
au
。二2 m 2 
些d  x 
667 
x 
22
:二 一 :二
354 

t一l

b,
           ,

4.30)

    
2 
x 
21t 乙兀
                                     

A 

ent
ati
ve 

ear 

ati
o 
is 

hen

N=型塑9
                
=2
94to 
 1 (
4.31)
354
它二0勺灿御认』、从钾艳
 

扮 勺。
 
沁 1

Const
ant

eto
cit


 

deg
ree


secon力
亡ons
   tant
acre佗r
ation
at二1。:
,2
,山tl


        
t2 t.sec


夏I
SO



Fi
g.4.
13 
Du
ty 

ycl
e 
fo
r 1
800 

osi
ti
on 

hang

111
Co
nsu
lta
ti
on 
wi
th 

ear 

ox 
man
ufa
ctu
rer
s i
ndi
cat
ed 

hat 

our 
me
she
s o
f p
rec
isi
on 

eic
lal 

ear

wi
th 
98
% e
fic
ien
cy 

er 
me
sh 
wi
ll 
be 

eed
ed.
^co
rre
cte
d g
ear 

at
io 

s 
th
en
294
  
N = =320 t
o  1 (
         
4.32)
0.
984
Si
nce 

ctu
al 
ge
ar 

ati
os 

onv
eni
ent 

o p
rodu
ce 

epe
ndo
n t
ool
ing 

nd 

the
r ma
nuf
act
uri
ng
cons
ider
ati
ons
, 
the 

inal 
choi
ce 
ha
d t
o a
ccommoda
te 

his 
and 
was 
325 

o 1

Wi
  
th 
mot
ors 

nd 

ear 

oxe
s c
hos
en, 
we 

ow 

un 
r t
o s
erv
ova
lve 

ele
cti
on, 
wh
ich 
ge
ner
all
y i


ete
rmi
ned 

y ma
ximum 
lo
f w 

ate 

equ
ire
men
ts 

t a
ctu
ato
r ma
ximu
m v
elo
cit
y. 
The 
ma
ximum

ngu
lar 

elo
cit
y o
f 3
.30
/s 
us
ed 

n t
he 
wi
nda
ge 

orqu
e c
alc
ula
tio
n wa
s n
ot 

ire
ctl
y gi
ven 

n t
he

pec
iic
f a
ti
ons 

ut 
wa
s de
riv
ed 
ro
f m 

he 

oll
owi
ngr
equ
ire
ment
. 
The 

zimu
th 

riv
e mus
t 
be 

apa
ble
of  n
maki g 
a 
18
00 

osi
ti
on 

hang
e i
n o
ne 
mi
nuewi
t th 
ma
ximum 

cce
ler
ati
on 

eld 

o 1l
0/s
2. 
Thi

mot
ionc
an 

e a
cco
mpl
is
hed 

n v
ari
ous 
wa
ys, 

o o
ne 
mus
t c
hoos
e s
ome 

eas
ona
ble 

uty 

ycl
e,
such 

a t
hat 
in 
Fg.
4.1
3, 

or 

alc
ula
ti
on 
pu
rpo
ses
. 
Fr
om 

hat 
ig
f ur
e we 
ma
y wr
it

10ti
2 ,  10 
t矛
18
00=共二二
二+t(60一2t
,)+气种三 (
4.33)
s` 
2 ‘’ “ s` 


                  
i=3
.3s,
max
imu
m v
elo
cit
y=3.
301

  
Ma xi
mum 
mot
or 

eloci
ty 

s 
then 
179 r
pm and 
the 
serv
ova
lve 
lo
f w r
ate 

for 

wo mot
ors
) 
is 

4.1
ga
l/
min. 
Whe
n t
he 
loa
d is 
runn
ing a
t cons
tan
t  v
elo
cit
y t
he 
mo t
or s
uppl
ie
s onl
y ri
fct
ion 
and
wi
ndage 

orques 

no 
ac
cel
erat
ion) 
and, 

or 
bot
h mot
ors
34080
mot
or 
tor
que 
_ ’116 
t一l
f b,

        j

4.34)

mo
        
tor 
pr
ess
ure 

rop=1
98 
ps
i.
Wit
h a 
19
8 ps
i 
dr
op a
cross 
ea
ch 
motor
, 
th
e dr
op 
acro
ss 
bot
h 
port
s 
of 

he 

erv
oval
ve 
is 

02 p
si. 
One
ca
n now 
cons
ult 

erv
ov a
lve 
cat
al
ogs 
and 
choos
e a 
val
ve 

hat 
wil
l 
pr
ovi
de 
at 

eas
t 
34.
1 g
pm wi
th

n 8
02 
ps
i pr
ess
ure 

rop 
whe
n wi
de 

pen. 
Th
oug
h n
ot 

ece
ssa
y 
r f
or 

alv
e s
ele
cti
on 
we 

an

st
imat
e t
he 
nee
ded 
va
lv
e po
rt 

fow a
rea人 fro
m  s
ta
nda
rd l

uid 
mech
ani
cs 
ori

fce
-l
fo


quat

ons, 
usi
ng 

n 
oil 
de
nsi
ty 

f 
0.
000
084(
lb
f-
s2

/i
n. 
a 
an
d d
is
cha
rge 

oeic
f i
ent 
of 

.63



一,・

一 。


3A
,糯蕊.
、,
一。


97

n.
2 (
4.35)

  
At 
this 
poi
n t
_o
ur 
"bare 
bone
s" 
syst
em c
ompri
ses 
a 
ty
pe-1 
el
ect
ro
hydr
aul
ic 
se
rvo 
as 

n 
Fig.
4.1
4.
Ou
r n
e x
t 
s t
ep i
s 
to 
est
imate 
th
e l
oop 
gai
n ne
ede
d i
n t
his 
sy
ste
m t
o mee
t 
a s
te
ady-
sta
te 
er
ror 

oal
乡ve
n in 

h e 
speci
fi
cat
ions. 
Th
is 
spe
ciic
fati
on 
re
quir
es 
a t
ra
cki
ng 
err
or 
at 

he 
RF ax
is 
of 
no 
more

han 
10.
0050 
when 

he 

nte
nna 
has 
a 
mot
ion 
gi
ven 
by
二、2 
                  
                                 
}2



-=O
x+竺生=(
10 
/ 
S)
t+(
0.
012 

S2)
生 (
4.36)

            
、 ‘ ’ 2
Si
nce 

hi
s 
mo
ti
on 

s 
qu
it
e 
sl
ow, 
we 
si
mpl
if
y 
th
e s
yst
em 
mod
el 

o 
th
e p
ure 

nt
egr
ato
r o
f 
Fi
g. 
4.
14 

),
wh
ich 

he
n 
gi
ves 
er
ro
r 
9E 

112
1 
      
d9,
. 
  1,
d}=一 一 二一 t
o) 
+at, (
4.37)
K  dt 
      
    
K 、

Th
e 
er
ro
r 
co
mpo
nen
t at 

ca
use
d b
y t
he 

ons
ta
nt-
ac
cel
er
at
io
n c
omp
one
nt 

f 
9,)
wou
ld


1)

h)
                           
Fi
gA.
14 
Ba
sic 

yst
em 
bl
ock 
di
agr
am 
wi
th 

impl

ie
f dversion


nc
re
se 
a wi

hou
t 
bo
und
, 
ho
wev
er 

he 

.01
20
/s
2 
ma
xi
mum 

cce
le
ra
ti
on 

ont

nue
s o
nl
y 
un
ti
l 



ont
ri
but
es 
a 

elo
cit
y 
eq
ual 
to 

he 

ive
n C

0o 
f 
10
/s. 
Thus 

he 
ma
ximu
m e
rro
r i

1 201s
          

4.38)

E 
ma
x=K(
。+田)
=   

Th
is 

oin
tin
g e
rro
r i
s t
he 

vec
tor 

um" 

or 
bo
th 

zimut
h a
nd 

lev
ati
on 

nd 

s wo
rst 
wh
en 

he

lev
ati
on 

xis 
po
int
s 
ho
riz
ont
al
ly
, 
gi
vin


ot

l 
 e
rr
or
=扣2


el
+2
eE

az
=v9
E.

z (
4.39)

whe
re 
we 
have 
as
sume
d t
he 

zimut
h and 
el
eva
tion 
er
ror
s t
o be 
equal
. 
We 
ha
ve 

hen

K_(
20 
/ 
0.
s)

005
F2
_56
7 
1 (
4.40)


f 
we 

se 
K 
=5 
67,
all 

he 

ll
owa
ble 

rro
r i
s 
us
ed 

p by 

he 

ont
rol 

yst
em, 
le
avi
ng 
no
ne 

or 

he

ish 

tru
ctu
ral 

rro
rs 
me
nti
one
d e
arl
ie
r. 
Co
nsul

ati
on 
be
twe
en 

he 

tr
uct
ura
l a
nd 

ont
rol
-sy
ste


ngi
nee
rs 

n t
he 
el
r a
ti
ve 

eve
rit
y o
f t
hes
e t
wo 

rro
r s
our
ces 

esul

ed 

n a 

eci
si
on 

o d
ivi
de 

he

rro
r bu
dge
t a
bou
t e
qua
ll
y a
nd 
ad
 es
ign 

oal 
of 
K=1
200 
wa
s s
et. 
Th
e s
tru
ctur
al 

ngi
nee
rs 

lso
pr
ovi
ded 

n e
sti
mat
e o
f t
he 

nte
nna 

tr
uct
ure
's 

ir
st 
na
tur
al 

req
uenc
y o
f v
ibr
ati
on 
s 
a 5
11z
. To

113

edu
ce 

he 

oss
ibi
li
ty 

f c
ont
rol
-s
yst
em 
mot
ion
s e
xci
ti
ng 

his 

req
uen
cy, 
a 
cl
ose
d-l
oop 

eak 

f 1
.3

t 0.
5 Hz
, wi

h r
api
d a
tt
enu
at
ion 

eyo
nd 
0.
5Hz
, wa
s s
et 

s a
not
her 

esi
gn 

oal
, 
co
nti
nge
nt 

pon

his 

ot 

iol
at
in
g a
ny 

the
r s
pec
ifi
cat
ion
s.
At 
  t
his 
poi
nt 

he 
ba
sic 
har
dwar
e i
tems 
ha
d a
ll 
bee
n s
elec
ted 
and 

t wa
s pos
sibl
e t
o c
heck

yna
mic
s f
or 

oss
ibl
e 
si
mpl

fic
ati
on. 
Th
e s
haf
t 
enc
ode
r, 
DI
A c
onv
ert
er
, 
an
d pr
eampl

fie
r p
rod
uce

a 

000 
Hz 

mpl

tude
-mo
dul
at
ed 

c s
ign
al 

hat 

ad 

o b
e d
emo
dul
at
ed 

nd 

ow-
pas
s f
il
te
red 



rodu
ce 
a 

uit
abl
e d
o c
ont
rol 

ign
al. 
Beca
use 

f t
he 
hi
gh 

c re
f qu
enc
y, 

he 

ow-
pas
s f
il
te
r c
oul

us
e as
 
mal
l 
T(
0.01
s)a
nd 

hus 

hes
e d
yna
mic
s c
oul
d b
e n
egl
ect
ed 

el
at
iv
e t
o c
ont
rol 

yst
em
ba
ndwi
dth 

f a 

ew 

ert
z. 

erv
ova
vle 

yna
mic
s f
rom 

avl
e 
cu
rre
nt 

o v
avl
e 
ope
ning 
we
re 

bta
ine

ro
f m 

he 

avl
e 
ma
nuf
ac
tu
re 
ss
a  
ec
ond 

rde
r 
wi

h 0n=5
( 0Hz,
aga
in 

egl

gib
le. 
Fa
r 
th
e h
ydr
aul



yst
em, 
th
e n
atu
ral 
re
f q
uen
cy叭 wa
sc 
al
cul
at
ed 

rom

、一
、I 



_

M!



d一1

ra

V 


      
  JVI

4.41)

wher

MB= bulkmo
dul
us=1
00,
000 
ps


    

J=i
nert
ia r
efer
red t
o mot
or 
 s
haft ; .J
rad

J ____ __ ,r w
尸月。日
   口r
ee
s一二 一


                  

4X1
06 
X1

J二0.
004+ =500i
n一1
b, 
S2

325
)2

                                  
vc

= 
vol
ume o
f 
 oi
l 
 under 
 compr
ess
ion
vc

=5
5in
.3 

two 
 mot
ors
)+45
in.
3 

est
imat
ed 
 t
ubi
ng)

rom 

ast 
ex
per

enc
e, 

ydr
aul

c s
yst
em 

amp
ing 
wa
s 
es
ti
mat
ed 

t杏二0.
3.
Th
  
e 
 ba
sic 
 sys
tem t
hus 
 appe
ars 
 as 
 i
n 
 Fi
g.
4.1
5 
 a
), 
 for 
 whi
ch 
 Ro
uth 
 cri

eri
on

iv
e 
K<2
枷。=8
.4;
whe
re
as 
we 

eq
ui
re 
K=1
200 

o 
me
et 

he 

te
ady
-s
ta
te 

rr
or 

pe
ci
fi
ca
ti
on.
Th
is 
pr
ese
nts 
a 
ch
all
engi
ng 

omp
ens
ati
on 

rob
lem. 
Us
ing 

req
uen
cy-
res
pons
e d
esi
gn 
met
hod


Bod
e/Ni
cho
ls 
pl
ots
), 

ari
ous 

omb
ina
tio
ns 

f l
ag 

nd 

ead 

omp
ens
ato
rs, 
pl
us 

eed
bac
k o

二_ ! h" 
         

01 + V 
E. 扭 I 以r

t6,
  
、I二几十 — +1

1-
    

Basi

a)
  
Servoral
re
currcn r
                

1‘
t刀c
ompe
nba万Ol

/ a 43
91
.+ OE .
80((5
s+1) 0.

1厂了7 
oc

了口4 0 
  
be
(SOS+1)
   I于- + - + 11 (3
= 5!
Iv6
   14
    
Gearbox

0.
18(
0.05
8+I) 0.
6夕,。
a 79s

  
0.01‘+1) }
(U
. 


.s+1)

Lead
       勺pr
oxi
mat
e Tachom et
er
compensanan second 
dea-
rranre 召enerar
   or


'ompe
rrs
ated

      

Fi
gA.
15 
Ba
sic 

yst
em 

loc
k d
iagr
am 
wi
th 

imp
lif
ied 

ers
ion

115
de
riv
ati
ves 

f t
he 

ont
rol

ed 

ari
abl
e we
re 

ri
ed, 
fi
nal
ly 

ead
ing 

o t
he 

yst
em 

f 1

ag.
4.1
5 b)
. 
Th

Ny
qui
st 
pl
ot 

not
e t
he 

ist
ort
ed 

cal
e) 

hows 

he 

ompe
nsa
ted 

yst
em 

o b
e c
ond
iti
ona
lly 

tabl

bu
t wi
th 
amp
le 

10 

o 1
) ga
in 
ma
rgi
n f
or 
bo
th 

ncr
eas
ing 

r d
ecr
eas
ing 

ain; 
wh
ere
as 

he

los
ed-
loo
p f
or 

nd 
me
et 

he 
de
sig
n g
oal
s 
gi
ven 

arl

er. 
Comp
ens
ati
on 

n f
eed
bac
k pa
th 
us
es 

ey


tr
ong 

appr
oxi
mat
e f
our
th) 

eri
vat
iv
e s
ign
als 

ut 

he 

ach
ome
ter 

ene
rat
or 

end
or 

romi
se
d a

ey 
r c
lea
n (
0.04
% r
ippl
e) 

acho
met
er 

ign
al. 
Anal
og 

omp
ute
r s
imul
at
ion 

dig
ita
l 
si
mul
at
ion 
wa


nco
mmon 

n 1
960) 

f t
his 

ine
ar 

yst
em 
mod
el 
wa
s pe
rfo
rme
d a
t t
his 
po
int 

o c
hec
k t
ran
sie
nt

erf
orma
nce 

pec
ifi
cat
ion
s, 

inc
e t
he 

enc
il-
and
-pa
per 

esi
gn 
wa
s b
ase
d on
ly 

n s
tea
dy-
sta
te 

nd

inu
soi
dal 
be
hav
ior
. 
Al
l 
sp
eci
fi
cat
ions 
we
re 
me
t, 

o t
he 

ine
ar 
de
sign 
wa
s a
cce
pte
d.


1909 
ps
i)
110
岛、
女勺
・之灿

长J之景吟

石     
 
      

n如‘

0l o

」劲 r
or

peed
b户
                               

Fi
g.
4.1
6 S
erv
ova
lve 

ull 
pr
ess
ure 

ens
it
ivi
ty 

ndmot
or 

rict
ion 
behav
ior

A 
  
in
f a
l 
st
age 

f 
ana
lys
is 

ncl
ude
d i
n 
th
e p
rop
osa
l 
wa
sa s
 
tud
y of 

wo 

onl
in
ear
it
ie
s t
hat 
we
re 

el


o be 

ote
nti
all
y s
igni
fi
cant
, 
se
rvo
val
ve 

ull 

res
sur
e s
ens
it
ivi
ty 

nd 

ear
box 
ba
ckl
ash
. Wi

h t
he
mot
or 
an
d l
oad 

tat
io
nar
y, 
dy 
r f
ri
ct
io
n pr
eve
nts 
moti
on 
unt
il 

he 
ser
vov
alve 
ope
ns 
suf
fi
cie
ntl
y t

de
vel
op 
th
e n
eed
ed "
bea
r ko
ut" 
pr
ess
ure
. 
In 
an 
ide
al 
val
ve, 

ny p
res
sur
e ro
f m z
ero 

o t
he 
suppl

pes
r su
re can e o
btai
ned, under 
st
all
ed-
load cond
itio
ns, 
with 
an  i
nfi
nite
simal va
lve openi
ng.
Becau
se of 

nte
rnal 

eakage 
in a 

eal 
val
ve, 
however, 
near 

he 
nul
l posi
ti
o n 

here 
is 
proport
ion
ali
ty
bet
ween va
lve 
openin
g and the 
pre
ssur
e devel
oped ac
ross 
a 
sta
lled l
oad. 
This 
is 
cal
le d 

he nul

pre
ssur
e se
nsit
ivi
ty 
and re
su l
ts 

n a 
stea
dy-s
tat
e posit
ion 
err
or 
since 
a fi
nit
e err
or 
signal 
to t
he
se
rvoval
ve i
s r
equi
red t
o devel
op e
nough pr
essur
e t
o brea
k t
he f
r i
ct
ion l
oose. 
Err
ors bel
ow thi

11

cri
ti
cal 
va l
ue wil
l not 
be correct
ed, t
hus the 
type-1 
st
e ady-s
tat
e  e
rror 
beh avio
r ass
ume d 
in t
he
li
near 
mo del 
will 
not 
be ac
hie v
ed in 
real
ity. 
Experi
ence with 
servoval
ves of t
h e 
typ
e use
d in 
thi

syst
em hs 
a shown that 

t t
ake s 
5 
t o 
8%  of 
the t
otal 
va
lve str
oke to a
chieve full 
supp
ly pr
essur

acros
s the loa
d. Full s
tro
ke  i
n  th
e p r
e s
ent val
ve re
qu ir
ed 40  mA  of  c
ur r
ent, 
so, 
taki
ng a
conser
vative 1
0%  v
alue f
o r 
the null 
range, our 
null 
p re
ssure sens
it
ivi
ty  i
s 250 psi/
mA  (s
ee
Fig.
4.16 
a).
To 
   es
ti
ma te 
the 
stat
ic 
pointi
ng err
or 
c a
used by t
his 
comb i
nati
on  o
f l
oad sta
tic 
fri
cti
on a
nd val
ve
null 
behavior
, 
we  need an umber f
or syste
m  tot
al 
sta
tic f
rict
ion. 
We  earie
l r computed 
beari
ng
fri
cti
on 
(and ig
n o
re d 
motor f
ric
tio
n) and si
nc e 
th
e motor 
has been sel
ect
ed  n
ow, we can 
get 
ro
f m
the 
ma n
uf ac
tur
er and i
ncl
ud e 
it 
in o
ur pr
es e
n t 
er
ror 
est
ima t
e. 
Fig.4.16
b) s
ho ws me as
ured 
fri
cti
on
tor
que f
or our 
mo t
o r
, 
the 
breakout 
fri
ct
ion of 160 
in.
-l
bf 
be i
ng t
he numb e
r pertin
ent 
to 
our p
resen

cal
cul
ati
on.

32,
  000
4=1

oad 

rict
ion 

ref
err
ed 

o mot
or 

haf
t) 
= 16 

t一鸣

25(
0.
98)




al 

ri


io
n 
at 
mo

or 

ha

f=
警+‘,
・7
3”
一l
bf


to
r、r
eq
ui


d 

o 


ea
k 
lo

se 
=瞥7,
一,5
0 
ps


n 
Fi
g.
4.
15 

) 
we 

ow 

eed 

o 
co
mpu
te 

ow 

ar
ge 
8E 
mu
st 

e t
o 
ca
use 
a 

al
ve 

urr
ent 
i 
of 

mA.


9E)
(32
5)(
280
6)=1
mA
OE=1
                    
.1X1
0一r
ad=0.
000
630
Since 
the 

esol
uti
on 
of t
he 
shaft 
enc
oder i
s 
0.001" 

nd th
e al
lowable 
point
ing 
er
ror 

s 
10.0050
, 
thi

err
or 
wasj 
udged 
acce
ptabl
e.
Fo
  r t
he 
gear
-back
lsh 
a st
udy, t
he 
four-
me s
h gear
bo x 
wit
h ba c
klsh 
a i
n each 
mesh 
of g
ears 
was
approxi
mated 
s 
a a s
ingle 
me s
h of 
gears 
(32
5 to 1
) wit
h as 

n gle 
back
lash. 
Due 
to 
th
e la
rge dy

fri
cti
on va
lue 
and 
the s
low moti
ons i
nvolve
d th
e ri
f ct
ion-
control
led 
backlsh 
a model 
was j
udged

ppl

cab
le 

or 
a 

esc
ri
bi
ng-
fun
ct
io
n a
nal
ys
is
. 
Wi

hq a
nd 
GZ 

efi
ned 
s 
a i
n F
ig.
4.
17a
), 

he

esc
ri
bi
ng 

unc
ti
on 

rap
h o
f Fi
g.
4.
17b) 

red
ict
s 
a 
imi
l t 
cy
cle 

f a
mpl
it
ude 
0.
440 

nd 

.2 

ad/

fe
r qu
ency 
at 

he 
mot
or 
sh
aft. 
Al

hough 
th
is 

s 
only 
0.
00050 

t t
he 
ant
enn
a s
haf
t, 
imi
l t 

ycl

ng 


any 
kin
d wa
s ju
dge
d unac
cept
abl
e a
nd a 
"fx" 
i ha
d to 
be dev
ise
d. 
For
tun
atel
y, 

he u
se 



igh-
re
f q
uenc
y d
it
her 

o q
uen
ch 

uch 


mit 

ycl
es 

s 
a 
we
ll
-kno
wn 

ech
niq
ue. 
A 

onin
lear 

nal
og

imulat
ion was used 
both 
to 
check t
he d
es c
ribi
ng-f
uncti
on p
redi
ctions 
a n
d t
o desi
gn 
a nd 
eva
luat


he di
the
r e fect
. 
Limit-
cycle 
amplitu
de and re
f quency 
clos
ely 
ch e
c k
ed the 
analy
ti
ca l 
pr
edi
ctio


nd a 
60 Hz  d
ithe
r at 

he 
mo tor 
shaf
t 
was found 
to 
quench 
an es
tabl
ished imi
l t 
cyc
le 
in 2 
s. 

n th


ctual 
sy
ste m, 
d i
the
r wa
s int
roduced el
ectr
ical
ly 
at t
he s
ervova
lve, us
ing co
nvenien
tly 
avai
labl


0-Hz l
ine powe r 
s 
a t
he d
ithe
r s
ou r
ce.
I 
  
ha
ve now present
ed 
in a
bbrevia
ted 
form t
h e 
es
senti
al 

eatur
es 
o f 
th
e desi
gn p
roposal 
su
bmitte
d,

n c
omp et
ition 
with 
other
s, 
to 
th
e proj
ect 
sponsor
. 
It 
was 
sel
ected 
s 
a the most 
pro
mising, 
a 
cont
ract

117
wa
s a
war
ded
, 
an
d d
eta
il
ed 

esi
gn 

nd 

ons
tru
cio
t n 
we
nt 

orwa
rd 
ov
er 
a 

eri
od 
of 

bou
t 
fo
ur 

ear
s.


                          
.t 叹,         

},
一 一 ̄-一人 ̄--一-一---- 尸.一 八.一一、产一 一 、

便
0 1i



, 
 + A
目 
_}
万让

二例
=S0G(

  
50
5s 


S+1)
1)
竺坐 +11
1挤


1 
  
11
7e
 

 
    
One-ro-one ge 


        
n  sh 
ivi
th
011 
s;阴05
s +1) r
      
ll 
i of 
the
      
ba办l
n+h

2(l
ls+1
)(08
3S十1
): (
      
b二(

1.7
5“)


"r愁h6
))

G,


                              

Fi
g.4
.17 
Ge
ar 
ba
ckl
ash 

esc
ri
bin
g-f
unc
tio
n s
tud

It 
is 
qu
it
e 
commo n 

n pro
jec
ts 
of 

his magni
tude 

hat 
unan
tic
ipat
ed prob
lems wil
l 
ari
se, 

equir
ing
desi
gn 
modi
ic
f a
ti
ons
. 
The t
achomet
er ge
nerat
or, 
on 
which 
all 

he f
eedback 
compensat
ion 
depen
ds,
tur
ned 
out 

o be 
noi
si
e r 

han e
xpe
cted, 
req
uiri
ng 
dra
sti
c r
educt
ion in 
th
e "amount" 
of 
deri
vat
ive

ont
ro
l 
pos
si
ble
. 
Thi
s, 

oge
the
r wit
h a 

edu
cti
on 
in 
hydr
aul
ic 
na
tura
l 
re
f quenc
y rom 
f 1
4 t
o 6 

ad/


due 

o a 

ar
ger 
vol
ume 
of 
oi
l 
u n
der 
compr
ess
ion 
tha
n o
rig
ina
lly 
es
ti
ma t
ed) 
gr
eat
ly 
re
duced 

he

llo
wab
le 

oop 

ain
. 
To 
ma
int
ain 

he 

equi
re
d a
ccur
acy 
wi
th 

edu
ced 

oop 

ain 

t 
wa
s n
ece
ssa
ry 


go 

o 
ty
pe 
2, 
ra
the
r t
han 

he 

rig
ina
l 
ty
pe 

. 
A 

ype
-2 

yst
em 

hat 
me
t 
al
l 

he 

pec
iic
fati
ons 
un
der

he 
ne
w c
ond
iti
ons 
was 

esi
gne
d. 
Th
is 

ype
-2 

yst
em, 
ik
l e 

he 

rig
ina
l t
ype
-1 

yst
em, 
wa


ondi

iona
ll
y st
abl
e, 
and 

t was 
di
scove
red 
that 
unde
r s
ome o
per
ati
ng 
condi

ions, 

uff
ici
ent

at
ura
ti
on 
occu
rred 

o 
re
duc
e l
oop 
ga
in b
eyon
d th
e g
ain 
mar
gin, 
ca
usi
ng 
abs
olu
te 

nsta
bil

ty. 
(This

robl
em 
woul
d 
ha
ve 

een 

res
ent 
in 

he 

rig
ina
l 
ty
pe-
1 s
yst
em 

lso.

Th
is 

ta
bil
it
y pr
obl
em 

caus
ed 
by 

he 

atu
rat
io
n n
onl

nea
ri
ty
) wa
s ixe
f d b
y u
se 

f a
not
her

int
ent
iona
l) 

onl
ine
ar 

eat
ure
, 
a 
du
al-
mod
e c
ont
rol

er 

hat 
swi
tc
hes 

he 

yst
em 

rom 

ype 
2 

o t
ype

118
七 1,勺勺h自
00峨叭匀

ms
灿的、0卜1.与‘勺,民
‘0乞 之


1+ 必100

bl
 t
斗  o 
』队 七、气
卜 心
你 勺尧勺夸


 卜
助工 
IJD勺娜,仁.
六旧


y 

鑫 勺女tl
勺.
t’,专P



之注‘1!
毯‘ 叭荟、


找 工


1知久番

l ab
匆 11氏
、-u卜
1勺勺
示 八-匕补



之勺』七宾
‘之 1)七 』
七切 冬之之勺
‘:泥

na
曳1勺勺00

芝 、、
‘、
七李〉
为卜


iti
几| ||洲|卜|



『||

二丁 」

ole 
v o
cn

, 常卜

o 
、『+ 晚恤勺0 + ! 、呜


1十 趁 叭

宕 本+
 砖
.                        
 ‘
闪 卜 你 
            卜 1 
0 0  勺()落

o t
穿

1+ 沪叭

119

峨叭叭


处电叭美

rv
含+代t泛 5


g 

 +
1   
叱 

chn

七 Ilt)七1
10勺

wit
3二州£言

8  l
Dua- de 
mo s


Fi4.
. 1
1 whenever s
yst
em  error 
exceeds a cri
ti
ca l 
val
ue where sat
urati
on begi
ns t
o reduce l
o op gain
danger
ou s
ly. 
Figu r
e.
4. 18 shows  thi
s final confi
gurat
ion. Wh en  l
ar
ge  dis
turbanc
es  and/or
comma nds ca
use mo me nt
aril
y l
a r
g e 
e r
ror an
d  s
ubsequent sat
urati
on, 
the 
swi t
ching l
ogic that
monito
r s 

he s
ize 
of 
the err
or s
witches 
the 
o p-
amp contr
oll
er to 
the 
lower, 

str
aight 
throu
gh " 
signal
pat
h t
ha t 
de
fin
es 
a type -
1 c
losed-
loop sys
tem with 
a Nyquis
t pl
ot t
hat 
does 
not 
show  i
nst
abiit
ly for
ed
r uced gai
n. 
This s
table s
yste
m b r
ings t
he er
ror 
back t
owar d 
zero, 
and 
when i
t i
s s
ma ll 
enough to
no 
longer 
cause 
satur
a ti
on-
induced gai
n reduct
ion, 

he cont
ro l

er swit
ches 

o t
he upp e
r s
ignal 
path,
which 
a d
ds an 
el
ec t
ronic 
int
egrat
o r 
plus 
some l
e a
d compensati
on, def
ini
ng 
a t
ype-2 sys
tem of 
high
accur
acy and 
bri
n ging the 
err
or st
a b
ly t
owa rd ze
ro. 
Final 
d e
sign of 
such 
syste
ms  wit
h mul t
iple
nonin
l eari
ti
es 
(sa
tu r
ation 
plus 
a s
wi tc
hing cont
roll
er) 
is 
be
st accompli
shed 
by compu t
er 
simulati
on ,
once l

ne ar 
sy
stem an al
yti
cal 
studi
e s 
have "ro
ug hed 
out" 
the two in
divi
dual 
(type 1 
and ty
pe  2)
desi
gns.
Th
  e probl
em  of co n
dit
ional 
stabil
ity wit
h  s
atur
ati
on is not imi
l te
d to t
h e pre
sent sp
e c
ific

xamp
le 

nd 

he 

wit
chi
ng 

ont
rol
er 

ppr
oac
h us
ed 

n t
he 
Hays
tac
k a
nte
nna 

s a 

and
ida
te

olu
tio
n f
or 

imi
la
r p
rob
lems
. 
Ot
her 
po
ssi
ble 

ppr
oac
hes 
ha
ve 

een 

nve
sti
gat
ed, 
Fi
g.
4.1
9 s
howi
ng

he 

asi
c 
sy
ste
m u
sed 

s a
n e
xamp
le 
by 
Tr
uxa
l.


  

1(s
) G , 
    
(s


丰卜
+ E C
万似 0-s+1) 0.
066而 +1


    
s+1) s(
0.
:;s

+ 1
)(O
.OOS
s+1
)(0
.00: 

8 
+1


Li
near 
gam “10

弓(
        

A0
) 
ha
s 
ma
xan
um 

has
e 

ag 

l'
7S0
Fi
g.
4.
19 
Co
ndi
ti
ona
ll
y 
st
abl
e 
typ
e- 
l 

yst
em 
wi
th 

at
ura
ti
on


节 口叫
J乙

Fi
g.4.
20 
Re
duc
ti
on 

n p
hase 

ag 

emo
ves 

ond
iti
ona
l 
st
abi

lty
Th
e yp
t e
-1 

yst
em 

hown 

her
e h
as 

he 

ond
iti
ona
ll
y s
tab
le 
Ny
qui
st 

lot 

f F
ig.
4.
20 

) wh
en 

oop

ain 

s 
pr
ope
rl
y s
et. 

f 
we 

oul
d c
aus
e t
hi
s 
cu
rve 

o c
han
ge 
s 
a i
n Fi
g.
4.
20 

) wh
en 

atu
rat
io

120
?和

ccurs
, t
he 
lower 
ef
fect
ive 
gai
n would 
no
t c
ause 

nst
abil
it
y. 
The 
red
uct
ion 
in 
phse 
a l
ag 
neede
d t


hif
t 
the 
cur
ve a
s s
hown is 
ob
tai
n e
d in 
a 

witch
ing 
con
tro
lle
r b
y r
emova
l of 

n i
nte
grat
or, 
givi
ng 


00 
reduct
ion 
at 
evey 
r re
f quenc
y. 
I now 
wish 
to 
sh
ow Truxal
's 
al
te
na
r tiv
e met
hod f
or 
ach
ievi
ng

he 
desi
red 
la
g r
educt
ion.
To 
  i
mpl
eme
nt 

his 
me
tho
d we 
mu
st 
be 

ble 

o 
re
con
fi
gur
e t
he 

yst
em 
wi
th 
a 
mi
nor 

oop 

s i

Fi
g.4.21
. I
n des
ign
ing t
his 
minor 
lo
op we make u
se of 
th
e  we
ll
-known 
beha
vior 
of 
any
cl
osed-l
oop 
sy
ste
m wit
h d
esi
red 
va
lue 
V c
ont
rol
le
d v
ari
abl
e C, 
forwar
d pa
th 
G, 

nd f
eed
bac
k p
ath
H.
V l

ee 火
式.
 

E 
  I _ I 
MI
巾 
.、 -

-+
i 
-  
Ki卜


二甲.. l ee ...ee ee .J

H,



21Mi
nor
-l
oop 

eedb
ack 

o r
educ
e pha
se-
lag 

uin
r g 

atu
rat
ion


f 
amp
it
l u
de 

at
io 
of 
GH 

i叻 i
s 
sma
ll 

ela
ti
ve 

o 1
.0
C -V

G G
二G
1+G厅
   1+0

f 
ampl
it
ude 

at
io 

f GH(
io
c)
) sl
i a
rge 

ela
ti
ve 

o 1
.0
C -V

G 
    
                     
G 1
二二 一 孚书 一

1+GH  1+0
   H

n F
ig.
4.
21, 

he 
mi
nor 

oop 

ont
ai
ns 

he 

atu
rat
ion
, wh
ichwe 

rea
t a
ppr
oxi
mat
ely 
s 
a a 

ari
abl


  

 } 


ai
n 
0<Kd
f引.
0,u
si
ng 

he 

esc

rbi
ng 

unc
ti
on. 

or 

on-
sa
tu
rat

ng 

per
at
io
n 
Kd


V‘

wh
ere
s 
a i
nc
re
as
in
g s
at
ur
at
io
n c
aus
es 
Kd
f 
-+ 
0 
. 

or 

ons
at
ur
at
in
g o
per
at
io
n we 
wa
nt


eha
vio
r t
o b
e i
den
tic
al 

o t
hat 
of 
Fi
g.4.
19 

hat 
is
M, ‘ K(
0.02i
o) 
+ 



几、

=乡(
Iw)“

   (
  
io)
+1)

inc
e t
his 

ys


em 
wa
s s
ati
sfa
ctor
y when 
uns
atur

                          

ted. 
When 

atur
ati
on 
ca
uses 
K- 

-> 
0.we 
ee
t 叨 丫

M I _
=户(
l))
o 。K
, 

2 

df二
K, 
K2 
Kdf (
4.43)

   1
  
+K2 
K,
. 
H,
whi
ch 
we 

ee 
ha
s z
ero 

has
e l
ag, 
75
0 l
ess 

han 

he 

nsa
tur
ate
d s
yst
em; 
thu
s t
he 
de
sir
ed 

urv
e s
hit


ro
m F
ig.
4.
20 

) 
to 

.2
0 b
) ma
y b
e o
bta
in
ed. 

in
ce 
Kd
.=0.
0 i
s 
re
al
iz
ed 

nly 

or 

nf
in
it
el


arg
e s
ignal
s, 
we 
wi
ll 
no
t a
ctual
ly 
ach
ieve 
a 
750 

mp r
ovement; 
howe
ver 
sufic
ient 
imp r
ove
ment 
for

tabi
li
zat

on ma y 

e poss
ibl
e. 
Since 
the 
des
cri
bing f
uncti
on i
s a
n appr
oximai
ton, 
ina
f l 
des
ign

hould 
be 
check
ed 
and 
re
in
f e
d wit
h s
imul
ati
on 
studi
es, 
however 
a 
pr
eli
minay 
r de
s i
gn 
can 
pr
oceed


21
as 
fol
lows.

To 
  p
res
erv
e t
he 

rig
ina
l 
be
hav
ior 

or 

nsa
tur
ate
d o
per
ati
on 
we 

equ
ire
凡KZ 
Kd
f K(
0.02i
cp+1

when Kd
f二1 (
4.44)
1 
+ 
Kz 
K(
f 
H, 
(i 
a)
) i
    
o)+ 1

So
lvi
ng 

or 
H, 

i(
o) 

ive

H, 
(i
or
))二一 } 
  
 


, 
KK

2一


02
). 


+}
K KZ 

                

0.02i
(o+1

,公一- (
4.45)


nd 

inc
e K, 
Ka mu
st 

qua
l K 
to 
ma
tch 

he 

ri
gi
nal 
ga
in
0.
98

i 
(v)
K,
H, 
(i
o))= (
4.46)
0.
021 
(.
o 
+ 

Thi
s gi
ves

Mz KK,(
0.02i
o.
)+1)

it
w)=

          
、 产


4.47)


0.
98Kd
f+0.
02)
iw+1

For 
uns
atur
ated 
ope


at
ion 
(K-=1
) t
his 
be
comes
                                          
、 1

MI
            
K(0.
02i
o)+1

一犷, tc
})
          
          
(i ma
x 
 l
ag=7
50 (
4.48)
石 i 
(t
)+1
                

whereas 
maxi
mum sat
urat
ion (
Kdf 
-a 

)gives
M.
,__
一户 (
i(O)=KK 、 "J
         max 
 lag=00 (
4.49)

  

Us
ing 

his 

rei

mina
ry des
ign a
s a 

tar
ti
ng 
poi
nt, 

imu
lat

on 

tudi
es 
wou
ld 
expl
ore 

he

ppo
rti
onme
nt 

f g
ain 
K n to
i Kt 

nd 
K2 

nd 

yst
em 

eha
vio
r f
or 

ari
ous 

ype
s a
nd 

ize
s o


omma
nd 

npu
ts, 

o s
ee 
whe
the
r a
cce
pta
ble 
pe
rfo
rma
nce 

s a
tta
ine
d. 

ust 

s f
or 

he 

wit
chi
ng

ont
rol

er 

ppr
oac
h, 

hi
s 
sc
heme 

s 
po
ten
ti
al
ly 
us
efu
l f
or 

ond
it
ion
al 

ta
bil

ty/
sat
ura
ti
on 

robl
ems

n 
ge
ner
al, 
no
t 
jus
t 
th
is 

pec
ifi
c 
exa
mpl
e.

122
CHAPTER 
5 ROBUST 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM S

  
In 
previ
ous c
ha pt
ers we desc
r i
bed 
the benefi
ts 
of us
ing ac ompensator t
o ac
hieve the 
desi
red
per
formance o
f a feedbac
k  s
ystem. 
Now  we tur
n our 
aten t
ion to 
the issue 
of 
robu st
ness. 
The
desi
gn of 
high
ly accura
te contr
ol s
ystems in 
the pr
esence 
o f 
signi
ficant u
ncert
ain
ty requi
res 
the
desi
gner 
to se
ek ar  
obust 
syste
m.  I
n thi
s chapter 
we util
ize f
ive metho ds 
for 
a r
o bust 
desi
gn ,
inc
ludi
ng ro
ot 
locus, 
fre
quen c
y res
ponse, 
and ITAE methods f
or a 
robust 
PID sys
tem. 
Ma ny 
re
ce n

cont
rol desi
gn  me t
hodologies focus on  robust
ness-
stabil
it
y  robustness and p er
formance
robus
tnes
s-in 
the pres
ence of 
un c
ert
ainty
. The rec
ent 
design methodologies 
addr
ess the 
fact 

hat
our p
hysica
l s
ys t
ems  a
n d t
he exte
rnal e
nv i
ronme nt 
in 
wh ich t
h e
y ope ra
te ca
nnot be modeled
pre
cisel
y, 
may change i
n an u
npredic
table 
ma nner, 

nd ma y 
be subj
ect t
o sign
iic
f ant 
dist
u r
bances.
Howe ve
r, 
we should 
also 
reaiz
l e t
hat 
clas
sical 
desi
gn te
chniques may also 
produce 
robust 
control
syst
ems. 
Contr
ol engine
ers who 
a r
e a
wa re 
of 
these 
iss
ues 
c a
n design 
robus t 
PID cont
rolle
rs, 
ro
b us

lea
d-lag 
contr
olle
r s
, 
and so f
orth.玩t his 
chap t
er 
we als
o d i
scuss 
the use of 
in
ter
na l 
mo del 
and
pseud
o-quanti
tati
ve fee
d b
a ck 
me t
hods to ac
hi e
ve ro
bust contr
ol. 
Th e 
c hapt
er 
concludes wi
th a
PID c
ontrol
le
r des
ign fo
r t
he Sequent
ial 
De si
gn Example: 
Disk Drive 
Re ad 
Syste
m.

5.
1 I
NTRODUCTI
ON
  
A co
ntr
ol 

yst
em desi
gne
d us
ing 
the 
methods 
and 
concept
s o
f t
he p
reced
ing 
cha
pter
s a
ssu
mes

nowle
dge 
of 

he 
mo d
el 
of 

he p
lant 
an
d c
on t
rol
ler 
an
d cons
tant 
pa
ramete
rs. 
Th
e pl
ant 
model 
wi
ll

lwa
ys 
be 
an 

naccu
rat
e r
epr
esen
tat
ion 
of 

he act
ual 
phys
ical 
syst
em bec
ause 
of:
. Par
amet
er 
changes
. Unmode
led 
dynamics
. Un
mode
led 

ime 

ela
ys
. Cha
nges 

n 
eq
uii

bri
um 

oin
t 
(op
era
ti
ng 

oint

. Se
nsor 
noi
se
. Un
pre
dic
ted 
di
st
urb
anc
e i
nput

D(
    
s)
Di8
turbc
arce

Fi
g.5.
1 
Cl
ose
d-l
oop 

yst
em 

tru
ctu
ral 

iag
ram

The 
go
al 
of 
ro
bust 
sy
ste
ms 
des
ign 
is 
to 

eta
in 
ss
a u
ran
ce 

f s
yst
em pe
rfor
mance 

n s
pit
e o
f mo
del

nac
cura
cie
s and 
chang
es. 
A sy
ste
m  i
s r
obu
st 
when 

he sy
ste
m  ha
s ac
cept
abl
e cha
nges 
in

erf
orma
nce 

ue 

o mo
del 

hang
es 

r i
nac
cur
aci
es.

123
  
A robus
t c
ontr
ol 
sys
tem e
xhi
bit
s t
he 
de
sir
ed 

erf
orma
nce 
de
spi

e t
he 

res
enc
e o
f s
ign
ifi
cant

lan
t (
proc
ess) 

nceta
r i
nty

  
The 
sy
stem s
tr
uctur
e t
hat 
incor
porates 
pot
enti
al 
syst
em unce
ta
r int
ies 

s shown i
n Fi
g.5.1
. 
This
model 

nclu
des 
the 
se
nsor n
oise 
N(s)
, 
the 
unpredi
cte
d di
stu
rbanc
e i
nput 
D(s), 
a nd 
a 
pl
a n
t G(s
) 
with
pot
ent
ia
ll
y unmodele
d dynamics 
or 
pa r
amete
r chan
ge s
. 
The un
mod el
ed 
dy n
a mic
s a
n d 
para
me t
er
cha
nges 
may b
e si
gni
fic
an t 
or 

ery 
lar
g e, 

nd for 

hese 
sys
tems, 

he c
hall
enge i
s 
to 
crea
te a 
des
ign

hat 

etai
ns 

he 
des
ired 
per
for
mance.

5.
2 ROBUST 
CONTROL 
SYSTEMS 
AND 
SYSTEM 
SENSITIVI
TY
  
Desi
gnin
g hig
hly a
ccur
ate 
sy
stems 
in 
the 
presen
ce o
f s
igni
ic
f ant 
plant 
uncer
tain
ty i
s a 
cl
ss
a i
cal

eedback 
desi
gn pro
blem. 
The 
theor
eti
cal 
ba
se s 
fo
r t
he s
olut
ion 
of t
his 
proble
m  date 
bac
k to 
the
works 
of 
H.S. 
Black 
and 
H.W Bo de 
in 
the 
earl
y 1
930s, 
when t
his 
pro
blem wa s 
ref
e r
red 
to 
as 
the
se
nsit
ivi
ti
es d
esign 
probl
em. A si
gnif
ica
nt amount 
of l
it
era
tur
e has been pubis
l hed s
inc
e the


egardi
ng t
he de
sign 
of 
sys
tems s
ubje
ct 
to l
arge 
pla
nt 
uncer
tai
nty. 
The 
de s
igner 
seeks 
to 
obta
in a

yst
em t
hat 
per
forms 
adequat
el
y over 
a 

arge 
ra
nge 
of 
un
cert
ain 
pa
ramet
ers
. 
A syst
em 

s s
aid 

o be

obus
t 
when i
t 
is 
dur
able
, 
h a
rdy, 
a nd 

esi

lent.
A 
  
con
tro
l sys
tem i
s r
obust 
wh en 
(1
) i
t 
hs 
a low 
se
nsit
ivi

ies, 

2) 
it 

s s
tabl
e o
ver 

he 
rang
e of
pa
rame
ter 

ari
at
ion
s, 

nd 

3) 

he 
pe
rf
orma
nce 

ont
in
ues 

o 
me
et 

he 

pec
if
ic
ati
ons 

n 
th
e p
res
enc

of 
a 
set 
of 

hanges 
in 
the s
yst
em par
ameter
s. 
Robus
tne
ss 
is 
th
e s
ensi
ti
vi
ty 
to 
efect
s t
hat 

re 
not
co
nsi
dered 

n t
he a
nalysis 
and 
des
ign 
phr
se
a -f
or 
exa
mp l
e, 
di
st
urba
nces, 
meas
ueme
r nt 
nois
e, 
and
unmode
led 
dynamics
. The sys
tem s
houl
d be ab
le t
o wit
hst
and 
the
se ne
glect
ed 
efect
s when
pe
rfo
rming 

he t
ask
s f
or whic
h i
t 
was 
desi
gned.
匀s
  t
em 

ensi
ti
v勿i
s def
ined 



T 一a
T 一a
d 一』

Sa
T二 (
5.1


上aa/a

wh
ere 
a i
s 
th
e p
ara
met
er
, 
an
d Ti
 
s 
th
e t
ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
of 

he 

yst
em.
Root 
se
nsi
ti
v勿 
is 
def
ined 

Sa
'= (
5.2)

When 

he 
ze
ros 
of 
T(s) 

re 

ndependent 
of 

he 
par
amet
er 
a,we 

howe
d t
hat


a 
T          
一艺           
s 



・(s+r)

              
=1

5.3)


or 

n n
th-
ord
er 

yst
em. 
For 

xampl
e, 

f 
we 

ave 
a 

los
ed-
loo
p s
yst
em, 
s 
a s
hown 

n Fi
g.
5.
2,
wh
er
e 
th
e 
va
ri
ab
le 

ar
ame
te
r 
is 
a,
the
n 
T(
s)=1
/[
s+(
a+1
)]
,an

一a
    
Sa
T二s+a + 1 (
5.4)

Fu
the
r rmo
re 

he 

oot 
is 
t'
,=+(
a+1
),a
nd

124
一}
' 


t二一a (
5.5)

Fi
g. 

.2 
A 
ir
fst-
orde
r s
yst
em

Fi
g. 
5.
3 
Se
con
d-o
rde
r s
yst
em

Therefor

Sa
T二一S
a"
,S十a +1 (
5.6)

us e
Let 
   xami
ne 

he 

ens
it
ivi
ty 
of 

he 

econd-
orde
r s
yst
em 
shown 

n Fi
g.5.
3. 
The 

rans
fer

unc
ti
on 

f t
he 

los
ed-l
oop 

yst
em 



    
T(
s)= (
5.7)
52 s+K’
s+

The 

yst
em 

ens
it
ivi
ty 

or 
K 



' 
T   
S(
s+1)
 ̄ K (
5.8)
1 S) S2+S+K
+G万(
40


;= 1/1
20

20
  
1ogI 
SI
dB 
  0
/\了
/ 又   
20
1ogj

/ 弋

才卜
  

/ \

了卜

.口1

( 0.1 1

.5 
 1 10 100

        


ig
. 
5.
4Se
 
ns
it

vi
ty 

nd 

01
og 
IT 
(i
o)
)l 
fo
r 

he 

ec
on
d-
or
de
r 

ys
te
m 
in
Fi
g.
5.

Th
e a
sympt
ot
ic 

ppr
oxi
mat
io
ns 

re 

hown 

or 
K=1/4

125
A 

ode 


ot 

f 

he 


ymp

ot
es 
of 

01o
gj
T(
jo

))
i 
an
d 2
01o
gj
S(
ja
))
f 
is 

ho
wn 

n 
Fi
g.

.4 



K=1
/4 

cr
it
ic
al 

amp
ing
). 
No
te 

hat 

he 

ens
it
iv
it
y i
s 
sma
ll 

or 

owe
r f

equ
enc
ie
s, 
wh
il
e 
th


ra
nsf
er 

unct

on 
pr
imar
il
y 
pas
ses 

ow 
fre
que
nci
es. 
Also 
not
e 
for 

his 

a s
e, 
T(
s) 
=1一S(s).
Of 
  cou
rse 

he 
se
nsi
ti
vi
ty 
S 
onl
y 
rep
res
ent
s 
ro
bust
nes
s f
or 
smal
l 
changes 

n g
ain. 
If 
K 
cha
nge

ro
f m 

/4 
wi
th
in 

he 

ang
e K=1
/16 

o 
K=1
,th
e r
es
ul
ti
ng 

ang
e o
f s

ep 

esp
ons
e 
is 

hown 


Fi
g.
5.
5. 
Th
is 

yst
em, 
wi
th 

n e
xpe
cte
d wi
de 

ange 

f 
K,
may 

ot 

e c
ons
ide
red 

deq
uat
el
y 
ro
bus
t.
A 

obu
st 

yst
em 
wou
ld 
be 

xpe
cte
d t
o户e
ld 

sse
nti
al
ly 

he 

ame 

wit
hin 

n a
gre
ed-
upo
n v
ari
ati
on)

espons
e t
o a 

ele
cted 

nput

1.


      
厂 =了
        

产、、 .. 目..
甲.. 一 一 ..
1.


          
一 一 ,

且 尸竺二二二二蕊刁曰

    

*I+




1l
1 了2

Fi
g. 

.5 

tep 

esp
ons
e f
or 

ele
cte
d g
ain 

EXAM PLE 
5.1 
SENSITIVITY 
OF 
A CONTRO1
,ZRD 
SYSTEM


  
ons

der 
th
e 
sy
st
em 

how
n i
n 
Fi
g-
5-
6, 
wh
er
e 
G(
s)=1
/S 

,an
d 
a 

D c
ont

oll


G, 
(s
)=b
, 
+b2 
(s
).Th
en 

he 

ens
it
iv
it
y 
wi

h r
es
pec
t 
to 

han
ges 

n 
G(
s) 


s2
    

.+ 
T= _ (
5.9)
v G ,
1+ GG, 
(s

           s
2 
+b
2s+b
l’


R(
s) b
l+ 

= 
s s- I

Fi
g. 

.6 
A 

yst
em 
wi
th 
a 
PD 

ont
rol
le

126

?5+b

and T(5) (
        
5.1
0)
一万砚蔺而’
Cons
ide
rthe nor
nla
l cond
ition 否=la
nd。。
=橱 .T
he
nbZ
=2。。
toachi
eve杏=1.
。e
re
ew


f 。m
ayp
,o
tZOl
og
1S
IandZ
Olo
g}
T}
onaB
ded
e ‘a
,,ss
a h
own‘
nF
ig
・5
・7
・No


ha
ttt
hef
req
uen
cy叭 i
sa
nin
ic
d a
toro
nthebo
und呷 be
twe
ent
hef
equ
r enc
yreg
ioni
nwhi
cht
he

ens
it
ivi
tyi
sth
eimP0
rta
ntd
esi
gnc
it
r e
io
r na
ndt
her
egi
oni
nwh
icht
hes
tab
ili
y m哗i
t nis

哪or
ta
nt,
Thu
sifwes
Pec
iy叭 P
f r0Pe
rl
yt
ota
kei
nt
oco
nsi
der
io

a nt
hee
xon
t t
ofmo
dein
lgero

ndt
a hef
equ
r enc
yofe
xema
t ld
isrb

t nc
a e
,wec
ne
a Pe
x c
thes
t yst
emt
ohvea
a nac
ceP
tbl
a ea
mou
nt

fro
bus
ue
t s
s.No
et
t h
t G。
a (5)i
sap
rop
or
io
tnal
一de
iv
r iv

a e(
pD)
con
rol
t l
e.

2O
1}{}
!1
1 丁
201
}!
..月...曰.
口.
兮1

、!1}皿}匕一
1} {}
}. . .. 目

夕 《
... ......



硼1姗( 洲从 }

月仕
  



1一

划1

夕 } 1
平}

  

  

20
1‘
烤}5
们“



姗}一

一一洲

} {

」 }

} ,{




.01


          
01 1 10 100
口初 ,
                             

Fi
g.5
.7S
ens
it
ivi
tya
ndT(
5)f
rt
o hes
ecnd
o 一
。记e
rsy
semi
t nFig
s.6

E叉滩加仔凭刀反ZSYS不瓦U ”份了万 A 兄r
G HT
-月连ND一
尸尤孟四万ZERO
Co
nsi
dert
hes
yst
ems
howni
nFigs.
8,wh
eet
r hePl
nth
a s az
a o i

e nther
igh
t一ha
ndPl
ne.
a The
cl
osed一
looPt
ra
nsr f

f unct
ioni

K(
5一1

T(
5) (
5.11


2+(
2+尤)
5+(
1一尤).
Th
esys
emi
t sst
bl
a ef
r ag
o in一2<K<1.
a Thes
te
ay一
d s
tee

a o i
r s
1一ZK
e打 = (
5.1
2)
1一K

十 v 一1

( )
R仁少 K 1丫s


介+1
)了

Fi
g.5.
SAs
eco
nd一
or
ders
ysem

127
一,
V一尸分一间口
// ‘ 一 — 16 -一  ̄・

/- }
          

                    


              



/t) 方子
_/
7-



饮 才
0 浮 /0 
      
Is 
      
Zn 
                               
't
" ,

r(set)
                                          

Fi
g. 
5.
9 
St
ep 

espo
nse 

f t
he 

yst
em 

n Fi
g5.
8 wi
th 
K-1
/2


nd 

.,=0,
whe
n K=
=1
/2.
The 

es
pon
se 

o 
a 

ega
ti
ve 

ni
t 

te
p 
in
put 
R(
s)=一1
/s 

s 
sh
own

n 
Fi
g.
5.
9. 
No
te 

he 

ni
ti
al 

nde
rsho
ot 

t t二1 
se
cond
. 
Th
is 

yst
em 

s 
se
nsi
ti
ve 

o 
ch
ang
es 

n 
K,
as

eco
rde
d i
n Ta
ble 
5.
1. 
Th
e pe
rfo
rma
nce 

f t
his 

yst
em 
mig
ht 

e c
ons
ide
red 

are
ly 

cce
pta
ble 

or 


hang
e o
f 
ga
in 
of 

nly士1
0%.
Thu
s t
hi
s 
sy
ste
m wo
uld 

ot 

e c
ons
ide
red 

obus
t. 
Th
e s
te
ady-
st
at


ror 
r o
f t
his 

yst
em 

han
ges 

rea
tl
y 
as 
K 

han
ges

Tabl
e 5.
1 Resul
ts 

or 
Exampl
e 5.

0.50。10%27
0.550.2211%30


          
0.
25 0.45 0.75

      
ess 
l 0.67 0.18 1.

    
Under
shoot 5% 9% 15%
15
   24
   45
Set
tl
ing 

ime(seconds

5.
3 ANALYSIS 
OF 
ROBUSTNESS
Co
nsi
der 

he 

los
ed-
loo
p s
yst
em 
shown 

n Fi
g.5.
1. 
Sy
ste
m g
oal
s i
ncl
ude 
mai
nta
ini
ng 

mal


ra
cki
ng 

rro
r[e
(t)=r(
t)一y(
t)]f
o ni
r 
a np
ut 

(t) 

nd 

eepi
ng 

he 

utpu
t 
y(
小 ma
ll 

or 


is

ur
ba
nc
e 
d 


).T
he 

en
so
r 

oi
se 

(t
) 
mu
st 
be 
sm
al
l 

it
h 

es
pe
ct 
to 

(t
) 

o 

ha
t 

rl
>>l

l・
The 
   s
ens
iti
vit
y血nc
tion 



(s)
=[1
+G. 
(s
)G(
s)
]一


nd 

he 

los
ed-
loo
p t
rans
fer 
func
ti
on 


G. 
(s
)G(s

T 

s)=

+G, 
(s
)G(s)
wh
en 
G, 
(s
)=1
.We 

hen 
ha
ve
S(
s)+T(
s)=1. (
         
5.1
3)

Th
us 

t i
s i
mpor
tan
t t
o ma
ke 
S(
s) 

mal
l. 
For 
phy
sic
alyr
l e
ali
zab
le 
sys
tems
, t
he 

oop

128
                                              

ain 
L(
s)=G, G(s) 
mu
st 

e s
mal
l 
fo
r h
igh 

req
uen
cie
s. 
Th
is 
me
ans 

hat 
S(
jo)
) a
ppr
oac
hes 


t 
hi
gh 
fr
eque
ncie
s.
An 
  ad
dit
iv
e pe
rtur
bat

on 

har
act
eri
zes 

he 

et 

f p
oss
ibl
e pl
ant
s a
s f
oll
ows 

her
e we 

ssu
me
GG 
  
(s
)=1
):
Ga 
                        
(s
)=G(
s)+A(
s),
whe
re 
G(s
) 
is 

he 

omi
nal 

lant
, 
an
d A(
s) 

s 
th
e p
ert
ur
bat
io
n t
hat 

s 
bo
und
ed 

n ma
gni

ude
. 
It 



ssu
med 

hat 
Ga 
(s) 
an
d 
G(
s) 

ave 

he 

ame 

umb
er 

f p
ole
s i
n 
th
e r
ig
ht-
han
d 
s 

pl
ane 


f a
ny)

The
n t
he 

yst
em 

tab
ili

y wi
ll 
no
t 
ch
ang
e i

I 
                        
A(
jo)
) 

<I 

+G(
to) 
I 

or 

ll 
o)
. (
5.
14

Th
is 
ss
a u
res 
st
abi

lty 

ut 
not 
dyna
mic 
per
for
mance

A 
  mul
ti
pli
cat
ive 
pert
urb
ation 
gi
ves 

he 
pl
ant
Gm 
                  
(s
)=G(
s)

1+M(
s)
].
Th
e p
ert
ur
bat

on 

s 
bo
und
ed 

n 
ma
gni

ude
, 
an
d a
gai
n 
it 
is 
ss
aume
d t
hat 
Gm 
(s
) 
an
d 
G(
s) 

ave 

he

ame 

umbe
r o
f p
ole
s i
n t
he 

igh
t-ha
nd 
s 

pla
ne. 
The
n t
he 

yst
em 

tab
ili
ty 
wi
ll 
no
t 
ch
ang
e i


                         
_ 1 }

                  
M U0

0 <1
 
1 
+户
二刃二一二 
If 
or 

ll
. 

A 
. 
                   

5.1
5)
} G(
                        
jw)
Egn.
(5.
15) 

s ca
ll
ed t
he 
ob
r ust 

ab
t i
liy 
t c
rit
eri
on. Th
is 
is a 

est 
fo
r r
obust
ness 
wit
h r
esp
ect 
to 

mult
ipl

cat
ive 
per
tur
bat
ion. 
Th i
s 
for
m  o
f p
ert
urbat
ion 
is 
ote
f n 
use
d bec
ause 

t s
ati
sfi
es 

he 

ntui
ti
ve
pr
opeti
res 
of 
(1) 
bei
ng s
ma l
l 
at 
low re
f quen
cies, 
whee 
r th
e n
ominal 
pla
nt 
mo del 

s u
sua
ll
y wel


nown, 
an
d (
2) 

eing 

ar
ge 

t 
hi
gh 
re
fque
nci
es, 
wh
ere 

he 
no
mina
l 
mod
el 

s 
al
ways 

nex
act

EXAMPLE5.
3 SYSTEM 
WITH 
MULTI
PLICATIVE 
PERTURBATION
Cons
ider 

he 

yst
em 
of 

Fi
R.5.
1 wi
th 
G- 


s)=1
. 
G_=K. 

nd
                                
Y , 护 r ‘


70,
000(
s+0.
1)
G(
s)

(s+3
)(S
2 +1
0S+1
0,0
00)’
Th
e s
yst
em 

s u
nst
abl
e wi
th 
K=1
,bu
t a 

educ
ti
on 

n g
ain 

o 
K=0.
5 
wi
ll 

tab
iiz
le i
t. 
No


ons
ide
r t
he 

fec
t o
f a
n u
nmo
del
ed 
po
le 

t 
50 

ad/
s. 

n t
his 

ase
, 
th
e mul

ipl
ica
ti
ve 

etu
r r
bat
ion 


de
ter
mine
d rom

50
  

1+M(
s)1

s+50


rM(
s)=-
s 
/(
s+5
0).
、 ma
gni

ude 
bo
und 

s 

he

I 
M(jC
o)}a
nd 

1+1 
/ 
KG(
jco
) 
I 

re 

lot

ed 

n 
Fi
g 
5.
10a
), 
wh
er



’・

e 





- 
t 







s 



en 

hat 
th
e c
ri
te
ri
on 


Eq
n. 
(5
.15
) 
is 
not 
sat
is
ie
f d. 
Thus 

he 
syst
em ma
y no
t 
be 

ta
ble.

  
f 
we 
us
e a 

ag 
co
mpensa
tor
G, 
(s),wher

129
0.
15(
s+25)
G} 
(s
)=
s+2.

lo-
, 护.一 〔生    

卜叫门,.分, ,,月卜‘..叫 〔
, 分 一
三兰卜一于州十宁 卜,护一 ̄ ̄闷,-护-卜,资今卜日卜. ̄.闷 一
1 ,州, 一 一,二『 一一一一一闷 「 ̄ 分 份, 代.  ̄ — , 1 」尸 , ,r甲 ,
旧 〔 声仁别并;

二乙, 月 圈
胜签签;
‘ _ 生一 ,孟一 1  ̄仁」 」 U. _ _ 」盆_ ,t L i ‘】 , 几 T r j力.J 诀 rrn
r 丁飞 代 甲 .二 【
下 二片 、
. ,二
口陌 二 丁 叮
)r 门 匕 老 白1. L 寺班百〔八 L .刁

巨 巨荆摧 〔一 月曰
. r二.1

L Lf1 __ ..- Z _ 」 一一二

眨1 I

月卜’ I U(
. 一

日M -
二一 rI团 〔
           a
__ r
」二门r
,巨 卫

- _ 口-

卫工笙 尸 厂 1 ̄ 〔
{. 口 n l〔L I口

,一-
一-

I刀r口 厂’
汗叮I t
_「
_ ,
    

;t}
(ar 0
}) { 口」
_上比
l住口
鑫} 羁 鉴 熟奎教:
三E
生 爵 万井萎4

4津鑫

嗯遏 之警翔

匕三_
」「二〔〕二lf
ll]
旧 【二 口 11沙书李1
」 〔二〔工二
下压万2 洲
口 } I 【日一
「1卜 j

丁卫「
二Il
丁 生
区正日 泣 日 !卜
1今1

‘ 经 〔工山 }
{ 目砰 {汁一日

-曰洲 {
一 [口.
! 坦业1 几
.‘乙口既l 1}
口 江}s盯口


怕Jl

巨 鱼险 更
酬 .口.曰月 ,r ̄ ̄ 吧〔三己r 件二气芳 1 11 r L.JJ

.一 -

卜.,灼n卜 巴 竺亡州卜,,闷,侧卜户 肺 ‘叫F于 卜」臼匕企1二日反叮一一 叫 .


尸确 二月七 咋 不门口 二结 ,叫
仁匀
曰 目瞬渊} 胃日
「-
等瀚
亡二
亡r 一
L1 口
. 〔

二 目 }刀)L}
1I
日E
T载}
阵 目书 印除二目
「二 亡E 口 IU甘 巴口
一 } )袅1」
l口 〔〕

二二口 1. 口尸以 !
1)卜 口江
} 压2 」口 ll印I
叮日 片 口
止一1 姗
口口土 『灭L-l
口比以r }比l
l口



‘J

七所 .
习 卜,
r飞 二I0
.r月尸户怪 习
口L一 肥里,
,,,,万性咬r 娜. ̄ 目,尸 .二
亡二r,r,,州口

目卜性州卜年事娟〔L 只 处至fH主 t-, -声斗5班共 卜巫F号不共二 呀 阵孚


C ‘二 口【
二二r
一了」以刘
.t.目〔r尸
r l _」 一 口 二,竺 :厂丫林 tr ̄ 一 ,广 门尸 吮rr,,

口左 竺竺
更 五〔 「团 D


I二 叭尸 ̄ - 甲 r-悦

Tl
I创 (TI写ilI 

}・
I.
I  
_. . I
【.- 乞
石 Ll习
I[ 幻〔 万_‘曰 耳)jl
. 口 洲r二 〔仁 以别口
l l LP
门二吓吓〔 「日 11
1!川 曰
巨 ,
L 曰 口二
1产 } 朋 口
r_ 11 11l
i l目f 
  J

1口 口’

- }

幽}’疚}
]!2 F团r.
汇一
{ 耳}
}! }口
山}
10 1
0'1
" 1 
V` 
      

/11 II
I: it

w 
  
(Tf
lt
t y
ed


      

万盆

巨王绝
脸 p1
4{书容:
粼鉴班P
-团件排 二二片冬引 共 鑫二二二区,
目困 丰葬二了目I
-捧 }. 二 , 下 爪

「买于尸叶什非一 ̄ 尸任叮I ,
    
I 巨 月渐 淤
一 赚子浏巨一参于

仁_

土仁 滩1+},


'}

r.仁巨
} 
} 息汇 遨i

巨 :气 于 .爪

勺胜仁目翻井留井 共 门翔咚目井
巨至 至理睡呈 至照 巨至 生肛 能井 !
皿居溉 书卜军一 t翻
之,

巨三
日日{
书妇} 日日呸 科l
份一 j 卜一曰卜
于附份.甲日任既 日卜  ̄日日十出

「二二曰 「{王1
1}日 曰 「团 I
Llt
( 口 曰 母五
11龟
/ 口 「匹 I{
礴 口 田
!箩I
忘、

厂一
口日皿L ̄ 口口
江皿 绝熟典 毅 丛 羹艇 夔I
。     
 
      


 卫

考 性
         

厅扫陈}
口里里层 一
每1 甲三三 荟圈阵 呸 禅 止谧

闷 户t弓斗创圈巨甲州闷 闷汗 日砚卜和‘臼 七卜H王以 二,士 {


曰 压巨从 贾日卜一,搜区日卜壬j 田
匕三州 引冷 ̄一挤日比阳卜一日叶用:
三三 阶 ̄‘
日日田 H
- ,
抓奋

,:
t户
刀 洲
巨 「It川1
L_! 1( [二
{ 卜
「印 1
日1件 I{
f佗川 }
1 〔
悦 尸}习口【
且I以止 1’
J 联
, 」推!
,1
巨 仁[皿比_[ [
口 洲L 口 !
}}
翻团一一以邀拉 巨丛共
-I

万」

F二多二三三乏 月圈阵翅
尽 !
称台合
理 目翻 留 自兰鉴 里
兰鉴 性拼里件 口
卜,, 任 村月抢 一 一 干 闷召卜分份 闷 门 亏于妇日卜- ̄ 州 日区 卫叶开.-刊巨 ,卜日曰
任子日日F
?计十一日日序洲 卜一勺不卜
升传十‘日吕洲 托 服
十州日田 日

二 二口 口 {;
1l
(D 厂 口庄 l
州 匕产 厂 j忿n{

!活 [
]「口T}

11 r]1I !}
1 〕 F笼({

1 
! 才匕 口[1
1一 }}
{} 口日
比洲} 厂}
}f}

}{i
-,
[ 
叮{}


一职
曰 !
}N1

rt一
: 1
o 
-1 
        

o", 
      

/j
' 
       

ll
= 尸

0          


                            

) (
r(al 

Se
'[


                              
1)

Fi
g.5.
10 
The 

obu
st 

tab
ili
ty 

rit
eri
on 

or 
Ex
amp
le 
5.


he 

oop 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 

s 
1+Gr 
(s
)G(
s),a
nd 
we 

es
hap
e t
he 

unc
ti
on 
G,
G(j
o)) 

n t
he
re
f q
uen
cy 

ang
e 2<。<25 
The
n we 

ave 

he 

lt
ere
d ma
gni
tud


s p
lot
ted 

n Fi
g.5
.10
b). 
Her
e t
he 

obu
stne
ss 

n e
qua
lit
y 
is 

ati
sfi
ed, 
an
d t
he 

yst
em 

ema
ins 

tabl
e.
The 
cont
rol 
obj
ect
ive 
is 

to 
sel
ect 
a pr
eil
f t
er 
G- 

s) 
and 
a compe
nsat
or 
                                  

G_ 

s) 
in 
a ," 、 产 ‘ L


wo-degree-
of-
ree
f dom f
eedbackc
o nf
igurati
on (
Fig.5.
1) s
o  t
hatthe t
ransi
ent
, 
st
eady-
st
ate
, a
nd

req
u e
n c
y -
domain sp
eci
fi
cati
onsare achieved and the cost of 
feedbac
k measur
ed by t
he

130
ba
ndwi
dth 
of 

he 

omp
ens
at
or 
G, 

jo)
) i
s s
uic
f i
ent
ly 

mal
l. 
Th
is 

andwi
dth 

ons
tr
ai
nt 



eed
ed 
mai
nly 
be
caus
e o
f no
ise 

hat 

s 
in
evi
ta
ble 

n mea
sur
ing 

he 

yst
em 
out
put
. 
A 

arg
e n
ois


mpl

fi
ca
ti
on 

an 

at
ur
at
e 
ei

her 
th
e l
at
te
r 
st
age
s 
of 
G. 
(s
) 
or 
th
e 
ea
rl
y 
pl
ant 
st
age
s.

5.
4 SYSTEMS 
W ITH 
UNCERTAI
N PARAMETERS
  
Many 
sy
ste
ms ha
ve s
eve
ral 
par
amet
ers 

hat 
ar
e c
onsta
nts 

ut 

nce
rta
in 
wi
thi
n ar
 
ang
e. 
Fo


xamp
le, 
cons
ide
r 
a 
sys
tem 
wit
h a 

har
act
eri
st
ic 

quat
ion

                    
" 
+a
n_
,S
n-
1 
+a
,_2
Sn
-2 
+.

.+a
p 
=0 
         
(5
.1

))
wi
th 
known 
coe
fici
f ent
s wi
thi
n bounds

a:
                      
‘aj‘月,
,i=0
'.
..

n,
wh
ere 

n=1

  
To 
as
cert
ai
n t
he 
sta
b i

lty 
of 

he s
yste
m, one 
might 

ave t
o i
nves
ti
gat
e a
ll 
poss
ibl
e c
o mb i
nat
ions
of 
pa
ramet
ers. 
Fotu
r natel
y 
it 

s 
possi
ble 
to 

nves
tig
ate 
a 
li
mited 
number 
of 
wors
t-
case 
polynomial
s.
The 
anal
ysi
s 
of 
onl
y four 
pol
ynomial
s i
s 
sufic
ient
, 
and 
they 
are 
re
adi
ly 
defne
i d f
or 
a th
ird-o
rder
sy
ste
m wit
h a 
ch
ara
cteri
sti
c 
equa
tio


                     
3+a
2s2+a,
s+a
。二0. (
5.
17

The
n t
he 

our 

oly
nomi
al
s 
ar

                     

, 
(s
)=S
3+a2
s2+P'
s+00


                     
2 
(S
)=S
3+p2
s2 
+a,
S+ao


                   
3 
(S
) 
=S
3+吞z
S2+/
3,
S+ao


                     
4 
(S
)=S
3 
+a2
s2 
+a,
s+00

On
e of 

he 

our 
po
lyn
omi
als 

epr
ese
nts 

he 
wo
rst 

ase 

nd 
ma
y i
ndi
cat
e 
un
sta
ble 

erf
orma
nce 

r a


eas
t 
the 
wor
st 
per
for
manc
e f
or 

he 

yst
em 

n t
hat 
ca
se.

EXAMPLE 
5.
4 THIRD-
ORDER 
SYSTEM 
WITH 
UNCERTAI

Co
nsi
der 
a 

hir
d-o
rde
r s
yst
em 
wi
th 

nce
rta
in 

oef
fi
ci
ent
s 
su
ch 

hat
8‘a.‘6
                        
0 =
* ao=8
,刀。=6
0;

                       
2‘a,‘1
00 

* a,=1
2,月;=1
00;
7‘a
                        
2‘2
5 =
* a2=7
,月:=2
5.
Th
e f
our 
po
lyn
omi
als 

re
                      
q, 
(s
)=S3+7S
2+l
oos
+60,
q2 
                      
(S)
=s 
3+255 
S+
  
212s+8


                     
3 
(s
)=s
3+2
552
+lo
os+8

q4 
                      
(S
)=s
3 
+7
S2+1
2s+6
0.

131
We t
hen 
pr
ocee
d t
o c
hec
k th
ese 
fo
ur 
pol
yno
mial
s u
sin
g the 
Rout
h-Hurwit
z c
rit
eri
on 

nd 

enc

de
ter
mine 

hat 

he 

yst
em i
s 
st
abl
e 
for 

ll 

he 

ang
e of 
un
ceta
r i
n pa
ramet
ers.

EXAMPLE 
5.5 
STABILITY 
OF 
UNCERTAI
N SYSTE材
Co
  
nsi
der 
a 

nit
y f
eed
bac
k s
yst
em 
wi
th 
a 
pl
ant 
tr
ans
fer 

unc
tio
n (
nomi
nal 

ond
iti
ons

4.
      

G(
s)

(S+1
)(S+2

Th
e n
omi
nal 
cha
rac
ter
ist

c e
qua
ti
on 

s 
th
en
q(
                        
s)=S
3 
+3
s2+2
s+4
.5=0.
Us
  
ing 

he 
Ro
uth
-Hu
rwi
tz 

rit
eri
on, 
we 
ind 
f t
hat 
th
is 

yst
em 

s 
nomi
nal

y s
tab
le. 
Howe
ver
, 
if 

he

yst
em 
ha
s unce
rtai
n coef
fi
cient
s s
uch 

hat
4‘a
                        
o‘5 

=> 
ao=4,
月。=5

1‘a,‘3 
                        

* a,=1
,刀:=3
; 
 a
nd
2‘a
                        
2‘4 

* a2=2
,刀2=4


hen 
we 
mus
t 
ex
ami
ne 

he 

our 

oly
nomi
als
                       
q, 
(s
)=S
3+2S2+3
s+5

q2 
                       
(s
)=S3+4
S2 
+1
S+4


                     
3 
(S
)=s
3 
+4
S2 
+3
s+4

q4 
                         
(S
)=S
3+2S
2+i
s+5

Us
in
g t
he 
Ro
uth
-Hu
rwi

z c
ri
te
ri
on, 
q, 
(s
) a
nd 

3 
(S
) a
re 

ta
bl
e a
nd 
q2 
(S
) i
s ma
rgi
na
ll


ta
ble
. 
Fo
r q4 

s) 
we 

ave
IJ
  


  


   5

一3/2


  

The
ref
ore 

he 

yst
em 

s 
un
sta
ble 

or 

he 
wo
rst 

ase
, wh
ere 

x2 

mini
mum 
a, 
=mi
ni
mum, 

nd
风=ma
ximu
m. 
Th
is 

ccu
rs 
wh
en 

he 
pl
ant 
ha
s c
han
ged 

G(
s)
= ̄一三一一

      
(s+1
)(
s+1
)’
No
te 

hat 

he 

hir
d po
le 

as 
mo
ved 

owa
rd 

he 

o) 

axi
s t
o i
ts 
imi
l t 
at 
s=一1 
an
d t
hat 

he 

ain 
ha


ncr
ese
a d 

o i
ts 

imi
t 
at 
K=5.Of
te
n we 

re 

ble 

o e
xami
ne 

he 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
G(
s) 

nd
pr
edi
ct 

he 
wor
st-
cas
e condi
ti
ons

5.
5 THE 
DESIGN 
OF 
ROBUST 
CONTROL 
SYSTEMS
Th
  
e d
esi
gn 

f r
obu
st 

ont
rol 

yst
ems 

s b
ase
d o
n t
wo 

asks
: 
de
ter
min
ing 

he 

tru
ctu
re 

f t
he

ont
rol

er 

nd 

dju
sti
ng 

he 

ont
ro
ll
er'
s 
pa
rame
ter
s 
to 

ive 

n "
opt

mal
" 
sys
te
m p
erf
orma
nce
. 
Th
is

132
desi
gn 
process 
is 
normally 
done 
wit
h "ss
a ume d 
co mplet
e knowled
ge" of 
the 
pl
ant. 
Furt
hermore
the 
pl
an t 

s n
o r
mally 
descr
ibed 
by a 

inea
r t
ime -
invari
ant 
conti
nuous 
mo del
. 
The s
truc
tur
e of 
the
cont
rol
ler 
is 
chose
n s
uch th
at 
the 

yste
m's 
response ca
n meet 
cert
ai
n per
formance 
cr
it
eri
a.
On
  e poss
ible 
obj
ecti
ve i
n t
h e 

esig
n of 
a 
c ont
rol s
yste
m  is 

hat 
the 
contr
oll
ed 
syste
m's out
put
shoul
d exact
ly an
d ins
tanta
neous
ly r
epro
duce  i
ts i
nput. 
That i
s, 
the 
syst
em's t
ran
sfer 
funct
ion

houl
d be 
uni
ty:



s) 
=器・
‘・ (
5.1
8)


  
n ot
her 
wo
rds
, 
th
e s
yst
em 

houl
d b
e pr
ese
nta
ble 

n a 
Bo
de 

ain 

ers
us 
re
f q
uen
cy 

iag
ram 
wi
th
a 
0-
dB 
ga
in 

f i
nin
f i
te 

and
wid
th 

nd 

ero 
ph
ras
e s
hif
t. 

n p
rac
ti
ce, 

hi
s 
is 
no
t p
oss
ibl
e, 

inc


vey 
r sys
tem wil
l 
cont
ai
n i
nd uc
tiv
e - 
and 
capaci
ti
ve-t
ype component
s t
hat 
st
ore e
ner
gy 
in s
ome

orm. 
It 
is 
thes
e el
ement
s and t
heir 
int
ercon
necti
ons wit
h ener
gy-di
ssi
pati
ve co
mponent
s t
hat

roduc
e the s
yst
em's 
dynamic r
esponse c
harac
ter
ist
ics. 
Such s
yste
ms  r
eprod
uce s
ome i
nputs

lmost 
exact
ly, 
whi
le 
ot
her 
input
s a
re not 

epro
duced 
at 
all
, s
igni
fyi
ng 
that 

he s
yste
m's 
ba
ndwidt


s l
ess 

han 

nf
ini
te.
On
  
ce 
we 

eco
gni
ze 

hat 

he 

yst
em'
s d
yna
mic
s c
ann
ot 

e i
gno
red
, we 

eed 
an 
ew 
des
ign

bje
cti
ve. 
On
e po
ssi
bl
e 
de
sig
n o
bje
cti
ve 

s 
to 
ma
int
ai
n 
th
e ma
gni

ude 

espo
nse 

urv
e a
s la
ft 
an
d a

cl
ose 

o u
nit
y f
or 
s 
a la
rge 
a 
ban
dwidth 
as 
pos
sib
le 
for 
a 
gi
ven 
pla
nt 

nd 
cont
rol
ler 
co
mb i
nat
ion.
Anot
her 

mport
ant 

oal 
of 
a 

ont
rol 
sy
ste
m des
ign 
is 

hat 
th
e efe
ct 
on 

he 

utpu
t o
f t
he 
sys
tem 
du e

o 
di
st
ur
ban
ce 

s 
mi
ni
miz
ed. 
Thu
s we 
wi
sh 

o 
mi
ni
miz
e Y(
s) 
/ 
D(
s) 

ver 
a 

ang
e o
f 
re
f q
uen
cy.
Co
nsi
de
r t
he 

ont
ro
l s
ys
te
m s
hown 

n F
ig.
5.
11
, wh
ere 
G(s
)=G, 
(s
)G2 
(s
) i
s t
he 

lan
t,

nd 
D(
s) 

s 
the 

ist
ur
ban
ce. 
We 
th
en 

ave
Y(
s) GCG,G2 

s)
T(
s)= (
5.1
9)
R(
s) 1
+GcGIG2 

s)
and

Y(
s) G2 

s) (
5.20)
D(
s) 1
+Gc
G,G2 
(s

D(
  
s)

R付 + +
I I刊
G;

fs) G, 

r) --- ̄争

Fi
g. 
5.
11 
A 
sy
ste
m di
sturbance

Not
  e t
hat 
bot
h t
he 

efe
rence 

nd 
di
stur
bance 

rans
fer 

unct
ions 
ha hes
ve 
t ame 
denomi
nat
or; 



the
r wo
rds
, 
th
ey 
ha
ve 

he 

ame 

har
act
eri
st
ic 

qua
ti
on-
tha
t 
is


                  
+Gc 

s)G, 
(s
)G2 
(s
)=1
+L(
s)=0. (
5.21

Fu
rth
ermo
re 
we 

eca
ll 

hat 
th
e s
ens
it
ivi
ty 

f T(
s) 
wi
th 

espe
ct 

o G(
s) 

133



5.22)

  
+Gc
GiG 

s)’

nd 
the 
cha
ract
eri
st
ic 

quat
ionis 
hei
t nlu
f en
cin
g  f
act
or 
on 

he 

ens
it
ivi
ty. 
Eqn. 
(5
.22)shows t
hat


or 

ow se
nsit
iv
it
y S 
we 
re
qu i
rea 
hig
h va
lue 
of 
loop 
gai
n 
L(to
),but 

t i
s 
known t
hat 
high 
gain
dc
coul a
use 

nst
abi
li
ty 

r 
po
or 

espo
nsi
vene
ss 
of 
T(
s).
Thu
s t
he 

esi
gne
r 
se
eks 

he 

ol
lo
win
g:
T 

s) 
wi

h wi
de 

and
widt
h 
an
d f
ai
th
ful 
re
pro
duc
ti
on 

f 
R(
s).
2.
Lar
ge 

oop 

ain 
L(
s) 

n 
or
der 

o 
mi
ni
miz
e t
he 

ens
it
iv
it
y 
S.
3.
Lar
ge 

oop 

ai
n 
L(
s) 

tt
ai
ned 

ri
mar
il
y 
by 
Gc 
(s
)G, 
(s
),s
in
ce 
Y(
s) 
/ 
D(
s)”1
/GC 
G, 
(s)

Hi
gh 
g 

ins 
fa
r g
ood 
pe
r i

rma
nce

          
/(
  Ca1
11
11
1and 








漾哪f


0 l
og 
I 
G 
C:

|.

Stabl
    e crossover


gai
, n and 
pha
se 
ma
rgi
ns)
Mi
nimum 
per
for
mall 
ce
11-叭


      
ount
h卜
舞 Robus
    tness


,-/ 

oun
ds
i ,
                
    
Law gril
ls 

o r
educe

    
ensit
iri
t- 
to 
sens
or
noi
se a
nd model 
uncert
ainty

Fi
                    
g. 

.12 
Bo
de 

iag
ram 

or 

01o
gIG}
GO0
))l

Se
  
tin
g t
he 

esi
gn 
of 

obus
t s
yst
ems 

n re
f qu
enc
y-d
oma
in 

erms
, we 

re 

equ
ire
d t
o f
ind 


rop
er 

omp
ens
at
or
, 
G, 
(s
),s
uch 

hat 
th
e c
lo
sed
-l
oop 

ens
it
iv
it
y 
is 
le
ss 

han 

ome 

ol
er
anc
e 
va
lu
e,
an
d  se
nsi
tivi
ty 
mini
mizat
ion i
nvolv
es f
indi
ng ap 
roper 
compensat
or suc
h tha
t t
he cl
osed-lo
o p
se
ns i

ivi
ty eq
ual
s o
r i
s ar
bit
rar
ily 
cl
ose 
to t
he mi
nimal a
tt
aina
ble 
sensit
iv
it
y. S
imila
rly
, t
he gain
margin 
probl
em 
is 

o in
f d 
a pro
per 
compensat
or 
to 
achi
eve 
some p
rescr
ibed 
gain 
margi
n, 
and gain
margin 
ma xi
miz
ati
on i
nvolv
e s 
fi
ndi
ng ap 
roper 
co
mp ensat
or 
to 
achie
v e 
the 
ma x
imal a
tt
ainable
gai
n ma r
gin. 
Fo
r t
he re
f quency-
domai
n speci
ic
f at
ions
, we re
quie 
r th
e foll
owing f
or t
he Bo de

ia
gra
m o
f 
G,
G(j
o),
( sho
wn 

n 
Fi
g. 

.12


  
. 
Fo
r r
el
at
iv
e s
ta
bil

ty, 
GC 
G(j
co) 
mu
st 

ave
, 
fo
r a
n a
deq
uat
e 
ra
nge 

f 
Lo,n
ot 
mo
re 

han

    
20dB/
dec
ade 

lop
e a
t 
or 

ear 

he 

ros
sov
er 
re
fque
ncy叭・
2. 
  
St
ead
y-s
tat
e 
ac
cur
acy 

chi
eve
d by 

he 

ow 
re
fque
ncy 

ain.

  
. 
Ac
cur
acy 

ver 
a 

and
wid
th 

)B 

y n
ot 

ll
owi
ng 
I 
GcG(
CO
)!t
o 
fa
ll 

elo
w ap
 
res
cr
ib
ed

  
evel


  
. 
Di
st
ur
ban
ce 

ej
ect

on 

y h
igh 

ain 

or 
GC 

jco
) 
ov
er 

he 

yst
em 

and
wid
th.
Us
  
in
g t
he 

oot 

ens
it

vit
y 
co
nce
pt, 
we 
ca
n s
ta
te 

hat 
we 

equ
ir
e 
th
at 
S二b
e mi
ni
miz
ed 
wh
il

134

tt
ai
ni
naT(
s)w
it
h 
domin
ant 
ro
ot
s 
th
at 

il
l 
pr
ov
id
e 
th
e a
ppr
op
ri
at
e 

es
pon
se 

nd 
mi
nimi
ze 
th


fec
t 
of 
D(
s). 
Ag
ai
n we 
se
e 
th
at 

he 

oal 
is 

o 
hav
e 
th
e g
ai
n 
of 

he 

oo
p p
ri
mar

ly a

tai
ne


y GC 

s)・
As 

n e
xamp
le, 
le
t 
G,
(s)=K,
G, 

s)=1 
an
d GZ 
(s
)=1 
/ 

(s+1
) 
fo
r 
th
e s
yst
em 



ig
.5
.1
1.
Thi
s 

ys
te
m h
as 

wo 

oo
ts
, 

nd 
we 

el
ec
t。g
ai
n 
K 
so 

ha
t 
Y(
s)
ID(
s)
is 
mi
ni
mi
ze
d,
S分i
s 
mi
ni
miz
ed, 
an
d T(
s) 

sd
a  
es
ir
abl
e 
do
min
ant 
ro
ots 

The 

ens

ti
vi
ty 



               
r_dr K_到、 .
dK ; dK}
K. (

.2
3)
                       
and 

he 
char
act
eri
sti
c equat
ion 



(s+1
)+K=
=0. (
5.24)
The
ref
ore 
dK 
/d 
s=一(
2s+1
),s
inc
eK=-s
(s+1
).We 

hen 

bta
in


- 

(s 
+ 


一1
  

r K



5.25)
2s+1 S 
    
     

s=r

Wh
en否<1
,th
e 
ro
ots 
ar
e 
co
mpl
ex, 
an
d 
r=-0
.5+J
w.Th
en

' 
U  (
X卜I0
—.2
5+。,丫
Ii


5.26)
l 
    
 4w` )

,‘
月”
80

}         

60 节 一 护1




ls





)'
勺乞会卜,苏 倪

尸 口
州尸 I
开i
            

 什



             

甘 一一一
之,〕

火之
hers
为not
,、
山吸

0.

20
厂 一


/ { 2

                


        
3 子 S


                                   

Fi
g. 
5.
13 
Se
nsi
ti
vit
y 
an
d p
erc
ent 

ver
sho
ot 

or 
a 

eco
nd-
orde
r s
yst
em

The magn
it
ude 
of 

he 
sensi
ti
vi
ty 
is 
plo
tt
ed 
in 
Fig.
5.
13 f
or K=0.2 t
o K=5,Th
e p
erc
ent
ove
rsho
ot 
to 
a 
st
ep 

s 
al
so s
hown. 

t 
is 
be
st 

o 
red
uce 
the 

ensi
ti
vi
ty 
bu
t t
o 
imi
l t 
K 
to 

.5 
or 

ess

We t
hen 
at
ta
in t
he 
majo
rit
y of 

he a
tta
ina
ble 
reduct

on in 

en s
it
ivi
ty 
whil
e ma
int
ain
ing 

ood
pe
rfo
rman
ce 
for 

he 

tep 
res
pons
e. 

n g
enera
l we 

an us
e t
he 
de
sign 
proce
dur
e 
as 
fo
llo
ws:

  
. 
Sk
etc
h t
he 

oot 

ocus 

f t
he 

ompe
nsa
ted 

yst
em 
wi
th 
Gc 

s) 

hos
en 

o a
tt
ai
n t
he 

esi
re


    
oca
tion 

or 

he 
domi
nant 

oot
s.

135

.Ma
xi而z
eth
egino
a fG。(
5)t
or
edu
cet
hee
ec
f t
oft
hed
is
tu
ba
r nc
e.

.De
te
nl
r i
neS二a
nda
ai
t n‘
he而n
imu
mva
lueo
fhes
t ens
ii
ti汀c
v ns
o i
sen
t t
wit
ht
het
ns

r i
en

es
r P
ons
erequ
ied
r ,
asd
esc
ib
r e
dins
tePI

五男乃.
加仔生召5
.石5日切汀刀 于了TYAND C以村乃曰W沮刀 口N
此tu
  sco
nsi
de
r由es
ys
emw
t hen
G(5
)=1
152
,H(
5)=1
,ndG。
a (5)i
st
ob
ese

ecdb

t y
fqu

r en
cyresP
ns
o emethds
o .T
heef
rorethecmP
o ens
atori
stobesel
ct
e edtoa
ch i
ee a
v n
pP
a r
oPia
re ga
t ina
ndPha
sem田名i
nwhil
e而ni而z
ings
ens
iiv
tit
ya
ndt
heeec
f toft
hedi
st
urb
nc
a e.
ThusweChoos
   e

K(
5/2+1

G。(
5)= (
5.7)

slP+1
  
M触c
  hos
eK=
=l0t
or
edu
cet
hee
ec
f to
fthed
ist
ba

u nc
e.oa
T t
t助naPh
sema
a gi
r nof
45‘

wes
el
ec
edz=2
t .oa
ndP二1
2.0.W
ethe
natt
int
a hec
oPe
m n
sedd

a iag
rams
howni
nRg
・5.

ndr
a e谬a
edi
t nFig
・5.
14.
ec
R a
llt
hatt
hec
los
edl
卿 b
nd
a wi
dhi
t s
叱 =1
.6叭.T
husw
ewil


ncea
rset
heba
ndwi
dhbyus
t in
gthec
oPe
m ns
to
arandi
Pr
m ov
ethef
id
e1i
yo
t fr
ePr
odu
cio
tn oft



nPu
tsi
gna
ls.

卜址又 }
灭丈


              

丈巡鳄一

- -
匕一
。 c,
、气

} 、 1 ,,. t l . 1

          
1 1
} 囚二
口 巨 匕各一
、、 、

。l.四,

’ l





一粇,

} 口
卜 、、       
                
、、 ”J
gn


、如
’t
I ’

卜_
          
一,、
1 健



  
6n
  ,肖乃才
q 口砂d IJ夕
一砂。亡价J召e-
l 口口[口
} { }
        
} 副扣尸
        
卜一 声 l

1 _!
l 口口


一 物叮 P


P,1
t矛若州



        
”七u护 1’—


日尸洲一
1目

2协r‘
}一日

沁.

尹J翰I

’ 一


1“
‘夏
一1沙口。

ng.
5.1
4Bo
ded
iag
ramf
r Ex
o 别rnP
les.

hes
T ens
iiv
tiyma
t ybea
sce
ai

r n
eda
t此a




、,
・}

磷而一
。 (
5.28)


36

has
e 
of不
、办 \ /
0二
i 一一 一一卜卜 、 ̄ ‘
“\ D
.1RdB 一
“ / .
/一 —


了 州 — 一 、、

一尸尹
沐六口
    
目碑产一 朴 汀
一 ̄  ̄、、

\ L{
、、
              
尸户一
斌少尸 ̄ ̄一一一

犷 I


   
- 
-I
下 {  了入 GG,
    
(j动

    

务 冲 - 
    

寸)人
-77

入r
7Q4




i 1 f l-
0 

B饭
之、

龚 3 一 ・ t 
I 入
   







Md
B2



邀 层万 、


一入 \

彝去 撰 公琪

举 9
 ̄七助身 氏


[中

-4
口口 百币 -
一‘

鬓1 参鬓 彝 城
趴 O
护J


  !


    

囊喜 {

  
鑫呈 T
,d
- 
]0
" d
B ({
挂巨’
了- J
r ̄,1 一创闷卜一 J月


丫/
气洛‘
.、
  

井介
乡运 f

k 一
一0

二亏一
\_
  
6--


_
  


护日
              

          
          
、 、
                  

I }
「' 「 ] 一斗一一 尸V {

:土 i上上


一 、 !}
G 、 }
    

产书 ,(价,尸,,二.二.1S
Jla
gn而 de

七 万厂l


}”(
I i\丁
    
厂不 --
‘石一 电
州侧.口‘曰一

}{

_I {
_L{

一\ { {
’ }
-} 、
活 1
‘. .,魂口.州. ‘,曰.一一
月J‘, , .. .门 . 一
Loo
p ga
i”一
J 口I矛矛


— G 一
    
1十 G
      

【 .一 一 下洲,
「 曰 1 }

Lo
op砂 “
,.
,,
耳(G)
.,”de
gre
es

Fi
g .
5.1
5 Ni
cho
ls 

har
t 
fo
r Ex
amp
le 

.7


o 
es
ti
mat
e 

Sn}
.we 

ec
al
l 

ha
t 

he 
Ni
ch
ols 
ch
art 
en
abl
e 
! U !
us
:。o
bt
ai

                    

137

_, _、} G‘、G(
。)
I 
I 
lj 
0 l 
=1---—
- - 
- -
   (
5.29)

      
1+Gc 
G(
a))

hus 
we 

an 

lot 
a 

ew 

oin
ts 

f GC
G(j
(o) 

n t
he 
Ni
cho
ls 

har
t 
an
d t
hen 

ead 
T(
(o
) 
fr
om 

he
chart
. Then

wh
ere 

o, 

s c
hos
en 

rbi

rar
il
y a
s (
oc 

2.
5. 

n 




r,














, 



l 


l 
we 

hoo
se 
af

 eq
uen
cy 

elow 

)c 



5.30)


et
er
mi
ne 

he 

al
ue 

f 

S(
o)
,)
}。
Of 

au
se 
we 
de
si

e 
a 

ow 

al
ue 

f 
se
ns
it

vi
ty
. 
Th
e 
Ni

hol
s 

ha
rt

or 

he 

omp
ens
at
ed 

yst
em 

s s
hown 

n F
ig.
5.
15
. F
or 
 (
0,=。。
/2.
5=2 
 we 

ave

0 l
og 
T=2.
5dB 

nd 

0 l
og 
GAG=9
dB.
The
ref
or

IT I 里 =
       0.
47.


W o, 
)= 1
- 1=

GCGJ 2.8
        

EXAMPLE 
5.7 
SENSITIVITY 
WITH 
A LEAD 
COMPENSATOR
  
Let 

s a
gai
n con
side
r t
he sys
tem i
n Exa
mpl
e 5.
6, 

sin
g t
he 

oot 

ocu
s d
esi
gn 

bta
ine

Exampl
e 
5.
3. 
The 
co
mpe ns
ato
r was 
cho
sen 
as
8.1
(s+1)
GC 

s)= (
5.31

(s+3.6)

or 

he 

yst
em 

f Fi
g.
5.1
6. 
Th
e d
omi
nan
t 
ro
ots 

re 

hus 
s=一1士j2. 
Si
nce
, 

he 

ain 

s 
8.
1, 

he

ffe
ct 
of 
th
e d
ist
urba
nce 
is 
reduced, 
an
d t
he 

ime 

esp
onse 
me
ets 

he 

pec
ifi
cat
ions
. 
The 
sens
it
ivi
ty

t a r
oot r may be o
b t
ained by ss
a umi
ng 
th
at t
he 
sys
tem, 
wi
th 
dominant 
ro
ots
, may be

ppropr
iat
ed 
by 
the 
se
cond-orde
r 
s y
ste


         K
    
T(
s)
s`+2
营0)
,S+K ,
2+2s+K


in
ce 

C0,二1
.Th
e 
ch
ar
ac
te
ri
st

c 
eq
uat

on 

s 

hus
s2+2s+K=0.
                          

力(
s)


ig
. 
5.
16 
Fe
ed
ba
ck 

on
tr
ol 
sy
st
em 
wi

h。d
es
ir
ed 

np
ut 
R(
s)
an
d 
an 

nd
es
ir
ed 

np
ut 
D(
s)


hen 
dKI
ds=一
(2s
+2)
,si

ce 
K=一(

s+
22s
).T
her
ef
or

138
一1 一(
s 
2 
+2
s) s+2
      
Sr
二二 一 .一 一

5.32)

2s+2) 
     
s 2s+2
      

wh
ere 
r=一1+j
2.The
n s
ubs
ti
tu
ti
ng 
s=r,
we 

bta
in



K{・
0.
56

f 
we 

ais
e 
th
e ga
in 

o 
K=1
0,we 

xpe
ct 
r 一1.
1士j2.
2.Th
en 

he 

ens
it
iv
it
y 
is



K}・
0.
53

Th
us 

s K 
inc
rea
se, 
th
e s
ens
it
iv
it
y 
de
cre
ase
s, 

ut 

he 

ra
nsi
ent 

erf
orma
nce 

ete
rio
rat
es.

5.
6 PI
D CONTROLLERS
The 
   PID 
contr
oll
er 
has 

he 

ransfer 

unct
ion


。(
:)
一K,
十KZ
十K3 
S. s
                                            

Th
e p
opu
lar
it
y of 
PI
D c
ont
rol

ers 

an 

e a
tt
ri
but
ed 

art
ly 

o t
hei
r 
ro
bus
t p
erf
orma
nce 

n aw
 i
de

ang
e o
f o
per
at
in
g c
ond
it
io
ns 

nd 

art
ly 

o t
hei
r 
fun
cti
ona
l 
si
mpl

cit
y, 
wh
ich 

ll
ows 

ngi
nee
rs 



per
ate 

hem 
in 
a s
impl
e, 

tr
aig
htf
orwa
rd 
man
ner
. To 

mpl
eme
nt 

uch 
a c
ont
rol
ler
, t
hre


ara
met
ers 
mus
t b
e d
ete
rmi
ned 

or 

he 

ive
n p
roc
ess
: p
rop
ort
iona
l g
ain
, i
nte
gra
l ga
in, 

nd
der
ivat
ive 
ga
in.
Consi
   der 

he 
PID 
cont
rol
ler

_ _
_ K, 一 Ks2+K,
s+K,
。。
(s)=K1
+一 +K3 s=

       l ‘


                           s
            

5.33)
_K3 
(S
2+a
s 
+ 

)_K3 
(s
+z, 
)(
s+z
2)
s 
                
      s

wh
ere 

= 
K, 
/ 
K3 

an
d b
= K2 
/ 
K3.Th
ere
for
e 
a 

I)c
E  
onr

oll
er 

nro
tduc
es 
a 
ra
tnsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
wi



ne 

ole 

t 
the 

rig
in 

nd 

wo 

ero
s t
hat 
ca
n b
e l
oca
ted 

nywh
ere 

n 
the 

et-
fhan
d s 

pl
ane

  
Rec
all 
that 
a 
roo
t l
ocu
s b
eing
s a
t 
th
e po
les 

nd 

nds 

t 
th
e z
eros
. 
If 
we 
ha
ve 
a 

yst
em 

s s
hown

n F
ig.5.16 
wi
th

G, 
(s
)=
(s+2)
(s+5)

nd 
we 

se 
a 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 
wi
th 

ompl
ex 

ero
s, 
we 

an 

lot 

he 

oot 

ocus 

s s
hown 

n F
ig.
5.1
'7.
As 

he 

ain
, 
K3
,of 

he 

onro
tll
er 

s 
in
cre
ase
d, 

he 

omp
lex 

oot
s 
ap
pro
ach 

he 

eos
r .Th


los
ed-
loo
p ra
t ns
fer 

unc
tio
n i

G(
s)G, 
(s
)G, 
(s
) 一   
K3 
(s+z
, 
)(
s+z
,)。 , 、_K3
_ G' 
(s

T(
s)= L7 _饭s )三 (
5.34)

+G(
s)G, 
(s
) 了, . , 、/, 二
、。Y 
f2八。"
T",]八J'
T'r
l)
、了  ̄ . 二 、 v 、

S+r
2)



Fi
g. 
5.
17 
Roo
t 
lo
cus 
wi
th 
Z,=-6+JZ


eca
use 

he 

er
os 

nd 

he 

omp
le
x r
oot
s 
ar
e 
ap
pro
xima
te
ly 

qua
l(r
,”z
,)・S
et
ti
ng 
G, 

s)=1
we 
have

K3   
K3
T(
s)= (
5.35)
2 S+k-
S+r 3
whe
n凡 >>1,Th
e o
nly 


mit
in
g f
act
or 

s 
th
e a
ll
owa
ble 
ma
gni
tu
de 
of 
U(s
) (
Fig.
5.
16) 
wh
en
K3 
is 
la
rge,
if 
K3 
is 

00, 
th
e s
yst
em 

as 
a 

as
t 
re
spo
nse 

nd 

er
o 
st
ead
y-s
ta
te 

rr
or. 
Fu
rt
he
rmo
re,

he 
eff
ect 
of t
he 

ist
urbanc
e i
s 
reduc
ed 
si
gniic
f an
tly.

  
n g
ener
al 
we 
note t
hat 
PII
) co
ntr
oll
ers 
ar
e part

cul
arl
y u
sef
ul 

or 

edu
cin
g s
tea
dy-
sta
te 

rro


nd 

mpr
ov
in
g 
th
e 

ra
ns
ie
nt 

es
po
ns
e 
wh
en 
G(
s)
ha
s 
on
e 
or 
two 
po
le
s 
(o
r 
ma
y 
be 
ap
pr
ox
ima

ed 


a 

eco
nd-
ord
er 
pl
ant
).

5.
7 THE 
DESIGN 
OF 
ROBUST 
PID-
CONTROLLED 
SYSTEMS
Th
  e 
sele
cti
on of 

he t
hree 
coef
fi
cie
nts 
of 
PID co
ntr
olle
rs 
is 

asi
call
y as 
ear
ch pr
oble
m i
n a

hree-
dimensi
onal 
sp
ace. Poi
nts 

n t
he s
ear
ch s
pace 
cor
respo
nd 
to 
difer
ent 
sel
ect
ion
s of 
a 
PI


on t
rol
ler
's 
thre
e par
ameter
s.By  c
hoosi
ng di
ff
ere
nt poi
nts 
of 
th
e parame
ter s
pace, 
we 
can

rod
uce
, f
or 

xampl
e, 

iff
er
ent 

tep 

esp
ons
es 

or 
a 
st
ep 

nput
.A 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 

an 



eter
mine
d b
y mov
ing 

n t
his 

ear
ch s
pace 
on 
a 
tr
ial
-an
d-err
or 
bas
is.
Th
  
e mai
n pr
obl
em i
n t
he s
ele
cti
on o
f th
e t
hre
e coef
fi
cien
ts 
is 

hat 

hes
e c
oefi
cie
nts 

o n
ot

ead
il
y t
ra
nsl
at
e i
nt
o t
he 

esi
re
d p
erf
or
man
ce 

nd 

obu
stne
ss 

har
act
er
is
ti
cs 

hat 

he 

ont
rol

yst
em des
igne
r h
as 
in 
min
d.Se v
era
l 
rul
es 

n d 
met
hods 
have 
be
en 
pro
posed 
to 

olv
e t
his 
pro
ble
m.

n t
his 

ect
ion 
we co
nsi
der 

eve
ral 
de
sig
n me
thods 

sing 
ro
ot 
loc
us 

nd pe
rfo
rmance 

ndic
e s,
Th
  e 

ir
st 

esi
gn 
meth
od us
es 
the 

TAE pe
rfo
rmanc
e i
ndex. 

To 
reduc
e t
he 
cont
ri
but
io
n of 
th


ar
ge 

ni
ti
le
a  
rr
or 

o 
the 
va
lue 
of 

he 
per
for
mance 

nte
grl, 
a a
s wel
l 
as 

o e
mphasi
ze 
er
ror
s 
occur
ri
ng

140

ter 

n t
he 
res
pons he f
e, 
t oll ng i
owi nde
x h
as 

een 

rop
ose
d: 

TAE ・
fti

(t

{ 
dt,
・T
he
opt
imum 
coef
fi
cie
nts 

or s
tep 

npto
u r 

or 
a 
ra
mp 

npu
t. 
He
nc wesel
e  ect 

he 

hre
e PI

coef
fici
ents 
to 
mini
mize t
he 

TAE 
per
for
man
ce 

nde
x, 
wh
ich 

rodu
cesan excell
ent 

ransi
ent


espo
nse 

o a 

tep 

r a 

amp.Th
e d
esi
gn 

rod
uce 

ons
is
ts 

f t
hre
e s
tep
s:
  
1. 
Se
lec
t t
he 0
),
, 

f 
the 
cl
osed
-l
oop 
sy
ste
m by 
spe
cif
yin
g t
he 
set
tl
in
g t
ime・
2. 
  Det
ermine 

he 

hree 

oefic
f i
ent
s 
us
ing 
th
e a
pprop
ri
ate 
opt
imum e
quat
ion 

nd 

he叭 o
f s
tep

I 
    

o 
ob
tai
n G, 
(s


  
. 
De

er
mi
ne 
a 

re
f 

te
r 
Gp 
(s
) 

o 

ha
t 

he 
cl

se
d-

oo
p 
sy
st
em 


an
sf
er 
fu
nc
ti

n, 
T(
s)
, 

oe
s 
no

hav
e a
ny 
ze
ros.

EXAMPLE反8 
ROBUST 
CONTROL 
OF 
TEMPERATURE
Co
nsi
der 
a 

empe
rat
ure 

ont
rol

er 
wi
th 
a 

ont
rol 
sy
ste
m a
s s
hown 

n 
Fi
g.5.
16 

nd 
a 

lan


G(
s)= (
5.36)

S+1
)2

f G, 
(s
) 
=1
, 

he 


ead
y-s
ta
te 

rr
or 

s 
50
%, 

nd 

he 

et
ti

ng 


me 

2% 

ri
te
ri
on) 
is 

.2 

eco
nds 

or 


tep 

npu
t. 
We 

esi
re 

o o
bta
in 

n o
pti
mum 

TAE 

erf
orma
nce 

or 
a 

tep 

npu
t 
an
d a 

ett
li
ng 

ime

f l
ess 

han 
0.
5 
se
con
d. 
Us
ing 
a 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 
we 
ha
ve


。(

)・K
3s
2 

K,
s+
K2. (
5.37)

Ther
efor
e t
he 
cl
osed-
loop 

rans
fer 

unct
ion 
wi
thoutp
rei

te
ri
ng 

GP 

s) 
=1
] 


Y(
S)_ G,G(s
)_ K3
s2+K, 
s+K2 (
5.38)

, 
(s
)=
s)   
R( 1+G,G() S
s 3+(
2+K3 
)S2
+( 1
+K, 
)s+K2
Th
e o
pti
mum 

oefi
ci
ent
s 
of 

he 

har
act
eri
st
ic 

qua
ti
on 

or 

TAE 

re 

bta
ine
d a

                    

S3 
+1
.7
5(
tx2
+2.
15
co
n 
S+。刃
). (
      
5.39)

We 
ne
ed 

o s
ele
ct叭 i
n o
rde
r t
o me
et 

he 

ett
in
l g 

ime 

equ
ire
men
t. 
Si
nceT
S=4/
枷。a
nd
su
杏i n
kno
wn 

ut 

ear 

.8, 
we 

et 

0=1
0 . 
Th
en 

qua
ti
ng 

he 

eno
min
ato
rof 
Egn.
(5.
38) 


Eqn.5.
39)
, 
we 

bta
in 

he 

hr
ee 

oefi
ci
en
ts 

s 
K,=21
4,K3=1
5.5,
and 
K2=1
000

Then 
Egn.
(5.
38) 
becomes
巧.
5x2+214s+1000 巧.
5(s+6.
9+j4. 

)(s+6.
9一j4.
1)
T, 
(S) (
5.40)
S3+1
7 .
5S2+215s+100
0 S3+17.
5x2+215s+1
000
Th
e r
esp
ons
e o
f t
his 

yst
em 

o a 

tep 

npu
t h
a novers
s 
a hoot 
of 
32%, 
as 

ecor nTabl
ded 
i e 5.
2.

We 
se
lec
t a 
pr
efi
lt
erG_ (s) 

o t
hat 
we achieve 
the 
desir
ed ITAE 

esp ons
e wi
th

                                  
尸 、 一

T(
s)=
G, 
GG, 
(s
) 1
000

5.41


+G,
G()‘
s 、
3+1
7--
is 
2+21
5s+1
000
Ther
efor
e we 

equi
re

141
64.
      

GP 
(s
)=s2+13. (
5.42)
8s+64.


n o
rde
r 
to 

limi
nat
e t
he 

eros 

n Eqn
. 
(5
.40
) a
nd 

rin
g t
he 

ver
all 
nu
mer
ato
r t
o 1
000
.Th
e r
espo
nse

f t
he 

yst
em, 
T(
s),t
o 
a 

te
p i
npu
t 
is 

ndi
cat
ed 

n 
Ta
ble 
5.
2.
The 

yst
em 

sa
a  s
 a
m l
l 
ov
ers
hoot
, 


ett
in
l g 

ime 
of 

ess 

han 
1/
2 s
eco
nd, 

nd 
zer
o s
tea
dy-
st
ate 
er
ror
. Fu
rthe
rmo
re 

or 


ist
urb
anc
e 
D(
s)=1/s,t
he 
ma
ximu
m v
alu
e o
f 
y(
t) 
du
e t
o t
he 

ist
ur
ban
ce 

s 0.
4% 
of 

he
ma
gni
tud
e o
f t
he 
di
st
urba
nce
. 
Th
is 

s 
a 

ery 

avo
rabl
e 
de
sig
n.

Cont
rol
ler G, 
(s
) 
=1 
  PI
D a
nd 
G, 
(s
)二1 
  PI
D wi

h G, 
(s
) 
Pr
eil
fte

Percent 
overshoot 0 31.
7% 1.
9%
3.2 0.
20 0.
45
Se
tt
li
ng 

ime 

sec
ond
s)
St
eady-
stat
e er
ror 50.1% 0.
0% 0.
0%
52%n 0.
4% 0.
4%

y(
t)
ld
(t
)}
二im

EXAMPLE反9 
ROBUST 
SYSTEM 
DESIGN
Le
  
t 
us 

eco
nsi
der 

he 

yst
em 

n Ex
amp
le 
5.
8 
wh
en 

he 
pl
ant 
va
ri
es 

ign
ifi
can
tly
, 
so 

hat
G(
s)
=一K (
5.43)

      
Zs+1
)2
wh
ere 
0.
5 5 
x 
_1
<  ,1<
_K<
_2.I
t 
is 

esi
red 

o a
chi
eve 

obus
t 
be
hav
ior 

sin
g a
n I
TAE 

pti
mum

yst
em  wi
th 
ap 
reil
fte
r wh
ile 
at
tai
nin
g an 
ove
rsho
ot of 

ess 
th
an 4
% a
nd 
as 
et
tin
l g 

ime (
2%

rit
eri
on) 
of 

ess 
than 
2s 
econ
ds, 
while 
G(
s) 
can 
att
ain 
any 
val
ue 
in 

he 

ang
e in
dic
ate
d. 
We

ele
ct叭 =8 

n o
rde
r t
o a
tai
n t
he 

et
tl
in
g t

me 

nd 
de
ter
mine 

he 

TAE 

oefi
ci
ent
s 
fo
r K=1

nd 
z=1
.Co
mpl
et

ng 

he 

al
cu
la
ti
on, 
we 

bt
ai
n 

he 

ys
te
m wi

hou
t 
a 

ref

lt
er
[GP 

S)=1 
] 



2( 

2+1
1.38
s+4
2.6
7) (
5.44)
T, 
(s
)=
S 
3+1
4S+
5 
2137.
6s+51

and


2(5
2+1
1.3
8s+4
2.6
7)
Gr 
(s
)= S
                    

5.45)

We 

ele
ct 
a 

ref
il
te

42.
        
67
Gp 
(S
)=S2+11.
385+42.
67

5.46)


o o
bta
in 

he 

pti
mum 

TAE 

rans
fer 

unc
tio

512
T(
s)=S3+14S2+137. (
5.47)
65+51

We 

hen 

bta
in 

he 

tep 

esp
ons
e f
or 

our 

ond
iti
ons
: 
r=1
' ,K=1;
i=0.
5,K =1;
z=1,
K=2;

142

nd 
T=0.
5,K=2 
Th
e r
esu
lts 

re 

umma
riz
ed 

n 
Ta
ble 

.3. 
Thi
s 
is 
a 

ey 
r r
obus
t 
sy
ste
m.

Tab
le 
5.
3 
Re
sul
ts 

or 
Ex
amp
le 
5.
9 
wi
th叭 =8
Pl
ant 
Condi
tions 公 = T= 0.
5 
  T二 1 '
r二 0.

K=1 
                            
                         
K =1 
  K =2 
                
K=2
Per
cent 
over
shoot  2% 
                       
0%  0% 
                
1 


Set
tl

ng 


me(
sec
ond
s)… 1
. 

.25 . 
                
0.
81
.l1
… 二
,」
 
0.
8二1
二「.
。0,

9, 卜
 .
.   

Th
  
e v
alu
e of
叭th
at 

an 

e c
hos
en 
wi
ll 
be 

imi
te
d by 

ons
ide
ri
ng 

he 
ma
ximu
m a
ll
owa
ble 
u 
Q),
whe
re 
u(t
) i
s 
th
e o
utp
ut 

f t
he 

ont
rol
ler
, 
as 

hown 

n Fi
g5.
16. 
If 

he 
ma
ximum 

alu
e o
f e(
t) 



, t
hen 
u(
t) 
wou
ld 
no
rma
ll
y be 

imi
ted 

o 1
00 

r l
ess
. As 

n e
xamp
le, 

ons
ide
r t
he 

yst
em 


ig
5.1
6 
wi

h a 

ID 

ont

ol
le
rG(
s)=1
/s
(s+1
),a
nd 

he 

ece
ss
ayp
r  

ei
fl

er 
Gp 
(s
) 

o 
ac
hi
ev


TAE 

erf
orma
nce. 
If 
we 

el
ect
叭 =1
0, 

0, 

nd 
40, 
th
e ma
ximu
m va
lue 

f u
(t) 

s 
as 

ecor
ded 



abl
e 
5.
4. 

f 
we 
wi
sh 

o 
li
mit 
u(
t) 

o 
a 
ma
ximu
m e
qua
l 
to 

00, 
we 

eed 

o 
li
mit
叭to 

6. 
Th
us 
we

re 
imi
l te
d i
n t
he 

ett
li
ng 


me 
we 

an 

chi
eve

u(t
) 
maxi
mum for 
R(s
)=1/
s 35 135 550
Setli
ng 

ime 

seconds) 0.
9   0.5 0.3

Letu
   s c
ons
ide
r t
he 

esi
gn 

f a 
PI
D c
omp
ens
ator 
us
ing 

req
uenc
y r
esp
ons
e t
ech
niq
ues 

or 


yst
em wi
th 
a 

ime 

ela
y s
o t
hat
天讼-
Ts
G(
s) (
5.48)

Ts+1

Th
is 

ype 
of 

lant 
re
pre
sen
ts 
ma
ny 

ndu
str
ial 

roc
ess
es 

hat 

nco
rpo
rat
e 
a 


me 

ela
y. 
We 
us
e a 
PI

compensa
tor 

o i
ntr
oduce 

wo 
equal 
zer
os 
so 

hat


,(

)一K
2 

ar

+l
)'
. s

5.49)
                                           

The 

esi
gn 
me
tho
d i
s 
as 

oll
ows


  
. Pl
ot 

he 

nco
mpe
nsa
ted 
Bo
de 

iag
ram 

or 
K2G(
s) 
/ 
s 
wi

h ag
 a
in 
KZ 

hat 

at
is
ie
f s 

he

      
tea
dy-
stat
e e
rror 

equi
reme
nt.
2. 
  
Pl
ace 

he 

wo 

qua
l 
ze
ros 

t 
or 

ear 

he 

ros
sov
er 

requ
enc
y, 

0,.
3. 
  
Tes
t t
he 

esul
ts 

nd 

djus
t 
Kz 
or 

he 
zer
o l
ocat
ions, 
if 
nec
ess
ar
y.

EXAMPLE 
5.10 
PID 
CONTROL 
OF 
A SYSTEM 
WITH 
A DELAY
Co
  
nsi
der 

he 

yst
em 

f Fi
g5.
16 
wh
en

143
天e-
0i
-  

G(
s)= (
5.50)

OAS+1

wh
ere 
K=20 

s 
se
lec
ted 

o 
ac
hie
ve 
a 

mal
l 
st
eady
-st
at
e 
er
ror 

or 
a 

te
p i
npu
t, 

nd 
wh
ere
G, 
(s
)=1・
We 
wa
nt 

n 
ov
ers
hoo
t 
to 
a 

te
p 
in
put 
of 

es
s 
th
an 

%.
Pl
  
ot
ti
ng 

he 
Bo
de 
di
agr
am 

orG(
jo)
),we 

in
d t
hat 

he 

nco
mpe
nsa
ted 

yst
em 

as 
a 

ega
iv
t e

hse 
a ma
rgi
n a
nd 
th
at 

h e 

yst
em 
is 

nst
abl
e.
We 
  wi
ll 
us
e a 
PI
D cont
rol

er 
of 

he 
for
m of 
Egn.

5.4
9) 

o a
tt
ain 
a 
de
sir
abl
e p
has
e ma
rgi
n of

00 

The
n 
th
e l
oop 

ra
nsf
er 

unc

ton 



0e一,
‘(
:,
s+1
)z
GG, 

s) (
5.51)

(O.
ls+1

wh
ere 
K2 
K=20.
We 

lot 

he 
Bo
de 

ia
gra
m wi

hou
t t
he 

wo 

ero
s, 

s s
hown 

n 
Fi
g5.
18.
The

hse 
a ma
rg
in 

s一3
20,
and 

he 

ys
te
m i
s 
un
st
ab
le 

ri
or 

o 
th
e 
in
tr
odu
ci
to
n 
of 
th
e 
ze
ro
s.

  
inc
e we 
ha
ve 

ntr
odu
ced 
ap 
ole 

t t
he 

rig
in 

eca
use 

f t
he 

nte
na
r l 

erm 
in 

he 
PI7

omp
ens
at
or
, 
we 
ma
y r
edu
ce 

he 

ai
n K2
 
K b
eca
use 

,, 

s 
no
w z
ero
. 
We 

lac
e 
th
e t
wo 

ero
s a


r n
ear 

he 

ros
sov
er,叭 =1
1.We 

hoo
se 

o s
et 

l=0.
06 

o t
ha
t t
he 

wo 

ero
s a
re 

et

t 

o=1
6.7,
Als
o, 
we 

edu
ce 

he 

ain 

o 
K2
K=4.
5.Th
en 
we 

bta
in 

he 
re
fque
ncy 

es
pon
se

hown 

n Fi
g.5.
19, 
wher

4.
5(
0.
06s+1
) 
z 

0”

GG, 
(s
) (
5.52)
s(
O.l
s+1

、、  ̄ }
、、 ,
口口口川 口口口
日口口}}
} 口口
巨『口琳 L 口巨
dB
口口口日} {
、、
口 L 口口
口厂厂}1
}日} 洲s〔[
口口口}{
{口{ 口口
、‘

口『「}}
}日} 口仁
....口. 门门...曰
日日尸}
... 舀二 【


}口


I!
一份一 「 一 . 1 , 匕1

曰日卜吸琳别口 et
;_


!}! 泛‘

」{}}
日日日{
}} 洲阅口
六 )
) 门口口}
}} 口N、
-,


口口}
}} 口口

_
」口口!
}} I 」口[
一{
10 必‘ 100
fl)
  

Fi
g. 

.18 
Bo
de 

iag
ram 

or 
G(
s)/
s f
or 
Ex
amp
le 
5.
10

144

,二


,口‘
、‘、

、、、
、知‘

d8 , 、、、
、、、%
、、、
_)
1 、、
,、‘

} 洲
、‘

-20 训 -6() -80








00)

-100 巴巴出巴盈.白.. .... ̄  ̄ .,.,叫 .
...卜曰.. ̄

恤 1

{ }
f [
{ !
 ̄.,..喃

-120
肠卜、 场,、

   园  ̄.弓


} 日
、卜

-140
口,
. 10
CO


ig.
5.
19 
Bo
de 

ia
gra
m f
or 
GcG(
s) 

or 

xamp
le 

.10


  
he 

ew 

ro
ss
ove
r 

fe
que
ncy 

s 

O,=4
.5,
and 

he 

has
e 
ma
rg
in 

s 

00.
The 


ep 

es
pon
se 



his 
sys
tem 
has 
no 
ove
rshoo
t a
nd 
has 
a 
set

in
l g 

ime 

2% cr
it
erio
n) 
of 
0.8
0 sec
ond. 
Th
is 

espons


ati
sie
f s 
the 

equi
rement
s. 
Howeve
r, 

f we 
wan
ted 

o a
dju
st 
the s
yst
em fu
rther
, 
we 
cou
ld r
ais

K2
K t
o 1
0 a
nd 

chi
eve 
a 

ome
wha
t 
fa
st
er 

espo
nse 
wi
th 

n o
ver
sho
ot 

f 
le
ss 

han 
5%.
  
A s 
a ina
f l 
consi
dera
ti
on 
of 
th
e des
ign 
of 

obust 

ontr
ol 

yst
ems 
usi
ng a 
PI
D cont
rol
le
r, 
we 

un


o a
n s
-plan
t r
oo t 

ocus 
met
hod. 
Th
is 
desi
gn 
appr
oac
h may 
be 

impl
y s
tat
ed 
as 
fo
ll
ows:

. 
Pl
ace 

he 

ole
s 
and 

ero
s 
of 
G(
s) 
/ 
s 

n t
he 

-pl
ane


. 
Se
le
ct 
a 

oca
ti
on 

or 

he 

ero
s o
f G, 
(s
) t
hat 
wi

l r
es
ul
t 
in 

n a
cce
pta
ble 

oot 

ocu
s a
nd

  
uit
abl
e domi
nant 

oot
s.

. 
Te
st 

he 

ransi
ent 

espon
se 
of 
the 
co
mp en
sate
d s
yst
em 
and 
it
era
te 

tep 
2, 
if 
ne
cessa
ry.
Th
  
e r
oot 

o c
us de
sign 
meth
od is 

llu
str
ate
d by 
the 

oll
owing 
de
sign 
ex
amp l
e f
or 
an 

irc
raf

aut
opi
lot

5.
8 DESIGN 
EXAMPLE: 
AI
RCRAFT 
AUTOPI
LOT
  
A typ
ical 

irc
raf
t a
uto
pil
ot 
cont
rol 
sys
tem 
con
sis
ts 
of el
ect
ri
cal
, 
me c
hani
cal
, a
nd h
ydr
aul
ic
de
vic
es 
tha
t 
move t
he 
la
f ps, 
ele
vato
rs, 

uel
-lo
f w 
cont
rol
le
rs, 

nd ot
her 

ompo n
ent
s t
hat 

aus
e t
he

ir
cra
ft 

o va
ry 

ts 
li
fght
. 
Se
nso
rs 
pr
ovi
de 

nfo
rma
ti
on 
on 

elo
cit
y, 
he
adi
ng, 

at
e o
f r
ota
ti
on, 

nd
ot
her 
li
fght 
dat
a. 
Thi
s 
inf
ormati
on 
is 

ombine
d wit
h t
h e 

e s
ir
ed li
fght 

har
acte
ris
ti
cs 
(co
mma nds


lect
ron
ica
ll
y ava
il
abl
e t
o th
e aut
opi
lot
. 
The a
utopi
lot 
shoul
d be 
abl
e t
o ly 
f t
he a
irc
rat 
f o
n a

ead
ing 

nd 
un
der 

ond
it
io
ns 

et 

y t
he 

il
ot
. 
The 

omma
nd 

te
f n 

ons
is
ts 

f a 
pr
ede
ter
min
ed
he
adi
ng. 
De
sign 
oft
en 
foc
use
s on 
af 
orwa
rd-
movi
ng 
air
cra
ft 
th
at 
moves 
somewha
t u
p o
r down
wi
tho
ut 
movi
ng r
ight 

r l
et 
f a
nd wi
tho
ut 
rol
li
ng 

rot
at
ing 
the 
win
gti
ps)
. S
uch as
 
tu勿is ca
ll
ed
pi
tch 
axi
s des
ign. 
The 

irc
raf
ti 
s 
repr
ese
nted 
by 
a 
pl
ant

145

              
G(
s)= (
5.53)

s+1
/z)
(S
I+2
杏,。,
S+。矛

wh
ere 
Z 

s 
th
e t

me 

ons
ta
nt 

f t
he 

ct
uat
or
. 
Le
t:=1 

4, 

)l=2、a
nd杏,=I
/2.Th
en 

he
s 

pl
ant 

lot 

as 

wo 

ompl
ex 

ole
s-a 

ole 

t 
th
e o
rig
in 

nd 
a 
po
le 

t 
s=-4, 

s 
sh
own 

n 
Fi
g5.
20.
Th
e c
omp
lex 

ole
s, 

epr
ese
nti
ng 

he 

irc
raf
t 
dyn
ami
cs, 
ca
n v
ary 
wi
thi
n t
he 
da
she
d-l
ine 
bo
x s
hown

n 
th
e f
igu
re. 
We 
th
en 

hoo
se 

he 

ero
s o
f 
th
e c
ont
rol
le
r 
as 
s=一1
.3士J2,
as 

hown. 
We 
se
lec
t 
th


ai
n 
K。
。t
ha
t 

he 
ro
ot
s 
r, 
an
d }
z 

re 
co
mpl

x 
wi

h。} 

f 
1 

涯.T
he 


her 
ro
ot
s。a
nd 



ie 
ver
y near 

he 

eros
. 
The
ref
ore 

he 

los
ed-
loop 

rans
fer 

unct
ion 

s 
appr
oxi
mat
ely
_、 C
)_2 5
I'
M — 二 一 一-
一一 一 一’ (
5.5
4)

      
`+2枷。
:+叫 s
`+3
.16
s+5-


nce
。。=万 ,
an
d=1
/万.
The 

es
ul

in
g 
re
sp
ons
e 

o。s

ep 

np
ut 

as 

n 
ov
er
sh
oo
t 
of 
4.
5%

nd 
a 

ett

lng 


me 

2% 

rit
eri
on) 

f 2.
5 
se
con
ds, 
as 

xpe
cte
d.

Fi
          
g.
5.
20 
Root 

ocu
s f
or 
air
cra
ft 
aut
opi
lot
Th
e c
omp
lex 
pol
es 
ca
n v
ay 
r wi
thi
n t
he 
dashe
d-l
ine 
box 

in 

olo
r).

5.
9 THE  DESIGN  OF A SPACE  TELESCOPE  CONTROL  SYSTEM
Sc
  i
ent
is
ts 
ha
ve 

ropo
sed 

he 
ope
rat
io
n o
f a 

pac
e v
ehi
cl
e 
as 
a 

pac
e-b
ase
d r
ese
arch 

abo
rat
oy

an
d t
est 
bed f
or 
equi
pment 
to 
be us
ed 
on a 
manne
d s
pace 

tat
ion. 
The 
indust
ri
al 

pace 
fac
ili
ty 
(I
S日
woul
d remain i
n as 
pace, 
an
d the 
ast
ron
aut
s woul
d be 
abl
e to us
e i
t onl
y when 
the 
shutt
le 
is
at
tac
hed. 
The I
SF wil
l 
be t
he 
fir
st 
per
manent
, 
human-o
per
ate
d comme r
cial 

pace 
fa
cil
it
y des
igne


or 
R&D,  t
est
ing, 

nd ev
entual
ly
, 
proc
essi
ng 
in 

he s
pace 

nvir
o n
me nt

  
We wil
l 
cons
ide
r a
n e
xper
iment 
oper
ate
d i
n s
pace 
but 
con
tr
oll
ed 
rom 
f Ear
th. 
The 
goa
l i
s 
to
ma
nipu
lat
e 
and 
posi
ti
on 
a s
ma l
l 
te
lesc
ope 
to 
acc
ura
tel
y po
int 
at 
a 
pl
ane
t. 
Th
e goal 

s 
to 
have 


tea
dy-
sta
te 

rro
r e
qua
l t
o z
ero
, whi

e ma
int
ai
nin
g a 

ast 

esp
ons
e t
o a 

tep 
wi
th 

n ov
ers
hoo
t of

146

ess 

han 
5%. 
The 
actu
ator 

hose
n i
s a 

ow power 
act
uat
or, 
and t
he 
mo del 

f t
he 
combi
ned ac
tuat
or

nd t
ele
scope 

s 
shown i
n F
ig5.
21. 
The c
omma nd 
si
gnal 

s r
ecei
ved 
f r
om an 
Eart
h s
tat
ion 
wit
h a

ela
y of 7
r 
/ 

6 sec
onds. 
A s
ens
or 
will 
meas
u r
e t
he 
poi
nti
ng 
dir
ecti
on of 

he t
el
escop
e ac
curat
ely
Ho
wev
er, 
th
is 
me
asu
reme
nt 

s 
re
lay
ed 

ack 

o 
Ea
rt
h 
wi

h a 

ela
y 
of 

s/
16 

eco
nds


斤oi
n Ear
th 


rat
iou
Fi
g. 
5.
21 
Mo
del 

f a 

ow-
powe
r a
ctu
ato
r a
nd 

ele
sco
pe

Th
us 

he 

ota
l 
tr
ans
fer 

unc
ti
on 

f t
he 

el
esc
ope
, 
ac
tua
tor
, 
se
nso
r, 

nd 

ound
-tr
ip 
de
lay 

Fig
5.2
2) 


巴-s
ic 

G(
s)= (
5.55)

s+1
) 
2’
大(
        
s)+
Desi
red.
 ̄ ̄,
tele

1110l

co
pe

Fi
g. 
5.
22 
Fe
edb
ack 

ont
rol 

yst
em 

or 

he 

ele
sco
pe 

xpe
rime
nt

We 

rop
ose 
a 

ont
rol
le
r t
hat 

s 
th
e t
hre
e-t
erm 

ont
rol
ler 

esc
rib
ed 

n Se
cti
on 
5.
6, 
wh
ere
_ 、 _
_ K} __ K3
S2+K,
s+K2
U, 

s)=K,+一                          
+K3 s= (
5.56)

The 
   u
se 

f on
ly 

he 

rop
ort
ion
al 

erm 
wil
l 
no
t b
e a
cce
pta
ble 

inc
e we 

equ
ire 
a 
st
ead
y-s
tat


rr
or 

f z
ero 

or 
a 

te
p i
npu
t. 
Th
us 
we 
mu
st 
us
e a 

ini
te 

alu
e o
f 
K2,a
nd 
he
nce 
we 
ma
y e
lec
t 
to
us
e e
ith
er 

ropo
rti
ona
l p
lus 

nte
gra
l c
ont
rol 

PI) 

r p
rop
ort

ona
l p
lus 

nte
gra
l pl
us 
de
riv
ati
ve
cont
rol 

PID)

We 
  wi

l f
ir
st仰 PI 

ont
rol
, 
so 

hat
_
                               
__ K, 
  K. 
s+K,
G, 
                      
(s
)=K,+兰 =竺t 
.竺. (
5.
57

o.- -- _
___ L ___ _ _ _
__ 」 ,_ --sT , 。
Si
nce 
we 
nave 
a 
pur
e oei
ay, 
e ,we 
us
e t
he 

requenc
y r
espons
e me
tnoas 

or 
des
ignpr
oce
ss. 
Thus
we 
wi
ll 

ran
sla
te 

he 
ov
ers
hoo
t s
pec
ifi
cat
ion 

o t
he 

requ
enc
y d
oma
in. 

f we 

avetwo 
domi
nant


har
act
er
is
ti
c 
ro
ots
, 
th
e o
ver
sho
ot 

o 
a 

te
p i
s 
5% 
wh
eng=0.
7,o
r 
th
e p
has
e 
ma
rgi
n 
re
qui
re
men


s a
bout 
700.


  
f 
we 

hoos
e Kt 
=0.
022
and 
KZ 
=0
.22
, 
we 

ave
0.
22(
0.1
s+1
)e一
,8


G, 

s)G(
s) (
5.58)

(s+1
)2

147
20

,、

} 日

、、 、
   一 毛

一- ̄,‘

} -
,; 
1 




“、、
、 ,‘

餐,.

之,


!}

,,!;  ̄、、、 、

  
、、
-4() \

          

}!
,、
沙哎吧

、 ‘ 、.


日}
、 、

、、
-60

件、护 卜卜、 -205. 


}}\


} 、
一25 

.1
10-
1 1口0 11
    
J 

Fi
g.5
.23 
Bo
de 

iag
ram 

or 

he 

yst
em 
wi
th 

he 
PIcontrol
ler


nd t
he 
Bode 

iag
ram i
s 
sho
wn i
n F
ig5.
23.
The 
loc
ati
on 

f t
he 
zer
o a
t s二1 0 
wa
s chos
en 

o a
dd
a 
phas
e l
ead 

ngl
e i
n or
der 
to 

tain 
th
e de
sir
ed 
pha
se 
margi
n. 
An it
era
ti
ve 

roc
edure 
yi
el
ds a

eri
es 
of 

ri
al
s f
or 
K, 
an
d K2 

nti
l 
th
e de
si
re
d ph
ase 
ma
rgi
n i
s a
chi
eve
d. 
No
te 

hat 
we 

ave

chi
eve
d a 
ph
se 
a ma
rgi
n 
of 

bou
t 
63'.
The 

ctu
al 

tep 

espo
nse 
wa
s p
lote
d, 

nd 

t 
is 

ete
rmi
ned

hat 

he 

ver
sho
ot 

s 4.
7% 
wit
h as
 
ett
li
ng 

ime 

2% 
cri
te
rio
n) 

f 1
6 s
eco
nds
, s 
a r
eco
rde
d i

Tabl
e5.
5.

Th
  
e p
rop
ort
ion
al 

lus 

nte
gra
l 
pl
us 
de
riv
ati
ve 

ont
rol
le
r 
is
K, 
s+K2+K3
s2
G, 

s)= (
5.59)

                                          

We 
  now 

ave 

hre
e p
ara
met
ers 

o va
y 
r t
o a
chi
eve 

he 

esi
red 

has
e ma
rgi
n. 

f we 

ele
ct, 

te
f r

ome 


era
ti
on
, 
Ki=0.
8, 
K2=0
.5 

nd 
K3=1
0"3
,we 

bt
ai
n a 

has
e ma
rg
in 

f 6
40.T
he
pe
rce
nta
ge 
ov
ers
hoo
t i
s 3
.7%, 

nd 

he 

ett

lng 

ime 

2% 
cit
reri
on) 

s 5
.8 

econ
ds. 
Pe
rha
ps 

he

asi
est 
wa
y t
o 
se
lec
t 
th
e g
ain 

ons
ta
nts 

s 
to 

et 
K3 
be 
a 

mal
l, 
but 
no
nze
ro, 
nu
mbe
r 
in
it
ia
ll
y 
an

Ta
ble 

.5 

tep 
Re
spo
nse 

f t
he 
Sp
ace 
Te
les
cope 

or 
Two 
Co
ntr
oll
ers

          
tea
dy-
st
ate 
         
Pe
rce
nt 
         

ett
li
ng 
Ti
me
Er
              
ror 
             
Ove
rshoot 
       

seconds)

PI 
cont
rol
ler 0 4.
7 16.

PI
D cont
rol
ler 0 3.
7 5.

K,
=K2
=0, 
th
en 

lo
t 

he 


equ
en
cy 

es
pon
se
. 

n 
th
is 
ca
se
, 
we 
ch
oos
e K3=1
0-3 

nd 

bt
ai
n 

Bo
de 

lot
. 
We 

hen 

se 
K,“K2 

nd 

te
rat
e 
to 

bta
in 

he 

ppr
opr
ia
te 

alu
es 

f t
hes
e u
nsp
eci
fi
ed

148
gam s
The 
   perf
ormanc
e o
f t
he Pl
-an
d t
he 
PI
D-compens
ate
d s
yst
ems 
is 

eco
rde
d i
n Ta
ble 

.5. 
The 
PI


ontro
lle
r i
s 
the 
most 
de
sir
abl
e, 
sin
ce 

t 
pr
ovide
s a 

hote
r r 
se
tt
in
l g 

ime.

5.
10 
THE 
DESIGN 
OF 
A ROBUST 
BOBBI
N DRIVE
  
Monoil
f a
ment 
nyl
on i
s 
produ
c e
d by 
an 
ext
rusi
on 
pr
oces
s 
that 

utp
uts 
il
f a
me n
t a
t 
a c
ons
tan
t r
ate

The 
prod
uct 
is 
wound 
ont
o a 
bobbi
n t
hat 
rot
at
es 
at 
a 
maxi
mum spee
d of 

000 r
pm. The 

ens
ion 
in
th
e f
il
ament 
must 
be 
he
ld 
between 
0.2 
an
d 0.
6 p
ound 
to 

nsure 

hat 

t 
is 
no
t s
tr
etch
ed. 
The 
wi
nding
di
amet
er 
vari
es 
bet
ween 
2 t
o 4 

nches.

  
The 
fil
ament 
is 

aid 
ont
o t
he bobbi
n b
y a 
ball
s 
crew-dri
ven 
arm th
at 
osci
ll
at
es b
ack a
nd f
oth 
r a

con
stant 

peed, 
as 
sho
wn i
n Fig.5.
24 
a). 
Th e 
ar
m mus t 

evers
e r
apidl
y at 

he 
end 
of t
he 
mov e
. The

equire
d bal
lsc
rew s
peed 
is 60rpm. 
The p
rime r
equire
me nt 
of 
the 
bobbin 
dri
ve i
s t
o pr
ovide a
con
trol
led 
te
nsion. 
Since 

he win d
ing 
di
ameter 
va
rie
s by 2 
to 
1, 

he ten
sio
n wil
l 
fal
l 
by 50
%  ro
f m
st
art 

o inis
f h.

Th
  
e c
ont
rol 

yst
em 
wil
l 
ha
ve 
a 

yst
em 

tru
ctur
e a
s s
hown 

n Fi
g.5.
24 
b)
, 
fo
r wh
ich 
we 

ele
ct 

PI
D c
ont
ro
ll
er
. 
Th
e p
ara
met
er 

ari
at
io
ns 

re 

.5‘Km‘2.
5,a
nd 
3‘P‘5 
wi

h t
he 

omi
nal

ond
it
io
ns 
K,
n=2,a
nd 
p=4.F
urt
he
rmo
re 
a 

hi
rd 

ole 

t 
s=
-50 

as 

een 

mit
ed 
ro
f m 

he
mo
del
. 
Th
e r
equ
ire
men
ts 

re 

n o
ver
sho
ot 

ess 

han 
2.
5% 
and 
a 

etl
ing 

ime 

2% 

rit
eri
on) 

ess

han 
0.
4 
se
con
d. 
Th
e ma
gni

ude 

f u(
t) 
mus
t 
be 

ess 

han 

00.

召r
rbbr

”才
口介,r


Il
}+
+u+
jil
nrac
}r

H(
s)

Fi
g.5.
24 
Mon
ofil
ame
nt 

obbi
n 
wi
nde

Us
  
ing 
a 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er, 

he 

TAE 

esi
gn, 

nd 

he 

omi
nal 

ara
met
er
s, 
we 

ete
rmi
ne 

),f
r 
om

he 

etl

ng 


me 

equ
ir
eme
nt. 
Si
nce 
we 

xpe
ct 

hat
杏二0.
8,we 

se

149

T =一 — < 0.
4.
.8(

U,
      

We 

el
ec
t 
Cc
)=2
 
3 
as 
th
e 
ma
xi
mum 

ll
owa
bl
e 

or
lu
l<1
00.
The
n 
fo


。(
,)
=K, 
+ 

z 
+K
3s s

we 

bta
in 
K,=5
68.
68,Kz=6
083.
5 
an
d K3=18.
13.
Usi
ng 

he 

ppr
opr
ia
te 

ref
il
te
r, 

he

espons
e i
s as 

ecor
de nTable5.
d 
i 6. 
The syst
em dos
e not 
ofe
r r
obus
t per
for
manc
e si
nce 

he

ver
sho
ot 

equ
ire
men
t 
is 

otsatisfi whent
ed  he 
wo
rst
-c
ase 
pa
rame
ter
s 
ar
e 
co
nsi
der
ed.

自月...t』万..

了 
 

 

、 
Set
tl
ing Ti
me

 ‘

Paramet
ers 
   Per
cent

t、一 ‘

.了 } 、、 产 一训州
  一 价‘
...
over (
  
Seconds
                
shoot )


.‘几r....月

了.、  ̄
』口r

                               
、 . , 比以

- ̄
、.,  ̄ .,....几- , 护, .. , .. .‘  ̄
, ,‘. ‘
. , ..,.‘ 月,.. . .目目 诵  ̄ 甲 一 - 一 ‘ ̄ ,., ̄ 一 . 一 一 一 - .‘‘响 ..勺.. -
. 一 ,‘两 .... . .., .中‘声. ...., ,.勺 ..目.....
. 网 ...
. ‘..‘.
,.,.
....
...
...- ...
...
....
..‘  ̄ 一 ,‘. . ...‘..目‘.曰....

L洲
Nomi
nal 1.
96% 0.
318
Km=
=2
par
amet
ers
p=4

W ors
t-case 7.
48% 0.
375
Km二1
.5
pa
  
ramet
ers
p=3
Nominal 
parameter
s 9.
82% 0.
732
and 

dded thir
d pol

at 
          
s=-
50

  a
We l
so 
exa
mine 
the 
per
for
manc
e of 

he 
sys
tem 
wit
h t
he 
no
min
al 

ara
met
ers 

ut 
wi
th 

he

nmo
del
ed 

ole 
adde
d, 

o t
hat 

he 
ac
tua
l 
pl
ant 
is
2(
    
50)
G(
s)= (
5.60)
s(
s + 
50)
(s 
+ 
4)

Not
e 
th
at 

he 

o g
ain
, 
li
ms,
o s
G(s
),r
ema
ins 

.5.
) 
Th
e r
es
pon
se 

f 
th
e P
ID 

ont

oll
er 
wi

h t
he

dded 
pol
e i
s 
recorde
d i
n 
Table 
5.
6. 
Aga
in 

he s
yst
em f
ail
s 
the 
re
qui
rement 
of 
robu
st 
per
for
mance

We 
   need t
o a d
just 

he sy
stem s
o t
hat 

he per
for
manc e 
wit
h t
he wor
st-
cse 
a pa
ramete
rs 



cce
ptabl
e. 
Examine 
the 
ro
ot 
locu
s f
or 

he 
no
minal 
par
ameters 

hown 
in 
Fi
g.5.
25. 

nse
rt 
a 
csc
a ad


ain 
K p
ri
or 

o 
G. 
(s
) s
o t
hat 
we 

ave 
KG, 
G(
s)・
The
n t
he 

oot
s 
fo
r K=
=1 

nd 
K=3 

re

hown 

n t
he 

ocus
. 
Si
nce 

he 
wo
rst
-c
ase 

espo
nse 

ccu
rs 
wh
en 

he 
mo
tor 

ons
ta
nt 
Km 
dr
ops 



.5, 
we 

se 

he 

asc
ade 

ain 
K=3 

o mo
ve 

he 

oot
s 
to 

he 

ef
t 
on 

he 
s-
p 
lan
t. 
Th
en 
wh
en 

he

ain 
Km 

rop
s t
o 1
.5
, 
th
e r
oot
s 
st

ll 

re 

n t
he 

esi
re
d r
egi
on. 
Th
e r
es
pon
se 

f t
he 

yst
em 
wi
th
K=3 

s 
re
cor
ded 

n Ta
ble 

.7 

or 

he 
no
min
al 

nd 
wo
rst
-ca
se 

ond
iti
ons
, 
an
d wi
th 

he 

dde
d p
ole

Th
is 

yst
em 
mee
ts 

ll 

he 

pec
iic
fati
ons
. 
Th
is 

ppr
oac
h u
ses 
a 

asc
ade 

ain 

hat
, 
wh
en 

dju
ste


orr
ect
ly, 
wil
l 
dr
ive 

he do
minan
t r
oot
s 
nea
r t
he 
compl
e x 

eros 
of 
th
e PI
D cont
rol
le
r. 
Then 
wh
en

he 
wor
st 
pa
rame
ter 

hange 
oc
curs, 
the 

yst
em wi
ll 

ti
ll 
mai
ntai
n 
th
e r
equi
red 
per
for
ma nc
e.
  
“1
u 

ni



         
ra
l邸
 ,
东       

ft 

+4

左二 1
  
---一“ 入一-




7}
‘.J 一
口‘. 口分

、 } }
I - 一 K - 1—


(6二3
  

峨址曰 \

一不
、J
                          

二 考

,撼‘
亡七飞馨七勺

 目

八 』.‘
               V  V
         

乙r气 ̄
           J、 --
一一洲

心D
ou
bl

r 一-阔 ̄ ̄子、 、尸
”‘

尸'
6 /
(、、、 卜吸. .一 人 _一 夕声沪口



Wor

        
st 

           
1 

口c
  
as
e C
闪一s 
(}
+万

30 
      

25 
       

:0 
      

15 一
Ill 
       

; 子 10
Ren了‘
“刀、

Fi
g.5
.25 
Ro
ot 

ocus 

or 

he 

orma
l 
ca
se 

nd 

he 
wo
rst 
ca
se 

or 
K =l
 a
n 
d K=3

Ta
ble 
5.
7 
Re
spo
nse 

f t
he 
Bo
bbi
n Dr
ive 

yst
em 

or 
a 
Un
it 
St
ep 
wi

h Ad
dit
iona

Cas
                                
cade 
Gai
n K-3

Pe
                          
rce
nt 
             
Se
tt
li
ng 
Ti
me
Ove
                          
rshoot 
           
(s
econds

No
min
al 

ara
met
ers 0.12% 0.
218

Wor
st-
ca
se 
pa
rame
ter
s 0.
47% 0.
214

No
mina
l 
pa
rame
ter
s 
an
d t
hir
d po
le 0.
50% 0.
242

5.
11 
THE 
ROBUST 
INTERNAL 
M ODEL 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM
Th
   e 

nte
na
r l model 
co
ntr
ol 
sys
tem i
s s
hown 
in 
Fi
g5.26
. We 
now r
econsi
der 

he us
e of 

he

nte
rnal 
mode
l de
sig
n wi
th 
spe
cia
l a
tte
nti
on 
to 

obus
t s
yst
em pe
rfo
rmanc
e . 
The 

nte
rnal 
mod
el

ri
nci
pl
e 
st
at
es 

ha
t 
if 
G, 

s)G(
s) 

ont
ai
ns 
R(
s),
the
n y
(t) 
wi
ltr
 
ack 

(t) 
as
ymp
toi

cal

y (

n t
he

tea
dy 
st
ate
), 

n d 

he 
tra
cking 

s 
ro
bust

Exa
   mi
ning 
the 
sys
tem of 
Fi
gS.
26, 
we 

ote 

hat 

or 

owe
r-o
rde
r p
lan
ts, 

tat
e v
ari
abl
e f
eedb
ack
wi

l 
no
t 
be 

equ
ir
ed, 
an
d a 

ui
ta
ble 
G, 

s) 

an 

e o
bta
ine
d. 
Ho
wev
er, 
wi

h h
igh
er-
or
der 

yst
ems


he 

eedb
ack 

f a
ll 

tat
e 
va
ria
ble
s ma
y be 

equ
ire
d.
Co
    
nsi
der 
a 

imp
le 

yst
em 
wi
th 
G(
s)=1/s,f
or 
wh
ich 
we 

eek 
a 

amp 

esp
ons
e wi

h a

tea
dy-
st
ate 

rro
r of 

ero. 
A 
PI 

ont
rol
ler 

s s
ufi
ci
ent
, a
nd 
we 

et 
K =0(
no 

tat
e v
ari
abl


eedback)
. 
Then 
we 
have

凡s+Kz

,G(

)・(
K,
+K2
)二- s2 s 
  s

5.61)

151
K61+  ̄ F
.0

今1s
1 而几-r
F 


(s

K 卜J 1

Fi
g.5.
26 
The 

nter
nal 
model 
cont
rol 

yst
em

No
te 

ha
t 
fo
r a 

amp
, 
R(
s)=1
/s2
,wh
ic
h i
s 
co
nt
ai
ne
d a
s a 

ac
to
r o
f E
gn.

5.6
1), 

nd 

he
cl
osed-
loop 

rans
fer 

unc
tion 


  

K, 

+K2) (
5.62)
T(
s)=

2+K, 
s+K2
Us
ing 

he 

TAE 
spe
ciic
fati
ons 

or 
a 

amp 

esp
ons
e, 
we 

equ
ir

T(
s)=
3.
2o
). 
s+耐 (
5.63)

2 
+3.
2o
on
s+。万
We 

ele
ct 

0n 

o 
sa
ti
sf
y 
a 

pec
iic
f a
ti
on 

or 

he 

etl

ng 

ime
. 
Fo
r a 

etl
in
g t
ime 

2% 

ri
te
ri
on) 

f 1

eco
nd, 
we 
se
le
ct叭=
5. 
Th
en 
we 

equ
ir
e Kl
=16 

nd 
K2=2
5.Th
e r
es
pon
se 

f 
th
is 

yst
em

etl
es 

n 1 

eco
nd 

nd 

hen 

rac
ks 

he 

amp 
wi
th 

ero 

te
ady
-st
at
e 
er
ror
. 
If 

his 

yst
em 

des
ign
ed

or 
a 

amp 

npu
t) 

ece
ive
s a 

tep 

npu
t, 

he 
es
r p
ons
e h
as 

n o
ver
sho
ot 

f 5
% a
nd 
a 

ett

lng 

ime 
of

.5s
econ
ds. 
This 
sys
tem i
s ver
y r
obust t
o c
hang
es in 

he pl
ant
. F
or e
xampl
e, i

G(s)=K/s c
hang
es 
gai
n s
o t
hat 
K shi
ft
s ro
f m 
K=1  b
y 15
 0%, 

he 
cha
nge 

n t
he 
ramp

espo
nse 

s 
ins
ign
ifi
cant

FXAMPLES.
11 
DESI
GNOFANI
NTERNALMODEL 
CONTROLSYSTEM
Co
  
nsi
de
r 
th
e s
yst
em 

f F
ig.
5.
27 
wi

h s
ta
te 

ar
ia
bl
e 
fe
edb
ack 

nd 
a 

omp
ens
at
or 
G, 
(s
)・We
wi
sh 

o 
tr
ack 
a 


ep 

npu
t 
wi

h z
ero 

te
ady
-st
at
e 
er
ro
r. 
He
re 
we 

el
ec
t 
a 

ID 

ont
ro
ll
er 

or 
G, 
(s
)・
W e 

hen 
have

_,、K3
s2+K,
s+K2

Y, 

s)=— s
                              


nd 
G(
s)G, 
(s
) wi

l 
co
nta
in 
R(
s)=1
/s,
the 

npu
t 
co
mma
nd. 
No
te 

hat 
we 

eed 

ack 

oth

ta
te 

ari
abl
es 

nd 

dd 

hes
e a
ddi

ion
al 

ign
al
s 
at

er 
G,
(s 
) i
n o
rde
r t
o r
et
ai
n t
he 

nt
eg
rat
or

n 
G, 

s).
Pl
ant 
G(
s)
R(
s]
G 仁夕 r】 厂了门 T 

(S


}(s

些剑 t

},
j  
S+?
)1X1

  

粼  L
-'

Fi
g.
5.
27 
An 

nt
ena
r l 
mo
del 
co
ntr
ol 
wi

h s
ta
te 

ari
abl
e 
fe
edb
ack 

nd 
G, 

s)

152
  
The 
goa
l 
is 

o a
chie
ve a 

ett
lin
g t
ime 

o wi
thi
n 21
i( 

)t 

he 

inal 

alue 
in 

ess 

han second 
and a


eadbe
at 

espo
nse whil
e r
eta
ini
ng ar
 o
bust 
res
p o
nse Her
e we ass
ume t
hat 
tet
h wo  pol
es of
G(
s) 

an 

han
ge 

y士5
0%. 
Th
en 

he 
wo
rst
-c
ase 

ond
it
io
n i


                
(s
)=一

1一
50)
(s+1


                        
s+0.
On
  
e d
esi
gn 

ppr
oac
h i
s 
to 
de
sig
n t
he 

ont
rol 

or 

his 
wo
rst
-ca
se 

ond
iti
on. 
Anot
her 

ppr
oac
h,
wh
ich 
we 

se 

ere
, i
s 
to 

esi
gn 

or 

he 
no
min
al 
G(s
) a
nd 

ne-
hal
f 
th
e d
esi
re
d s
et
tl
ing 

ime

Th
en 
we 

xpe
ct 

o me
et 

he 

ett
in
l g 


me 

equ
ire
men
t a
nd 

tt
ai
n a 
ve
y 
r f
st
a , 
hi
ghl
y r
obus
t 
sys
tem.
No
te 

ha
t 

he 

ref

lt
er
GP 

s) 

s 
us
ed 

o 
at

ai
n 
th
e 
de
si
re
d 
fo
rm 

or 
T(
s)・
Th
  
e r
esp
ons
e d
esi
red 

s 
de
adb
eat
, 
so 
us
e a 

hir
d-o
rde
r 
tr
ans
fer 

unc
tio
n a


) 


T(
s) 二二 ‘...州..,.,曰闷卜.晌.

5.64)

  
3+1

9(1
)s
2+2
.2
嵘s+叫’

nd 

he 

ett

lng 

i 2% c
me 
( ri
te
ri
on)
is 
TS二4
.04/
o),

.Fo
r 
a 

et
ti

ng 


me 

f 1
/2second, 
we 
use


vn 

¥, 
o¥

TM'
  e
fed
-l
oo
p 
tr
ans
fe
r 
fu
nct

on 

f 
th
e 
sy
st
em 

f 
Fi
g.
5.
27 
wi

h t
he 

ppr
opr
ia
te 
GP 

s) 


K,
                            
T(
s)二二 . … ‘ (
5.65)

3+(
3+K3
+Kb 
)S
2+(
2+K,
+Ka
+2Ke 
)S
+`7
" 
72
We 

et 
KQ=1
0,Kb 
= 
2,
K,=1
27.
6 
K2
,二5
27.
5 a
nd 
K3二1
0.3
5.No
te 

ha
t T(
s) 

oul


e a
chi
eve
d 
wi

h o
the
r 
ga
ins
, 

ncl
udi
ng 
Kb=0.
Th
  
e s
tep 

espo
nse 

f t
his 

yst
em 
hs 
a a 

ead
bea
t r
esp
ons
e wi
th 

n o
ver
sho
ot 

f 1
.65
% a
nd 


et
tin
lg t
ime 

f 0.
5 s
eco
nd. 
Wh
en 

he 
pl
ant 
po
les 
of 
G(s) 

han
ge 

y 15
 
0%, 

he 

ver
sho
ot

hang
es t
o 1.
86%, 
and 
th
e se
tt
in
l g t
ime 

eco
mes 
0.
95 

eco
nd. 
Thi
s 
is 

n o
uts
tan
din
g de
sig
n o
f a

ey 
r r
obust
, 
deadbe
at 

espons
e s
yst
em.

5.
12 THE DESIGN OF AN ULTRA-
PRECISI
ON DI
AM OND
TURNI
        
NG 
MACHI
NE
Th
  
e de
sig
n o
f a
n ul
tr
a-pr
eci
si
on 
di
amon
d t
uni
r ng 
mac
hine 

as 

een 

tud
ied 

t La
wrenc

Li
ver
mor
e Na
ti
ona
l La
bor
ato
ry. 
Th
is 
ma
chi
ned 

hape
s o
pti
cal 

evi
ces 

uch 

s mi
rr
ors 
wi



ltr
a-h
igh 
prec
isi
on 
usi
ng 
a 
di
amond 
to
ol 

s t
he 
cut
ti
ng 
dev
ice. 
In 
th
is 
di
scussi
on 
we wil
l 
co
nsi
der

nly t
he 
z -
axi
s con
tro
l. 
Us
ing 
re
f que
ncy 
resp
ons
e id
ent
iic
f a
ti
on wi
th 
s i
nusoi
dal 
in
put 
to 
the

ctua
tor
, i
t 
was 
det
ermi
ned 

hat
4500
G(
s)二 (
5.66)

s+60)
Th
e s
yst
em 

an 

ccommo
dat
e h
igh 
ga
ins
, 
suc
h a
s 45
00, 

inc
e t
he 

npu
t c
omma
nd, 
r(
t),i
s 


eri
es 

f s
te
p c
omma
nds 
of 

eys
r  
mal
l 
ma
gni

ude 

a 
ra
f c
ti
on 

f 
a 
mi
cro
n). 
Th
e s
yst
em 
ha
sa 
n o
ute

153

oop 

or 

osi

ion 

ee
dba
ck 

si
ng 
a 

as
er 

nt
er
fe
rome
te
r 
wi

h a
n a
ccu
rac
y o
f 
0.
1 
mi
cr
on(
10-
1m)

竺.『
An 

nne
r f
eed
bac
k l
oop 

s 
al
so 

sed 

or 

elo
cit
y f
eed
bac
k, 

s s
hown 

n 
Fi
g5.
28.
V(
  
S)



朴 弓
t 
石U
(S
) (


) 
+ Ve
lo蕊o

〕『
1 



1 
  

" 





_

,r介夕
Z卜
刁少
C(
S)

d 争
.f 口 3I“ (矛几
            

Fi
g.5
.28 
Tu
rni
ng 
ma
chi
ne 

ont
rol 

yst
em


  
t 
is 

esi
re
d t
o 
se
lec
t 
th
e c
ont
rol

ers
,q (
s) 

nd 
Gz 

s),
to 

bta
in 

n ov
erd
amp
ed, 
hi
ghl
y 
ro
bus
t,

igh-
ban
dwi
dt
h s
yst
em. 
Th
e r
obu
st 

yst
em 
mus
t 
ac
commod
ate 

han
ges 

n G(
s) 

ue 

o v
ary
ing

oad
s, 
mat
eri
als, 

nd cu
tti
ng 
re
qui
eme
r n
ts. 
Thus 
we 
see
k l
arge p
has
e margi
n a
nd ga
in 
margi
n f
or

he 

nner 

nd out
er 
lo
ops, 
and 

ow 
root 
sens
itiv
it
y. 
Th
e s
pec
ific
ati
ons 
ar
e s
umma r
ized 

n Ta
ble 
5.
8.

Ta
ble 

.8 

pec
iic
f a
tio
n f
or 
Tu
ni
r n
g Ma
chi
ne 
Co
ntr
ol 
Sy
ste

Transf
er 
  Funct
ion

Spe
ciica
f tion: Ve
loc
it
y, 
V(
s)/
U(S) Po
sit
ion 
Y(
sYR(
s)
Mi
    
nimum 
bandwi
dth 950rad/
s 95r
ad/


  
tea
dy-
st
at
e 
er
ror 

o a 

tep 0 0
    

Mi
ni
mum 

ampi
ng 

at
io
,杏 0.
8 0.

,且
亡J

Ma
xi
mum 

oo
t 

en
si

iv
it
y, 

S;
( 1.

  


甲碑 『


  
Mi
nimum 
phas
e ma
rgi
n 900

们U


曰叼

Mi
    
ni
mum g
ain 
mar
gin 40dB

Si
nce 
we 

esi
re 

ero 

tea
dy-
st
at
e 
er
ror 

or 

he 

eloc
it
y l
oop, 
we 
us
e a 

elo
ciyl
t  
oop 

ont
rol
le

G2 
(S
)=G3 
(s
)G4 
(s
),wh
ere 
G3 

S) 

s a 

I c
ont

oll
er
, 
an
d G4
(s)
is 
a 

ead 

ont

oll
er
. 
We
ut
iize


1+K3
s)・—   

1+K4
s) 八。,
G, 
(s
)=认 (
s)G4 

s)= K}
        
K3 
  
S all+一 s)

          


nd 

hoo
se 
K3=0
.00
532,K4= 0.00272 

nd 
a = 
2.95.
We 
now 
have

(s+18
8) (
s+368)
G2 

s)=K2

s+1
085)

154
Th
e r
oot 

ocus 

or(
!2(
s)G(
s) 

s 
sh
own 

n F
ig.
5.
29. 
When 
K2=2,
we 

ave 

or 

he 

elo
cit


los
ed-
loop 

rans
fer 

unc
tion

V 

s) 9000(
s 
+188
)(s+368) 1
  
04
T2 

s)= (
5.67)
U 

s) (
s+2
05)
(s+3
05)
(s+1
04)(
s+1
04)
whi
ch 
i al
s  a
rge
-ba
ndwi
dth 

yst
em. 
The 

ctu
al 

and
wid
th 

nd 

oot 

ens
it
ivi

y a
re 

umma
riz
ed 


Tabl
e  9.No
5. te 

hat 
we 
ha
ve 

xce
ede
d t
he 

pec
ifi
cat
ions 

or 

he 

elo
ciy 
t t
rans
fer 

unc
ti
on.
61
10

400

1}
  
之越 卜

200 — 凡i
nc
re
asi

ig一


科一
户妞三警之闷

、 ,

尹、 入

乙7
・2口0

-400

一‘00

1200 一
1000 -
800 
  -600 
  -400 
  - 0 
   zoo
R翻 了                            
                            
rt
e i

Fi
    
g. 
5.
29 
hoo
t 
lo
cus 

or 

elo
ciy 
t l
oo s K2 
p 
a v
ari
es
Ta
ble 

.9 
De
sign 
Re
sul
ts 

or 
Tu
ni
r n
g Ma
chi
neCon
trol 
Sy
ste

Vel
oci

t Pos
  iti
on 
Tra
nsf
er
Transfer Func
   tion,
Achi
eve
d Res
ult Funct
ion Y(
s)/
R(s

Cl
ose
d-l
oop 
ba
ndwi
dth 4000 
rad/
s 1000rad/s

St
ead
y-s
tat
e 
er
ror 0
  

Da
mpi
ng 

ati
o, 
S 1.
0 1.
  


oo
t } 0.
92 1.
  

Pha
se 
ma
rgi
n 930 8
  
50
Gai
n mar
gin I
nfi
nit
e 76dB
  

155
脚动 细脚






    

口口明口、 一
  


夕二屯


护t
i 、- 了.甩二卜.

、厂,
7}一 、 厂 乒、


奢阳


.二翻曰户 ̄.

,200 护.瓜 ̄ 一 胃

・ ?(
JO

一4刀口

Ir
00 
 -
511

1 -
411
11 

JOV 
-20U 一
1x/
11 
  U 
  t
ort 
  j(


!t
                      
eal 

m i

L)
                              


      
ig. 
5.
30 
Th
e 
ro
ot 

ocu
s 
fo
r K,>0
Fo
r a
) o
ver
vie
w a
nd 

) c
los
e-u
p n
ear 

rigi
n o
f t
he 

-pl
ane

We 
wi
ll 

se 
a 

ead 
ne
two
rk 

or 

he 

osi
ti
onl
oop 



1+KS 
s)
凡一a

G, 
                    
(s
)=K,
al
                         
l十 s)


nd 
we 

hoo
se 
a=2.
0 
an
d KS=0.
018
5 s
o t
hat
K, 
(s+5
4)
G, 
(s
)=

s+1
08)
We 

hen 
pl
ot 

he 

oot 
lo
cus 

or

G, 
(s
)・几(
s)・

156

f 
we 
us
e t
he 

ppr
oxi
mat
e爪(
、)of 
Eq
n. 

5 7
',
), 
we 

ave 

he 

oot 

ocus 

f F
ig.
5.
30 
a)
. 
Us
ing 

he

ct
ual
几(s),we 

et 

he 
cl
os
e-u
p 
of 
th
e r
oot 

oc
us 
sh
own i
n 
Fi
g.
5.
30 
b)

We 
  sel
ec
t K2”1000 

nd a
chi
eve 

he a
ct
ual 

es
ult
s 
fo
r t
he 

ot
al 

yst
em 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 



eco
rde
d i
n Ta
ble 
5.
9. The t
ota
l s
yst
em has 
a 
hi
gh phas
e mar
gin
, a 

ow 
sens
it
ivi
ty, 

nd 



ver
dampe
d wi
th 
a 

arge 
ban
dwidth. 
This 

yst
em 
is 

ey 
r ro
bust.

5.
13 
THE 
PSEUDO-
QUANTI
TATI
VE 
FEEDBACK 
SYSTEM
Qua
  nti
ta
ti
ve 

eed
bac
k t
heo
ry 

QFT) 
us
es 
a 

ont
rol
le
r, 

s s
hown 

n F
ig.
5.
31, 

o a
chi
eve 

obus


erf
orma
nce
. 
Th
e go
al 

s 
to 

chi
eve 
a 
wi
de 

and
wid
th 

or 

he 

los
e-l
oop 

rans
fer 

unc
ti
on 
wi
th 


igh 

oop 

ain 
K.Ty
pic
al 
QF
T de
sig
n me
tho
ds 

se 

rap
hic
al 

nd 
nu
mer
ic
al 
me
tho
ds 


co
njunc
ti
on wit
h t
he Nich
ols 
ch
art
. 
Gene
ral
ly 
QFT 

esi
gn 

eeks 

igh 

oop 

ain 

nd 

arg
e ph
ase
marg
in 
so 
th
a t 
robust 
p e
rfor
mance 

s 
ac
hieve
d.

R 

s)+ Y(
s)
K 乓了
砂 G付

Fi
g.5.
31 
Fe
edba
ck 

yst
em


  
n t
his 

ect

on 
we 

urs
ue 
a 

imp
le 
me
tho
d o
f a
chi
evi
ng 

he 

oal
s 
of 
QFT 
wi
th 

n s-
 
pla
ne, 
roo


ocu
s 
ap
pro
ach 

o 
th
e 
se
le
ct
io
n o
f 
th
e 
ga
in 
K 

nd 

he 

omp
ens
at
or 
GC 
(s
),
Th
is 

ppr
oac
h, 
du
bbe
d ps
eudo
-QFT, 
folo
ws 

hes
e s
teps


  
. Pl
ace 

he 
n po
les 

nd 
mz 
er
os 

f G(
s) 

n t
he 
s-
p 
la
ne 

or 

he 
n- 

h 
or
der 
G(
s)
. 
Al
so

    
dd 

ny 

ol
es 

f G, 
(s
).

  
. 
 S
tar

ing 

ear 

he 

ri
gi
n, 

lac
e t
he 

ero
s o
f G, 
(s
) 
imme
dia
tel
y 
to 

he 

eto
f  
f 
ea
ch 

f t
he

    
n-1
) p
ole
s o
n t
he 

eft
-ha
nd 

-pl
ane
. 
Th
is 

eav
es 

ne 
po
le 

ar 

o t
he 

eft 
of 

he 

eft
-ha
nd 

ide 



    
he 

-pl
ane.
3. 
  
 I
ncr
eas
e 
th
e g
ain 
K 

o t
hat 

he 

oot
s 
of 

he 

har
act
er
is
ti
c 
equ
ati
on 

pol
es 

f 
th
e c
los
ed-
lo
op

    
ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on) 
ar
e 
cl
os
e 
to 

he 

ero
s 
of 
G 
js
)G(
s)
Thi
  s met
hod 

ntroduces 

eros 

o t
hat 
al
l 
but 
one 
of 

he 

oot 

oci 

nd 
on 

ini
te 
ze
ros. 

f t
he 
gai

K 

s 
su
fic
ie
nt
ly 

ar
ge, 

he
n t
he 

ole
s o
f T 

s) 

re 

lmo
st 

qua
l 
to 

he 

ero
s o
f Gc 

s)G(
s)・
Thi
s 
le
ave
s o
ne 
po
le 

f T(
s) 
wi
th 
a 

igni
fi
can
t pa
rt
ia
l f
ra
cti
on 

esi
due 

nd 

he 

yst
em 
wi
th 

ph
ase 
ma
rgi
n 
of 

ppr
oxi
mat
ely 

00 

act
ual
ly 

bout 
850
).

EXAMPLE 

.12 
DESI
GN 
USI
NG 
THE 
PS
EUDO-
QFT 
METHOD
Co
  
nsi
der 

he 

yst
em 

f Fi
g.5
.31 
wi
th

157
G(
s)=
P}
)(s+P2

wh
ere 

he 

omi
nal 

ase 

s p,= a p2= 2 
nd    k
ith 
+50% va
ria
tion. 
The 
wor
st 
ca
se 

s wi
th

Pt=0
.5 

nd 
p2=1
.We 
wi
sh 

odes
ignt
he 

yst
em 

or 

ero 

tea
dy-
st
at
e e
rro
r f
or 
a 

tep 

nput


o we 
us
e t
he 
PI
l cont
rol
ler

。,
_、(
s+:
,)(
S+Z
2)
。。t
、曰S,=—
        
, 夕 一— 、

                                                     

We 
 t he
n  i
nvoke 
 t he  e, wi
                       
int
enal 
r   model pr
inci
pl th 
  R(
s)=1
/s 

nco
rpo
rat
ed
wi

hin 
Gc 

s)G(
s).
Usi
ng 

te
pl, 
we 
pl
ac
e t
he 

ole
s 
of 
Gc 

s)G(
s) 

n t
he 

-p
lan
e, 

s 
sh
own 


Fi
g.
5.
32. 
Th
ere 

re 

hr
ee 

ole
s, 

t 
s=0,
一1, 
an
d一2,
as 

hown. 
St
ep 
2 

als 

or 

lac
ing 
a 

ero 



he 

eto
f  
f 

he 
po
le 

t 
th
e o
ri
gin 

nd 

t 
th
e po
le 

t 
s=一1,
as 

hown 

n 
Fi
g.
5.
32.

Fi
g.
5.
32 
Ro
ot 

ocu
s f
or 
KG, 
G(s)

Th
e c
omp
ens
ator 

s 
thu

。 ,、 (
s+0.
8)(
s+1.
8) (
5.68)
vc 

s) 
_— .

                          

We 

el
ect 
K 
=100,s
o t
hat 

he 

oot
s 
of 

he 

har
act
er
is
ti
c 
equ
ati
on 

re 

los
e t
o t
he 

ero
s. 
Th

cl
osed-
loop 

rans
fer 

unct
ion 


100 
(s+0.80)(s+1.80) 100
  
T 

s) (5.
69)
(s+0.798)(s+1.797)(s+1 00.4) ( s+1 00)
Th
  i
s clo
sed-
loo
p  sy
ste
m  provi
desa  f
st 
a resp
onse and  p
oss
esse
s a p
hase 
mar
gin of

ppr
oxi
ma t
el
y 8
50 .
The 
per
formance 
issummarized 
in 
Tabl
e 5.
10.

When 
the 
worst
-ca
se 
condit

on s 

re r
eali
zed(PI=0. 5  and 
p “1) ,t
he 
pe
rfo
rman
ce 

emains

158

ssent
ial
ly 
uncha
nged, 
as 

hown 

n Tabl
e 5.
10. 
Ps
eudo-
QFT 
dei
gn 

esul
ts 

n ver
y r
obus
t s
yst
ems

Tabl
e 5.
10 
Per
for
manc
e of 
Ps
eudo-
QFT 
Des
ign

Percent 
overshoot 一旦e
tt
li
ng 

ime
Nomi
nal 
G(
s) 0.
0!% 40m s
        
Wor
st-
cas
e G(
s) 0.
97% 40ms

5.
14 
ROBUST 
CONTROL 
SYSTEMS 
USI
NG 
MATLAB

  
n 
th
is 

ect
ion 
we 
wi
ll 
in
vest
iga
te 
rob
ust 
cont
rol 
sy
stems 
usi
ng 
MATLAB. I
n p
arti
cul
ar 
we 
will

onsi
der 

he 
commonl
y use
d PID c
ontr
oll
er 
in t
he f
eedba
ck co
ntr
ol 

yst
em shown i
n Fi
g.5
.1.
No
ti
ce 

ha
t 

he 

ys
te
m h
sa 
a  
pr
ef
il

er 
Gp 
(S
)・
The 
   PI
D c
ont
rol
ler 
ha
s t
he 

orm

K,
        
s2+K, 
s+K,
G, 
(S
)二一— s .
                                      

No
tic
e t
hat 

he 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 

s n
ot 
a 

rope
r r
ati
ona
l f
unc
ti
on 

i.
e.
, 
th
e d
egr
ee 

f t
he 

ume
rat
or

oly
nomi
al 

s 
gr
eat
er 

han 

he 
de
gre
e o
f t
he 

eno
min
ato
r po
lyno
mia
l). 
The 

bje
cti
ve 

s 
to 

hoo
se


he 

ara
met
er
s 
K,
,K2
,an
d K3 

o me
et 

he 

erf
or
man
ce 

pec
if
ic
at
io
ns 

nd 

ave 

esi

abl


obu
stn
ess 

rop
ert

es. 
Unfo
rtu
nat
ely 

t 
is 
no
t i
mme
dia
tel
y c
lea
r ho
w t
o c
hoo
se 

ara
met
ers 

n t
he
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 

o 
obt
ai
n c
eta
r i
n 
rob
ust
nes
s c
har
act
eri
st
ics
. 
An 

ll
ust
rat
ive 

xampl
e 
wi
ll 

how 

hat 



s po
ssi
ble 

o c
hoos
e t
he 
pa
rame
ter
s i
te
rat
ive
ly 

nd 

eri
fy 

he 

obus
tne
ss 

y s
imul
at
ion. 
Us
ing
MATELAB 
hel
ps 

n t
his 

roc
ess
, s
inc
e t
he 

nti
re 

esi
gn 

nd 

imu
lat
ion 

an 

e me
cha
niz
ed

ti
iz
l i
ng 

cri
pts 

nd 

an 

si
a l
y 
be 

xec
ute
d r
epe
ate
dly

EXAMPLE反13 
ROBUST 
CONTROL 
OF 
TEMPERATURE
Cons
   ider 

he 

eedbac
k cont
rol 

yst
em 

n Fi
g.5.
1, 
whe
re

    
G(
s)=

S+c

3)2
 

he 

omi
na
l 
va
lu
e 
is 
co=I 

an
d GP 

s)=I 
.We 
wi

l 
de
si
gn 
a 

omp
ens
at
or 

se
a d 

n c
o=I 
an


hec
k r
obus
tne
ss 

y s
imu
lat

on. 
Our 

esi
gn 

pec
ifi
cat
ion
s a
re 
s 
a f
oll
ows


. 
Se
ti
ln
g t

me 

2% 

ri
te
ri
on) 
T, 



}0.
 
5 
se
con
d, 

nd
2. 
Op
ti
mum 
ITAE 
per
for
man
ce 

or 
a 

te
p i
npu
t.
Fo
  r 

his 
des
ign 
we 
wil
l 
not 
ut
il
iz
e a 
pre
fil
te
r t
o me
et 

p e
cif
ica
ti
on (
2) 
but 
wi
ll 

nst
ead 
sh
ow 

hat

cce
pta
ble 
per
for
mance 

i.
e.
, 
low 
overs
hoot) 
ca
n be 

bta
ined 
by 
inc
reas
ing 
a 
csc
a ade 
ga
in.
Th
  e 
cl
ose
d-l
oop 
tr
ans
fer 

unct
ion 
is

T(
s)=
K3
s2+K,
s+K2

5.70)


3+(
2+K3 
)S
2+(
1+K, 
)s
+K2’


59
Th
e a
sso
cia
ted 

oot 

ocus 

qua
ti
on 




K(

s-
2 
- 
+'


s+
b,
一0

where

K=K3+2,a二
1+KI b=一K2.
2+K3’ 2十K3
    

he 

et
tl

ng 


me 

eq
ui
re
men
t T<0
.5 

ec
ond 


ads 
us 
to 

hoo
se 

he 

oo
ts 

f (
S2 
+ 

s 
+ 



o 
th
e l
ef
t 
of 

he 
s=一枷 ,= 
-8 


ne 

n 
th
e s
-pl
ane
, 
as 

hown 

n 
Fi
g.
5.
33, 

o 
en
sur
e 
th
at 

he

ocus 

rav
els 
int
o 
the 

equ
ire
d s
-pl
ane 

egi
on. 
We 
have 

h o
sen a=16 
and b=70 

o 
ensu
re 
th


ocus 

rav
els 
pas
t 
th
e s=-8  l
ine
. We 

el
ect 
a 

oint 
on 
the 
ro
ot 
lo
cus 

n 
the 
pe
rf
or
manc
e r
egi
on,

nd 

sin
g t
he 

loe
fi
nd 

unc
ti
on, 
we 

in
d t
he 

ss
oci
at
ed 

ain 
Ka 
nd 

he 

sso
cia
te
d v
alu
e o
f叭.

or 

ur 

hos
en 
po
int 
we 

ind 

hat
K =118.
                                  

Th
en 
wi
th 
K, 
a, 
and 
b,
we 

an 

olv
e f
or 

he 
PI
D c
oeic
f i
ent
s 
as 

oll
ows

K3=充一2=1
                    
16,
K,=a(
                        
2+K3
)一1
-11
87,
K2=b(
                         
2+ 
K3
)二8
260.
叩 1.’


        

        
r ,一 一 -一 一牛—
一 一 一一,


-口 ̄一- 口一  ̄-,尸 ̄肠 ̄
1t)


         、
、、、、

共州

s= -,
8 \
 

j 
响定之

} 办、

沪一

知 下p

le
-10 Se
lect
ed 

oom 洲/ 一
. .曰.........- 一
洲洲尸一-
-15 I 一 ,
                    

少0


-15


_
i;

了0

Real
  

> a二16; 
b=70: 
num=[
1a :而不石万Q
b] 可三
sys
=tf

num,
den
):
>r l
ocus(sys)
卜a
    
r1
oc
fi
nd
(s
ys) 一
一一一一一一一一曰
Fi
g.
5.
33 
Ro
ot 

ocu
s f
or 

he 
PI
D-c
omp
ens
ate
d t
emp
era
tur
e 
co
ntr
ole
r 
as 
Kv
 a
ri
es
To 
me
et 

he 
ov
ers
hoo
t p
erf
orma
nce 

equ
ire
ment
s 
fo
r a 

tep 

nput
, 
we 
wi

l u
tiiz
le a 

asc
adega
in
K 

hat 
wi

l 
be 

hos
en 

y i
te
rat
iv
e me
thod
s u
si
ng 

he 

tep 

unc
ti
on, 
as 

ll
ust
ra
ted 

n 
Fi
g.
5.
34.The

160

te
p r
esp
ons
e 
co
rre
spo
ndi
ng 

o 
K二  
5 

as 

n a
cce
pta
ble 
ov
ers
hoo
t 
of 

'/
( Wi
th 

he 

ddi
ti
on 

f 
the
ga
in 
K=5 
. 
th
e in
f a
l 
PI
D c
ont
rol
le
r i


K3s
2+K,
s )二 5(
+K2 116
x2+1
187
,+8
260
) (
5.71)
G, 

s)=K s
                 s

We do 
not 
use 

he 
prefi

ter
, 
as 

n Exa
mple 
5.
8. 

nst
ead 
we 
in
crea
set
he 
cas
cade 
gain 
K 
toobtain

ati
sf
act
ory 

rans
ient 

espons
e. 
Now we 
ca
n c
onsi
der 

he 
qu
esti
on 
of 

obu
stnes
s t
o c
hang
es 
in the
pl
ant 

ara
met
er 

o・
Th
  
e i
nve
sti
gat
ion 

nto 

obus
tne
ss 

f t
he 
de
sign 

ons
ist
s o
f a 

tep 

espo
nse 

nal
ysi
s u
sin
g t
he
PI
D cont
rol

er gi
ven 
in Eqn. 

5 .
71) 

or 
a r
ange of 
pla
nt 
para
me t
er 

ari
at
ion
s of 
0.
1 
_c
<  o 
_1
<  
0.
The 
re
sul
ts 
are d
ispl
aye
d in 
Fig.
5.35
. 
The 
scri
pt i
s wri
tt
en 
to co
mput
e t
he s
te
p res
pons
e f
or 

gi
ven 
c・ I
t 
might 
be 
a 
go o
d i
dea 
to 
pl
ace 

he 
input 
of 
co 
at 

he 
command 
pr
ompt 
leve
l 
to 
make 

he

cri
pt 
mo
re 

nte
rac
ti
ve.


矛滋三
『,
卜,,曰‘二二二
. . . 甘 一 ;,, - ,

Y‘ }

一 J

                        



  

州’
‘一,{
道 



息 


                    
七侧






口乎



} !
} i

0 伙05 
       
0.
1 0.15
     0 
2 
     
0.
25 
    
0.3
Ti
me 

sec



ncr
ea
se 

ys

em 

ai
n 

o 

ed
uc
e 
ov
er
sh
oo
t}

Fi
g.5.
34 
St
ep 

esp
ons
e of 

he 
PI
D t
emp
era
tur
e c
ont
rol
ler

161
/1

! ! }
-一-
一 1

} }



巴里口..闰

- 丁



老、
0s !

} 里 l

」“
,荟‘

”“ {
仁11乌、

0 6 1’ .
命,


一一 一
0了 I

        

0少

0 口夕 0 1 015 0口 0少5 0 

Twi
t,(
‘,‘


Sp
eei

y 
pl
an
t 

vra
net
er
.!

Fi
g.5
.35 
Ro
bus
t 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 

nal
ysi
s 
wi

h v
aia
r t
ion
s i
n 
c0

The 
   s
imul
at
ion 

esu
lts 

ndi
cat
e t
hat 

he 
MI
D d
esi
gn 

s 
ro
bus
t 
wi
th 

esp
ect 

o c
han
ges 

n 
co.
The

ife
ren
ces 

n 
th
e s

ep 
es
rpon
ses 

or 

.1 
_c
<  
o 
< 

0 a
re 

are
ly 

is
ceni
rbl
e 
on 

he 

lot
. 

f 
th
e r
esu
lt

sh
owe
d o
the
rwi
se, 

t 
would 
be p
ossi
ble 
to 

ter
ate 
on 
th
e des
ign 

nti
l 
an 
acc
ept
abl
e p
erf
o r
mance
wa
s a
chi
eve
d. 
The i
nte
rac
tiv
e capa
bil
it
y of 
MA TL
AB  a
llo
ws u
s t
o ch
eck t
he 
ob
r us
tness 



imul
ati
on.

5.
15 
SEQUENTI
AL 
DESI
GN 
EXAMPLE:
DISK 
      
DRIVE 
READ 
SYSTEM
  
In 
thi
s 
chapt
er 
we wi
ll 

esi
gn a 
PI
D c
ont
rol
le
r t
o a
chie
ve t
he 
des
ir
ed 
sy
ste
m r
espo
nse. 
Man


ctu
al 
dis
k dr
iv
e he
ad c
ont
rol 

yst
ems 
us
e a 
PI
D cont
role
r a
nd u
se 
a c
ommand 

igna
l r(
t) 

hat

til
iz
es 

n i
dea
l v
elo
cit
y p
rof
il
e a
t 
th
e ma
ximu
m a
ll
owa
ble 

elo
cit
y u
nti
l 
the 
he
ad 

rri
ves 

ear 

he

esi
re
d t
ra
ck, 
wh
en 
r(
t) 

s 
swi

che
d t
o a 

tep
-t
ype 

nput
. 
Th
us 
we 

esi
re 

ero 

tea
dy-
st
at
e e
rro


or 
a 

amp 

vel
oci
ty) 

ign
al 

nd 
a 

tep 

ign
al. 
Ex
ami
nin
g t
he 

yst
em 

hown 

n Fi
g.536 
we 
no
te


62

hat 

he 

orwa
rd 
pa
th 

oss
ess
est
wo 
pu
re 

nte
gra
ti
on,‘
,i
d 
we 

xpe
ct 

ero 

tea
dy-
st
at
e e
rro
r f
or 


elo
cit
y i
npu
t r(
t)=At
, 
t>0

I(砂
I 
TO
xf)

人州 G 
气(
似=
t)

t 
3(
s 

}1
)(
s全盯 


1 
_
(T

}  GZ 
(.


    
) NO +20)

Fi
g.5.
36 
Di
sk 

riv
e f
eed
bac
k s
yst
em 
wi
th 
a 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er

The 
PID 
cont
rol
ler 

K3 
(s
+Z,
)(
s+Z
,)

。(
:)
=K,
+K2
+、3
,= s
              

The 
mot
or 

iel
d t
rans
fer 

unct
ion 


50(
  洲)
G, 
(S
)= 二 5.

S+1
000)

Fi
g.5.
37 
A 
sk
etc
h o
f a 

oot 
loc
us 

s凡 i
ncea
r s
es 

or 

sti
mat
ed 

oot 
lo
cat
ions 
wi
th 
a 

esi
rab
le

                             
yst
em 
re
spons


he 

eco
nd-
or
der 
mod
el 

se 
G, 
(s
)=5,
and 

he 

esi
gn 

s 
de
te
rmi
ned 

or 

hi
s 
mo
del

We 
  us
e t
he 

econ
d-o
rde
r mo
del 

nd 

he 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 

or 

he 

-pl
ane 

esi
gn 

ech
niqu


ll
ust
rat
ed 

n Se
cti
on 
5.
6. 
Th
e p
ole
s a
nd 

ero
s o
f t
he 

yst
em 

e 
r s
hown 

n t
he 

-pl
ane 

n l
ig.
5.
37

163

or 

he 

econ
d-or
der 
mo
del 

nd 
G, 
(s
)=t
i Th
en 
we 
ha
ve
5K,
(‘
、十z
, 
)(
s+:
,)
G, 
G, 
GZ 

s)
s 
`(
s+2
0)
We 

ele
ct 

,=一1
20+ 
j40 

nd 

ete
rmi
ne 
5K3 

o t
hat 

he 

oot
, a
re 

o t
he 

ef
t o
f t
he

ine 
s=一1
00.
If 
we 

chi
eve 

hat 
re
qui
reme
nt, 
th
en

I l 1
                  
} {
/ \\ !
一 _
_
__
_一
} \、
/ }


        

_
_
__7 I }-------.一


                

代n‘

、__ _____ j

一’一
不 !

_一
_
__
一_


                
‘、)


                

卜1

,」I
!奢之11

.       
、 1_ _ _ _ _ _

,以 b}
} i_
___
___
__
__
__

“1
V D

ub


)‘,


一’

r---一 -一--
--一 「

‘ 、
   I
                  

                  
r 一


\ '
)_

\只 、、.一 r 洲
// }
d0) -300 -} 
00 -100 -0 100 少1
I(/

Real 
axi

Fi
g.5
.38 
Ac
tua
l 
ro
ot 

ocu
s f
or 

he 

eco
nd-
ord
er 
mod
el


nd 

he 

ver
sho
ot 

o a 

te
p i
npu
t i
s 
(i
dea
ll
y) 

es
s t
han 

% s
in
ce杏o
f t
he 

omp
lex 

oot
s 
is

ppr
oxi
mat
el
y 
0.
8. 
Of 

our
se, 
thi
s 
sk
etc
h i
s 
onl
y 
a 

ir
st 

tep
. 
As 
a 

eco
nd 

tep 
we 

se 
MAT
LAB


era
ti
vel
y t
o d
ete
rmi
ne 
K3 
. 
We 

hen 

bta
in 

he 

ct
ual 

oot 

ocu
s a
s s
hown 

n F
ig.
5.
38
wi

h K3=8
00.T
he 

yst
em 

es
pon
se 

s r
eco
rde
d i
n T
abl
e 5
.11
. 
Th
e s
yst
em 
mee
ts 

ll 

he

pec
iic
f a
ti
ons.
Th
  e 
desi
gn 
of 

igh
ly 

ccu
rat
e c
ont
rol 

yst
ems 

n t
he 

res
enc
e o
f s
ign
if
ica
nt 

lan
t u
nce
rta
int


equ
ir
es 

he 

es
ig
ner 

o 
se
ek 
a 

obu
st 

ont

ol 

yst
em. 
A 

obu
st 

ont
ro
l 
sy
st
em 

xhi
bi
ts 

ow

ens
it
ivi

ies 

o 
pa
rame
ter 

han
ge 

nd 

s 
st
abl
e 
ov
er 
a 
wi
de 

ange 
of 
pa
rame
ter 

ari
at
ions

164
Ta
ble 

.11 
Di
sk 
Dr
iv
e Co
ntr
ol 

yst
em 

pec
if
ica
io
t ns 

nd 
Ac
tua
l 
Pe
rfo
rma
nce
Per
for
mance 
  Meas
ure Desi
red 
Val
ue Res
pons
e f
or 
Second-
Order 
Model
Percent 
overshoot <5%
   4.
5%

Se
tt
in
l g 

ime <50ms 6ms
  


or 

tep 

nput
Ma
ximu
m r
esp
ons
e f
or <5x1
0"3 7.
7x 

0-'
a 
uni
t 
st
ep 
di
stur
bance

Th
  
e t
hre
e-mo
de, 

r PI
D, 

ont
rol
ler 
wa
s c
ons
ide
red 

s a 

omp
ens
ato
r t
o a
id 

n t
he 

esi
gn 



obu
st 

ont
rol 

yst
em. 
The 

esi
gn 

ssu
e f
or 
a 
PI
I) 

ont
rol
le
r i
s 
th
e s
ele
cti
on 

f t
he 

ain 

nd 

wo

eros 

f t
he 

ont
rol
ler 

rans
fer 

unc
tio
n. 
We 

tiiz
l e
d t
hre
e de
sig
n me
tho
ds 

or 

he 

ele
cti
on 

f t
he

ont
rol
le
r: 

he 

oot 

ocus 
me
thod
, 
th
e f
req
uen
cy 

espo
nse 
me
tho
d, 

nd 

he 

TAE 
per
for
man
ce

nde
x me
tho
d. 
An 

per
ati
ona
l a
mpl
if
ier 

irc
uit 
us
ed 

or 

, 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 

s 
sho
wn 

n Fi
g.
5.3
9.玩
ge
ner
al, 
the 

se 

f a 
PI
D c
ont
rol
le
r 
wi
ll 

nab
le 

he 

esi
gne
r t
o 
at
ta
in 
a 

obus
t 
co
ntr
ol 

yst
em.


  
he 

nt
ena
r l 
mo
del 

ont
ro
l 
sy
st
em 
wi
th 

ta
te 

ari
abl
e 
fe
edb
ack 

nd 
a 

ont

oll
er 
G, 
(s
) 
wa


til
iz
ed 

o o
bta
in 
ar
 o
bus
t c
ont
rol 

yst
em. 
Fi
nal
ly 

he 

obu
st 

atu
re 

f a 
ps
eudo
-QFT 

ont
rol

yst
em 
wa
s de
mons
trat
ed.

〔’
1 了’,
R,
R1

R3
Rl




Fi
g.
5.3
9 Op
era
tio
nal 

mpl
if
ier 

irc
uit 
us
ed 

or 
PI
D c
ont
rol
le

  
A ro
bust 
cont
rol 

yst
e m 
prov
ides 
st
able, 
cons
ist
ent 
perf
ormance 
as 
spec
ifi
ed 
by t
he 
des
ign
e r 



pit
e o
f wide v
ari
at
ion of 
pla
n t 
par
a met
ers a
nd di
s t
urbanc
es. 
It 
al
so provi
des 
hig
hly 
robus


esp
onse 
to 
command i
nput
s 
and a 
st
eady-s
tat
e t
rac
kin
g err
or e
qual 

o z
ero.
Fo
  r sy
stems wit
h uncer
tai
n paramete
rs, t
he need for ro
bust s
ystems wil
l r
equ
ire t
he

nco
rpo
rat
io
n o
f 
ad
van
ced 
ma
chi
ne 

nt
el
li
genc
e. 

s s
hown 

n 
Fi
g.
5.
40.

165
P孙1
Hi
gh

,nb孙、灿勺u勺斗之勺、

          
1da
pti
re,
,%I
elt

加tl灿u、 Robust 
    

    
srst
ein


魂勺二次

_
t1der
ate

Fe
edbac
k s
yst
em

/p



me



sa

d 
Low印 e n-
loop 
syst
em
(wi
thot
d 
feedback)
Loin

Lo
w 
          
Mo
der
at
e 
          
H心h
Unc
  ert
aint
y o
f par
ame
ter
s and 
di
st
urbanc
es

Fi
g.
5.
40 

nt
el

lge
nce 

equ
ied 
r v
ers
us 

nce
rt
ai
nt
yf 
or 
mo
den 
r c
ont
ro
l 
sy
ste
ms

166
CHAPTER 
6 DI
GITAL 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM S

  
A 
dig i
tal 
computer 
may ser
ve as 
a c
ompensat
or or 
cont
rol
ler 
in 
af 
eed bac
k cont
rol 
sys
tem.
Si
nce 
the co
mp ute
r r
ecei
ves 
data 
only 
at 

peci
fi
c i
nte
rval
s, 
it 

s 
necess
ay 
r to dev
elop 
a 
method 
for

escr
ibing 
an d 
anal
yzi
ng t
he 
perfor
mance 
of 
compute
r c
ontro
l s
yst
ems.
Th
  e comp ute
r s
yst
em uses 
data 
sampl
ed a
t pr
espe
cif
ied i
nte
rval
s, 

esul
ting i
n a 
ti
me se
ries 
of

igna
ls. 
These t
ime 
seri
es, 
ca
ll
ed sa
mpled 
dat
a, 
can 
be 
tra
nsfor
me d 

o t
he s
-do mai
n a
nd, 
ult

ma t
ely


o t
he 
Z 

doma
in 

y t
he 

el
at
io
n 
Z=e 
sr.Th
e c
omp
le
x re
fque
ncy 

oma
in 

n t
er
ms 

f Z 

as
prope
rti
es 
si
mi l
ar 
to 
those of 
the 
Laplac
e s 
-domain.
We 
   ma y use t
he  z- 

ra ns
form of a t
ransf
er fu
nction 
to analyz
e the 
sta
bil
ity 
and t
ransi
ent
res
ponse o
f a s
y s
tem. Thu s 
we  may r
eadily 
deter
min e 
the 
re s
ponse 
of a 
clos
ed-l
oop f
eedback
syst
em wit
h  ad i
git
al comp ute
r ser
vin
g as th
e compe ns
ator 
( o
r con
trol
le
r) 
block. 
We can 
also
uti
li
ze 
the 
root 
locus 
me t
ho d to 
dete
rmine 
the l
ocat
ion of 
th
e roots 
of 
the 
cha
ract
eri
sti
c e
quati
on.
These 
computer c
o n
trol 
systems ar
e wi
dely us
ed in 
indust
y. 
r They al
so 
play 
an 
import
ant 
rol
e in

h e 
cont
rol 
o f 

nd us
tria
l processe
s, 
wh i
ch uti
li
ze a c
o mbi
nation of 
a c
ompu t
er 
and an 
actu
ator
wo
rki
ng 

oge
the
r 
to 
pe
rfo
rm 
as 

ri
es 

f t
as
ks. 
Th
is 

hapt
er 

onc
lud
es 
wi
th 

he 
de
si
gn 

f a 

igi
ta


ont
rol
le
r f
or 

he 
Se
que
nti
al 
De
sign 
Exa
mpl
e: 
Di
sk 
Dr
ive 
Re
ad 

yst
em.

6.
1 INTRODUCTION
Th
  
e u
se 

f a 

igi
ta
l c
ompu
ter 

s a 

omp
ens
ato
r (
con
trol

er) 
de
vic
e h
as 

rown 

uri
ng 

he 

st


wo d
eca
des 

s 
the 
pr
ice 

nd 
re
li
abil
it
y 
of 
di
gi
ta
l 
comput
er
s 
have 

mpro
ved 
dra
mati
cal
ly
. 
A 
bloc


iag
ram 
of 
a 
si
ngl
e-l
oop 
di
gi
ta
l 
contr
ol 

yst
em 
is 
shown 

n Fi
g.
6.
1. 
The 
di
gi
tal 

omput
er 

n 
this

yst
em 
con
fig
ura
ti
on 

ece
ive
s t
he 

rro
r i
n di
git
al 

orm 
and 
pe
rfo
rms 

alc
ula
ti
ons 

n o
rde
r t


rov
ide 

n o
utp
ut 

n d
igi
ta
l 
fo
rm. 
Th
e c
ompu
ter 
ma
y b
e pr
ogr
amme
d t
o 
pr
ovi
de 

n o
utp
ut 

o t
hat

he 

erf
orma
nce 

f t
he 
pr
oce
ss 

s 
ne
ar 

r e
qua
l 
to 

he 

esi
red 

erf
orma
nce
. Ma
ny 

ompu
ter
s a
re

ble 

o 
re
cei
ve 

nd 
ma
nipu
lat
e 
se
ver
al 

npu
ts, 

o a 

igi
ta
l 
comp
ute
r 
co
ntr
ol 

yst
em 

an 

te
f n 

e a
mul
ti
var
iabl
e s
yst
em.
A 
  

igi

al 

omp
ute
r r
ece
ive
s a
nd 

per
ate
s on 

ign
als 

n d
igi
ta
l 
(nu
mer
ica
l) 

orm, 
as 
co
ntr
ast
ed 



ont
inuo
us 

ign
als
. 
A di
gi
tal 

ont
rol 

yst
em u
ses 
di
gi
tal 

ign
als 

nd a 

igi
tal 

omput
er 

o 
con
tr
ol 


roc
ess. 
The 
meas
ure
me n
t d
ata 

re 
conve
rt
ed ro
f m 
anal
og 
for
m to 
di
git
al 
fo
rm by 
me
ans 
of 

he

nal
og-t
o-di
git
al 
conver
ter 
shown i
n Fig.
6.1
. Af
ter 
pr
oces
sin
g  t
he i
npu
ts, 

he 
dig
ita
l c
omput
er

rovi
des a
n outp
u t 
in di
git
al f
orm. Thi
s outpu
t i
s t
hen conver
ted 
to 
anal
og f
orm by t
he

igi
tal
-t
o-a
nal
og c
o n
vert
er 
shown i
n Fi
g.6.
1.

Re
fe
re
nce _
厂下i

;i

a 
l刁(thgatrl) Di
git
al (
uual
og) ()r
r7nr
t t



p“一  ̄}c
oa
mat

r r 匆一伽诫 0
con 

ref六"

tct
aator 了h,cess

analog)







a)
l上遍 .
七,

.6'
o-t
g-
hgac
rl
convert
er

rnur
lo}) He
usurenr
SeJ
    


SOr
nt

Fi
        
g.6
.1 
A bl
ock 
dia
gra
m of 
a 

ompute
r c
ontr
ol 

yst
em,

ncl
udi
ng 

hesi
gna
l c
onver
ts
. 
The 
si
gna
l 
is 

ndi
cated 
sd
a  
igi
ta
l 
or 

nal
og

167
6.
2 DI
GITAL 
COMPUTER 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM 
APPLICATIONS
  
The 
tot
al 
number 
of 
compute
r cont
rol 
sys
tems 
ins
tal
le
d in 
indust
ry 
hs 
a g
r own over 
the 
past

hree 
decad
es. 
Curr
entl
y t
her
e a
re appr
oxi
ma t
ely 
100 
mill
ion 
contr
ol s
yst
ems  us
ing comput
ers,

lth
o u
gh th
e comput
er s
ize 
and p
owe r 
ma y 
vary 
si
gni
ic
f antl
y. I
f we co
nsider o
n l
y compute


ontrol 

yst
ems of 
a 

ela
tiv
ely 
co
mp l
e x 
nat
ure, 
such 
s 
a ch
emical 
proc
ess 
cont
rol or 

ircr
a f
t 
con
trol


he 

umbe
r 
of 

omp
ute
r 
co
ntr
ol 

yst
ems 

s 
ap
pro
xima
tel
y 
20 
mi
li

on.
  s
外e  ize 
of comp uter
s and 
th
e cost 
for 
the 
activ
e logi
c dev i
ces 
u s
e d 
to 
constr
uct t
hem  have 
both
decli
ned expon enti
ally. 
The ac
tive c
omp onents per cu
bic c e
nti
me ter h
a ve 
incre
se
a d so 
that 
the
actual 
compu t
e r 
can be r
educed i
n si
ze to 
the 
po i
nt where r
e l
ati
vely i
nexpensive, 
powe rfu
l l
aptop
compu t
e r
s  a
re  pr
ov i
ding mo bi
le high-per
formanc e compu tat
ional capabi
it
l y to  s
tud e
nts and
profes
sionals 
a l
ike, 
a nd i
s, 
in 
ma ny inst
ances, 
replaci
ng the tr
ad i
tio
nal deskt
op mi c
ro computer

Th e 
speed of comp uters 
hs 
a a
lso in
cr e
ased exponenti
ally. 
Th e 
transi
stor 
de n
sit
y (a me asur
e of
compu t
a t
ional performa nce
) on  NTEL 
I mic r
op r
ocessor  i
ntegrat
ed  cir
c u
it
s  hs i
a ncr
ese
a d
exponen t
ial
ly over t
h e l
ast 
30 years
. 
I n 
fac
t, 
ac c
ording to "Mo ore's 
Law" the t
ransistor 
dens
ity
doubles ev
e r
y year, 
and will 
be 
mo e 
r fst
a er 
for 
the next 
twe nty 
years. 
A si
mp le 
calculaio
t n s
hows
that b
y  2012  microprocess
ors will 
c ont
ain over a bilio
l n t
ransis
tors with o
pe ra
ting speeds
approaching 10GHz . Since 
the popular 
8086 central 
proce s
sin
g  unit
s were i
ntroduced in 1976
contai
ning only 29,000 tr
ansis
tors a
nd  ope
rain
t g 
a t 
10MHz , 
signi
f i
cant 
process i
n co mputat
ion
capabil
ity has b e
en  and will 
con t

nu e t
o  be ma de. 
Cl eay, 
r imp r
oveme nts i
n c ompu t
aio
t nal
capabil
ity 
h ave revolut
ioni
zed the a
pp l
icat
ion of cont
rol theoy 
r a
nd  desi
gn in t
he mo d
e r
n-e
ra.
Wi

h t
he 

vai
la
bil
it
y 
of 

st
a , 

ow-
pic
red, 

nd 

mal
l-
si
zed 
mi
cr
opr
oce
sso
rs, 
muc
h o
f t
he 

ont
ol 
r o


ndu
str
ial 

nd 

omme
rci
al 

roc
ess
es 

s mo
ving 

owa
rd 

he 
us
e o
f c
ompu
ter
s wi
thi
n t
he 

ont
rol

yst
em.
  
Digit
al con t
rol sy
stems ar
e used 
in many appic
l ati
ons: f
or machine t
ools, 
metal
worki
ng

roce ss
es, chemi ca
l proces
ses, 
ai
rcr
at 
f c
ontol
r , and aut
o mobi
le t
raff
ic contr
ol. 
Au t
omaic


ompu t
er-c
ont r
olled sy
stems ar
e used f
or pur
p o
se s 
s 
a dive
rse s 
a mesu
a in
r g th
e  o
bjec
tiv


efr
ac io
t n of 
the human ey
e and 
con
tro
li
lng 
the 
engi
ne spar
k imi
t ng 
or 
air-
fuel 
ra
tio 
of 
aut
omobil


ngine s
. The latt
er 
innovaio
t ns 
ar
e ne
cessa
y 
r to re
du ce 
aut
o mobi
le 
emi s
sio
ns and i
ncea
r se 
fuel
econom y.

  
The a
dvant
age
s of 
us
ing 
di
git
al 

ontr
ol 

ncl
ude 

mproved 
mesu
a r
ement 

ens
iiv
t i
ty; 

he 
use 
of
di
gi
ta
ll
y co
ded s
ign
als
, 
dig
it
al 
se
nsor
s 
and 
tr
ans
duc
ers
, a
nd mi
cr
opr
oce
sso
rs; 

educ
ed s
ens
iiv
t i
ty

o s
ign
al 
no
ise
; a
nd 

he 

apa
bil

ty 

o e
asi

y r
eco
nfi
gur
e t
he 

ont
rol 

lgo
it
r h
m i
n s
otwa
f re.
Imp
roved 

ens
it
iv
it
y r
esul
ts 
ro
f m t
he 
low-
ene
rgy 
si
gnal
s 
re
qui
red 
by 
di
git
al 
sens
ors 
an
d dev
ice
s.
The u
se o
f di
gi
tal
ly co
ded s
ignal
s pe
rmi
ts t
he wi
de ap
pl
ica
ti
on of dig
it
al de
vic
es and

ommu
nic
aio
t ns
. Di
git
al 

ens
ors 

nd 

ran
sdu
cer
s c
an 

fec
tiv
ely 
mesu
a r
e, 

rans
mit
, 
and 

oupl


ign
als 

nd 

evi
ces
. 
In 

ddi

ion 
ma
ny 

yst
ems 

re 

nhe
ren
tl
y d
igi
ta
l 
be
caus
e t
hey 

end 

ut 

uls


ign
als
. 
Exa
mpl
es 

f s
uch 
a 
di
git
al 

yst
em 

re 
a 

ada
r t
ra
cki
ng 

yst
em 

nd 
a 

pac
e s
ate
ll
it
e.

6.
3 SAM PLED-
DATA 
SYSTEM S
Co
  
mpu
ter
s u
sed 

n c
ont
rol 

yst
ems 

re 

nte
rco
nne
cte
d t
o t
he 

ctu
ato
r a
nd 

he 
pr
oce
ss 

y me
ans


68
of 

igna
l 
co
nve
rte
rs. 
The 

utp
ut 

f t
he 

omp
ute
r i
s 
pr
oce
sse
d by 
a 

igi
tal
-t
o-a
nal
og 

onv
ete
r r
. 
We
wil
l 
ss
a u
me tha
t 
al
l 
the n
umb er
s t
hat 

nte
r or 

eav
e t
he comput
er 
do 
so 
at 

he sa
me f
ixed 
pe
ri
od T,
ca
lle
d t
he s
ampli
ng pe
riod. 
Thus, 

or 
exampl
e, 
th
e re
ferenc
e i
nput 

hown i
n 
Fig.6.
2 
is 
a 
seq
uence
of 
sampl
e val
ues 

(kT ).The va
ria
ble
s 
r(kT),m(kT ),and 
u 
(kT) 
ar
e 
disc
rete 

ignal
s 
in 
con
tra
st

o m(t) 
an
d y(t
) 
which a
re 
conti
nuous 

uncti
ons 
of 

ime.
Da
  ta 
obt
aine
d f
or t
he syst
em var
ia
bles 
only 
at 
disc
ret
e i
nter
val
s, 
an
d denot
ed sx
a  
(kT 
),r e

all
ed 

amp
led 
da
ta 

r a 

isc
ret
e s
ign
al.
A 
  

amp
ler 

s 
ba
si
cal
ly 
a 

wit
ch 

hat 

los
es 

ver
y Ts
 
econ
ds 

or 

ne 

nst
ant 

f 
ti
me. 
Co
nsi
der 



de
al 

amp
le
r 
ss
a  
ho
wn 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
3. 
Th
e i
np
ut 

s 
r(
t)
,an
d t
he 

utp
ut 

s 
r* 
(t
),wh
er
e n
T i
s 
th


ur
re
nt 

amp
le 


me, 
an
d 
th
e 
cu
rr
en
t 
va

ue 

f r 
* 


) 
is 
r(
nT)
。We 
th
en 

ave 
r 


)=r

n7At
-0)

wh
ere 
8i t
s 
he 

mpu
lse 

unc
ti
on.


  
(O)

了钊
日夕

a(kT) Digi
tal 
- Act
uat
or
Rc 
fe
renc
e Di
git
al 多
  
,)



comput
er
八,1
a1al
og and
  
conrerter Out
put
p代= SS

乙引
j少
m(
kT) Ana城 -

o d
igi
tal
e口1
1 P曰 了er

Fi
g. 
6.
2 
A 
di
git
al 

ont
rol 
sy
ste

r 
            

(t

C卜-一 一 .一

Cont
                  
inuous Sampled
                  

烤It
al si
glt
td
                    
F i
g.6.
3 
An id
eal 
samp
ler 
wi
th 

ninput 
r(t

Le
t u
s a
ssume 

hat 
we 

ample 
a s
ignal 

(t),a
s s
hown 
inFig.
6.3, 
ando
bta
in 

* 
(t
) 

The
n we

ort

ay 

he 

er
ie
s 
fo
r r
' 
(t
) 
as 
a 


ri
ng 

f 
imp
ul
se
s 
st
ar
ti
ng 

t 
t=0,
spa
ced 

t T 

ec
ond
s, 

nd 



mpit
l u
de 
r(
kT).Fo
r ex
ampl
e, 
co
nsi
der 

he 

nput 
sig
nal r(
t) 

hown 
in 
Fi
g.
6.4 
a)
. 
The 

ampl
ed

ign
al 

s 
sh
own i
n 
Fig
.6.
4 
b) 
wi
th 
an 

mpul
se 

epre
sente
d b
y a 
ve
rt
ic
al 

rr
ow o
f 
magni
tu
de 
r(
kT 
).

r(
t)

0 T 2T 了T 4T , 口
            


  
1)

169
厂防孙 r(
2T)

r(
3T)
r(T) r(
4T)

0 T 2T 了T -
  
f 

Ti
me(
kT
b)
  


ig

6.
4 

) 
An 
in
pu
t 

ig
na
l 

(t
) 

nd 

) 

he 
sa
mpl

d 
si

nal 
r* 
(t
)=艺乙r
(k
T)S
(t 
-k
T)
Th
e c
olo
red 

ert
ica
l 
ar
row 

epr
ese
nts 

n i
mpu
lse

Sampl
    er


t)一一f
Fi
g. 
6.
5 
A 
sampl
er 

nd 
zer
o-or
der 
hol
d c
ircui
t.

^d
  
ig
it
al

to
-a
na
lo
g c
onv
er
te
r 
se
rv
es 

s 
a 

evi
ce 

ha
t 
co
nve
rt
s 

he 

amp
le
d 
si
gn
al 

* 
(t
) 

o 


oninu
t ous 

ign
al 
p(
t).
The 
di
gi
ta
l-
to-
ana
log 

onv
ert
er 

an 

sua
ll
y 
be 

epr
ese
nte
d by 
a 

ero
-or
der
ho
ld 

ir
cui
t, 
as 

hown 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
5. 
Th
e z
ero
-or
der 
ho
ld 

ake
s t
he 

alue 

(kT) 

nd 

old
s i
t 
co
nst
ant

or 

T S 
t<(
k+1
)T,
as 

hown 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
6 
fo
r k=0
. 
Th
us 
we 

se 

(kT) 
du
ri
ng 

he 

amp
li
ng
pe
riod.

P 

r)

    

0 1' 
Ti
me

Fi
g.
6.
6 
The 

esp
ons
e 
of 
a 

ero
-or
der 
ho
ld 

o 
an 

mpul
se 

nput 
r 

kT),
whi
ch 

qua
ls 
1 
wh
en
k=0 

nd 

qua
ls 

er
o 
wh
en 
k 
#。,
so 

ha
t r
(t
)=r
` 
(0
)8(
t)

A 
  

ampl
er 

nd 

ero
-or
der 

old 

an 

ccu
rat
ely 

oll
ow 

he 

npu
t s
ign
al 

f Ti
 
s 
sma
ll 

omp
are
d t


he 

ran
sie
nt 

han
ges 

n t
he 

igna
l. 
Th
e r
esp
ons
e o
f a 

ampl
er 

nd 

ero-
ord
er 

old 

or 
a 

amp 

npu


s 
sh
own 

n Fi
g.
6.
7. 
Fi
nal
ly 

he 

espo
nse 

f a 

ampl
er 

nd 

ero-
ord
er 

old 

or 

n e
xpo
nen
ti
al
ly

170

eca
yin
g s
igna
l i
s s
hown 

n Fi
g.6
.8. 

or 

wo 

alu
es 

f s
amp
lin
g pe
rio
d. 
Cl
ear
ly 

he 

utp
ut
p(
t) 
wi
ll 
app
roa
ch 

he 

npu
t r(
t) 

s Ta
 
ppr
oac
hes 

ero 

as 
we 

ampl
e 
ve
y 
r o
fte
n).
Th
  
e i
mpu
lse 

esp
ons
e o
f a 

ero
-or
der 

old 

s s
hown 

n F
ig.
6.
6. 
Th
e t
ran
sfe
r f
unc
tio
n o
f t
he
ze
ro-
orde
r hol
d i

1 
  1
一 一 e一
,: (
1一e 
-S
T 

尸大

‘.、
G,
, 
(s)=一s 
  s

它礼飞注


_ 5

厅 Tune

Fi
g.
6.
7 
The 

esp
ons
e 
of 
a 

ampl
er 

nd 

ero-
ord
er 

old 

or 
a 

amp 

npu
t r(
t)=t

了、
妇西
The preci
si
o n 
of t
he di
gital 
computer 
an
d  t
he as
soc
iat
ed s
ignal 
conve
rter
s is 
li
mite

『.L
「J

ig.
6.2)
. 
Preci
sion 
is 

he 
degree 
of e
xact
ness 
or 
di
scri
mina
tio
n wi
th 
which a 

ua n
tiy 
t i
s 
st
ated.

rec
isio
n of 
the 
compute
r i
s l
imit
ed by 
a 
fi
nit
e word 
le
ngt
h. 
The 
p r
eci
si
o n 
of 

he anal
og-t
o-di
git
al

onvert
er i
s l
imit
ed b
y an abil

y 
t t
o st
ore 
it
s out
put 
onl
y i
n di
git
al 
logi
c composed o
f a f
ini
te
nu
mber 
of b
inay 
r d
igi
ts
. Th
e c
onver
te
d si
gnal
, 
m(
U) ,i
s t
hen 
sa
id 
to 
inc
lude 
an 
ampl
it
ude
qu
ant
iz
ati
on 
err
or. 
When t
he 
qua
nti
zat
io
n e
rro
r a
nd 

he 

rro
r d
ue 
to 
a 
co
mpute
r's 

in
it
e 
word 
si
ze
ar
e s
mall 

ela
tiv
e t
o t
he ampli
tude 
of 

he 

igna
l, 

he 

yst
em 

s s
ufi
ci
ent
ly 

ec
r i
se, 

nd 

he
pr
eci
si
on 

lmit
ati
ons 
ca
n b
e ne
glect
ed.
3tl、毛 它、
          

}l




0, 



t) 
/'

2 子
            
Ti
na 

sec 
ondv

川 T二 0.
5 Yeconf
ls

171
它气1,、

个lrl\
,1,仑』
        
1.
            

/P
(r

产了声了(l)
扶s

            

n 3 
           

Ti
    
me 

see
undq
                  

) T 
= 
0.
J 
 }
ecf
nji

Fi
g. 
6.
8 
The 

espo
nse 
of 
a 

amp
ler 

nd 

ero
-or
der 

old 

o a
n i
nput

        
(t)=e一
‘fo
r t
wo 

alu
es 

f 
sa
mpin
lg p
eri
od 
T.

6.
4 THE 
Z- 
TRANSFORM
Be
  
cau
se 

he 

utp
ut 

f 
th
e 
id
eal 
sa
mpl
er
, 
r* 
(t
),i
s 
a 

eie
rs 
of 
imp
uls
es 
wi

h v
al
ue
s r
(kT 

,we
have


.(
;)
=艺r
(k
T)8

k月
t 
- 

T 
), (
6.2)


or 
a 

ign
al 

or 
t>0.
Usi
ng 

he 
La
pla
ce 

ra
nsf
orm 
we 

ave

L 


' 

t)

=分(

T 

e-


T. k=0

6.3)

We 

ow 

ave 

n 
in

fni

e s
ei
re
s 
th
at 

nvo
lv
es 

ac
to
rs 

f e
'T 

nd 


s 
po
wer
s. 
We 

efi
ne

    
6.4)
                     
Z二e
sT,

his 

ela
ti
ons
hip 

nvol
ves 
a 

onf
orma
l ma
ppi
ng 

rom 

he 
s 

pla
ne 

o t
he 
Z 

pla
ne.W e 
then

a 
new 

rans
for
m, 
ca
lled 

he 
Z 
-t
rans
for
m, 

o t
hat

Z 
jr

t)
j= 
Z}
`(
t)

=乞;

、:)
:一
“。 k 
=O

6.5)


xamp
le, 

et 
us 

ete
rmi
ne 

he 7 

tr
ans
for
m o
f t
he 

nit 

te
p f
unc
ti
on 
u(
t 
) 
[n
ot 

o b


onf
use
d wi
th 

he 

ont
rol 
si
gna
l 
u 

t) 
l.
f W e 
obt
ain

Z{
r(

)}一l 
u 
(k
T 
)4

-k=I 

-k
k=0 k=0
                    

        
6.6)

sin ce u 

kT 
)=1 

or 
k? 
 0.
Thi
s 
se
ri
es 

anbe 
wri
tten 

n  osedf
cl orm 

s (
Rec
all 
th
at 

he 

nfni
i t


eome
tr
ic 
 s
er
ie
s ma
y 
 b
e 
 wr
it

en 

1一b
x)一
,=1 
+ 

x+(
bx)
2+(
bx)
3+二
。,i
f(
b 
x) 
2<1


  
U(
z)= (
6.7)
1一z z一1

n 
ge
ner
al 
we 
wi
ll 

efi
ne 

he 
z 

tr
ans
for
m of 
a 

unc
ti
on 
f 

t) 

172

仃(:
)}
=F(
z)=艺f 

kT)
z-
k k=0

6.8)

EXAM PLE 
6.1 
TRANSFORM 
OF 
EXPONENTI
AL

Letu
   s d
ete
rmi
ne 

he 
z 

tr
ans
for
m of 
f 

t)=e 

a` 

ort 
? 
0.
The


}一  

-F(
 
z)
=E。
一:一i 


e'
aT
)一
‘ (
6.9)

Aga
in 

his 

eri
es 
can 
be 
wr
itt
en 

n c
los
ed 

orm 
as

F(
z)= z一e 

aT

6.1
0)

一(z
eal
)一,

n ge
ner
al 
we 
ma
y s
how 

hat


苍一,
(,
)}
一F(

aT 
z)
EXAM F生石 6.
2刀?
ANSFOR材 OF 
SINUSOI

Le
t u
s d
ete
rmi
ne 

he 
z 

tr
ans
for
m o
f f(

 )=s
in 

ot 

ort 
? 
0.We 

an 
wr
it
e s
in 


n a



n。二e
兰立翌.
2j
            
Ther
efore


. 7 

st
 I 
e 
n 
j0

T一—。
ax 

= 

S—

‘I》 (
6.11

l 
        
2J 
   2j
Then


-一
一三
.-
一_一止匕一
F(
z)=

1/
2jI,
    
__v


、‘一 “
_,_I

WT _一,
WT、
一。
-JC
OT


) (
6.12)
=二 }
一一止竺二一二生二卫_ 】
二 zs
ino)T


  
j(z
’一z 
(e
,W
T 
+ 

-'
0'
T 

+‘)z2一2z 
co
s 
coT+1’
  
A 

abl
e o
f z 

tr
ans
for
ms 
is gi
ven 

n Tab
le 
6.1 
an
d a
t t
he 
MCS we
bsi

e. 
A t
abl
e o
f p
roper
ti
es 
of

he 
Z 

tra
nsf
orm i
s g
ive
n i
n Tabl
e 6
.2. 
As i
n t
he 
cas
e of 
La
pla
ce 

ran
sfo
rms, 
we a
re u
lti
mate
ly

nt
er
est
ed 

n t
he 

utpu
t 
y(
t) 

f t
he 

yst
em. 
Th
ere
for
e we 
mus
t 
us
e a
n i
nve
rse 

ra
nsf
orm 

o o
bta
in
y(
t) 

rom 
Y(
Z).We 
ma
y o
bt
ai
n t
he 

utp
ut 

y (
1) 

xpa
ndi
ng 
Y(z
) 
in 
ap
 o
wer 

eri
es
, (
2)

xpa
ndi
ng 
Y(Z
)in
to 
pa
rt
ia
l 
fr
act
io
ns 

nd 
us
ing 
Ta
ble
6.1 

o 
obt
ai
n 
th
e i
nve
rse 

f 
ea
ch 

erm, 
or 

3)

bta
ini
ng 

he 

nve
rse 
Z 

tr
ans
for
m b
y a
n i
nve
rsi
on 

nte
gra
l. 
We 
wi
ll 

imi
t 
ou
r me
thod
s t
o (
1) 

nd 

2)

n t
his 

imi
ted 
di
scus
sion.


73
Tabl
e 6.
1 2-
Trans
for
ms
x(
t) X 
          

S) X 

z)
_ (
1 
    
t=0 一
— 一
6(
t)=弋_ _
__ _ 1 
                    

t=

S(
t一kT)= 丁
‘ e-
kTs Z-


钊灯.

    


U 

t),
uni
t 
st
ep
  
之一1

钊灯
Tz
  

                  



        

z一1
)2

     之
            
,-
at
S十 a
  
z一e-
    
aT

1一e 
-a


       
(1
一e -
aT 


S(
S+a) (
z一1)
(z一e-a
T)
CO
     z 
    

in 

OT
sin 
OW
S2+口2 z2一2
z c
os 

x+1
Cos 
Cf
)t

       z(
  
z一c
os 

oT 

S2+田2 2
z一
2 2z 

os 

ot+1
CU
         z
  
e-a
T 
si
n 
of
e 
-a
t s
in 

ot

S+a)
2+0
)2 22 2z
z一 e-a
T 
co
s 
co
T+e
-2a

s十 a 22一z
z e-a
T 
cos 


e 
-a
t 
cos以

s+a)
2 
+c 

)2 
      
z2一2z
e-a
T 
co
s 
of+
 e 

2aT

x(
        
t) X(z


. 
      
kx(
t) kX 

z)

. 
      

I(t
)+x
, 
(t
) X, 
(z
)+X2 
(z


. 
      
x(t+T) z
X (
z)一z
X(0)

. 
      
tx(
t) T_ 
dX 

z)
- 1乙 —
dz
      

Ca
t 

(t) X 
    

zea
T)
6. x(
0), 
in
iti
al 
val
ue l
    
imn
、一X 

z) 

f 

he 


mit 
ex
is
ts
x(
o), 

inal 
v a
lue l
    
im_
}, 

z一1
)X(
z) 

f 
th
e l

mit
s 
ex
is
ts 

nd

    
he 

yst
em 
is 

tabl
e; 

hat 

s, 

f a
ll 
po
les 
of

    
z一1
)X 

z) 
ar
e 
in
si
de 

ni
t 

ir
cl
e 
IZ
I=1 
on



,.


…『.

-pl
ane
.__
_,_,
「..
「」二 ‘ __

174
EXAMPLE 
63 
TRANSFER 
FUNCTI
ON 
OF 
OPEN-
LOOP 
SYSTEM

Le
  
t 
us 

ons
ide
r t
he 

yst
em 

hown 

n F
ig.
6.
9 
fo
rT=
=1. 
Th
e t
ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 

f t
he 

ero-
ord
er
hol
d (
Egn.
6.1
) i

六 ,、 (
1一e
fo 
L l
s)= —

                      


her
ef
or
e 

he 


ans
fe
r 

unc

ion 
Y(
s)
/R* 
(s
) i

Y(
s) 。,
_、。,
_、 。,
_、_1一CS

二;丁下,= 。。l
s)Y , 
L ls)= Vl
y)=
. (
6.1
3)
找 Ls) s 
2(
s+1
)’
Ex
pand
ing 

nto 
pa
ti
r a
l 
ra
f c
ti
ons
, 
we 

ave



s)

“一‘
传一香
・s


1 (
6.1
4)




,二
‘,
“,

=(

一‘

Z( 

?一
香・


1 

). (
6.1
5)

r 


)一丫/
T=1

Fi
      
g.6.
9 
An 

pen-
loo
p, 

ampl
ed-
dat
a 
sy
ste
m(wi
tho
ut 

eedb
ack)
Us
ing 

he 
ent
rie
s of 
Tabl
e 6.
1 t
o obt
ain 

he 
Z -
tra
nsf
orm 
of 

ach 

erm, 
we 
ha
ve

_,、 ,
, _
,、
「TZ 
    
Z :1( Z
e-T一Z+T
z)+(
1一e
-T一T
e-T


1LZ)二 L
1一Z 一
刀份 ̄
一,二二 一—
十一一一一
二}
L(
            
z一1
)0 
  Z-1 
 Z一e
-` 
j (
Z一1
)(
Z一e-
T)
W hen T =1 
we 
obt
ain


e-, 
+1
一2e
-' 0.
3678z+0.
2644 
   
0.3678z+0.
2644
G(
z) (
6.16)

z一1
)(
z一e
一,)(
z一1
)(
z一0.
367
8) 
  
za一1
.36
78z+0
.36
78’
Th
e 
re
spo
nse 

f 
th
is 

yst
em 

o 
a 

nit 
imp
uls
e 
is 

bta
ine
d f
or 
R(
z)=I 
so 

hat 
Y(
z)=G(
z)・
1.
We 
ma
y o
bta
in 
Y(z
) b
y d
ivi
din
g t
he 

eno
mina
tor 

nto 

he 

ume
rat
or 

s:


                
.36
78z
一,+0
.76
75z
-2+0.
914
5z一+…=Y(
z)

,一1
.3
678
z+0
.3
678
)0.
36
78z+0
.2
644 ” (
6.
17

洲-

0.
3678 z一 0.
5031 + 0.1
353
+ 0.
              
7675 一 0 .
1353

175
心 -
+0.
767
5一1.
0497 
z一
I+0.2823 


0.
9145 
z-1一0.
2823 

Th
is 

alc
ula
tio
n外e
lds 

he 

esp
ons
e a
t 
th
e s
amp
lin
g i
nst
ant
s 
an
d c
an 

e c
arr
ied 

s f
ar 

s i
s 
ne
ede


or 
Y(
z).
Fro
m Eqn
. 
(6
.5)
, 
we 
ha
ve


(z)
=艺y
(kT 
):
一‘
k=0


n 
th
is 

se 
a we 

ave 

bta
in
ed 

(U) 
as 

ol
lo
ws: 
y(
0)=0
, 
y(
T)=0
.36
78, 
y(
2T)=0.
767
5,

nd 

(3T)
=0 .
914
5.Not
e 
that 
y(U ) 

rov
ides 

he 
va
lue
s o
f y(t
) 
at
t=kT.
We 
  hav
e d
ete
rmin
edY(z),t
he Z-

 r
ans
for
m of 

he 
out
put 
sa
mple
d s
ign
al. 
Th
e z 

tr
ans
for
m o


he 

npu
t 
sa
mpl
ed 

igna
l 
is 
R(
z).
The 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 

n 
th
e z-

 oma
in 


Y(
z)
二G(
z). (
6.18)
R(
z)
  
Si
nce 
we det
e r
mined t
he 
sampl
ed 
output
, 
we 
can 
use 

n out
put 

ample
r t
o depi
ct 
thi
s 
c o
ndit
ion,

s shown in F
ig.6.
10, whi
ch r
epre
sents 
th
e s
yst
em of 
Fig.
6.9 
wit
h t
he add i

ional 
(ic
f t
it
ious)

amp l
es 
(shown in c
olor)
. 
We ss
a u
me  t
hat 
bo
th 
sampl
ers 
have 

he sa
me s a
mpl i
ng 
pe r
iod 
and

perate 

ynchronousl
y. 
Then
Y(
                            
z)二G(
z)R(
z), (
6.1
9)

s r
equi
ed
r . 
We ma
y epr
r ese
nt 
Eg
n.(
6.1
9), 
whi
ch 

s 
a 
z-t
 
ran
sfo
rm 

qua
ti
on, 
by 

he 
bl
ock 
di
agr
am
of 
Fi
g.6.
11.

F啥.
6.1
0 Sy
ste
m wi

h s
amp
led 

utp
ut

Fi
g. 

.11 
Th
e z 

tr
ans
for
m t
ran
sfe
r f
unc
tio
n i
n b
loc
k d
iag
ram 

orm

6.
5 OPEN-
LOOP 
DIGITAL 
CONTROL
Co
   mmerci
all
y avai
la
ble 
digi
ta
l a
ctu
ator
s i
ncl
ude e
lec
tri
ca
l and 
el
ect
ro-
hydr
aul
ic s
te
ppin

mot
ors, 
di
git
al 
valv
es, 
and 
di
git
al 
pi
st
on/cy
li
nder
s. 
Bef
ore 
des
cri
bi
ng 
the 
act
uat
ors 

n det
ai
l 
we

ir
st 
pre
s e
nt 
the 
thumbwhee
l s
wit
ch, 
a 
simpl
e d
evic
e, 
cos
ti
ng a
bout 

5, 
for 
ent
eri
ng 
numeri
cal

omma nds 
int
o a 
digi
tal 

ystem. 
In 
an a
nal
og el
ect
ri
cal 
system the 

efer
enc
e in
pu t 

s usual
ly 


ont
inuousl
y va
ria
ble 
do vol
tage
, s
ay 0 
to 
10V, 
whi
ch we c ou
ld ent
er 
manual
ly wi
th a1 0
-tun


ote
nti
o met
er e
xcit
ed wit
h ap r
eci
se 10
-V power 
suppl
y. To ent
er 
commands in 
digit
al f
orm

equ
ire
s th
at 
the 
digi
tal 
"b
its
" us
ed t
o de
ine 
f t
he 
nume r
ica
l val
ue be 
tur
ned 
"on" or 

of f
" i
n t
he

176
prope
r patt
en. 
r In 
a ty p
ical 
dig
ital 
elec
tro
nic s
ystem a vol
tag
e a nywhere 
betwe en 0a nd 4.
5V
cor
responds 
to 
"off' 
a nd o
ne anywhere 
between 
7.5 t
o 12V co
r r
espo n
ds t
o "on". Of 
the va
r i
ous
codi
ng  s
chemes i
n us e, 
I wi
ll 
de s
cri
be ab i
nay-
r c
oded-dec
ima l (
BCD)  method  i
n wh i
ch each
deci
ma l 
digi
t of 
a numbe r i
s s
pe c
ifi
ed by t
he on-of
f pa
tte
n 
r of f
ou r 
digi
tal s
ignals
. The leas

si
gnif
icant 
bit 

LS B) has a 
weight 
of 1, 

he nex
t 2, 
the 
next 
4, a
n d 
the l
st 
a (mo st 
sig
n i
fi
cant bi

MS B) 8. 
To rep
resent 
d ec
imal 
zero, 
none 
of 
the 
four 
bit
s 
are 
HI (on). 
To r
epr
ese n
t deci
ma l 
3, 
both
th
e 1 
bit 
a n
d t
he 2 b
it are 
HI; 
to 
repre
sent 
deci
ma l 
9, 
the 
LSB and the 
MSB  are 
HI , 
and so 
fort
h.
Thus ald e
cimal 
numb e
rs 
between 0a 
nd 9 c
an be r
epres
ente
d by some combi n
a ti
on of 
the f
our

it
s. 

or 

ume
ri
ca
l 
va
lu
es 

rea
te
r 
th
an 
9 
we 

eed 

n呻e
r 
se
t 
of 

our 
BCD 


nes 

o 
re
pre
sen
t 
th

10'
s 
di
git
, 
an
othe
r s
et 
of 
fo
ur f
or 
th
e 100'
s, 

nd 

o f
ort
h. 
Thus
, 
fo
r e
xamp
le, 

o r
epr
ese
nt 

eci
mal
numbe
rs 

rom 0t
 99
o  9 r
equi
res 
12 

ine
s of 
BCD 

igi
tal 
data

Fi
  
gur
e 6.
12 

hows 

che
mat

cal

y a 

humb
whe
el 

wit
ch 

sin
g o
ur 
BCD 

ode 

o e
nte
r ma
nua
ll

deci
ma l 
numbers 
bet
we e
n 0a nd 9i n
to ad
 ig
ita
l con
tro
l syst
em. The s
witch i
s sh
own in t
he
posi
ti
o n 
neede
d t
o re
prese
nt dec
imal 1; 

hat 
is
, l
ine 
Q, i
s HI whil
e Q2,伍, an
d Q8 are 
LO. By
sid
l i
ng the movi
ng con
tact
s succe
ssivel
y t
hro
ugh the 1
0 d e
tent
ed posi
ti
ons we se
lec
t al
l t
he
combinat
ions 
of Ql, 
Q2 , 
Q4, and Q8 nee
ded t
o repr
esent 
deci
ma ls 
0 th
rough 9. 
For l
arge

numbe r
s 
we re
quir
e o
ne addi
ti
onal 
such s
wit
ch f
or 
each 
decimal 
digi
t. 
Si
nce 
codes 
other 

han ou

BCD 
ar
e i
n us
e, 

wit
ches 
ar
e a
vai
labl
e i
n va
rie
ty 
of 
pat
tens.


                        
NI'

r}

,p
}} 
wel
t妙 t
o好r 

ei议
Fi
g-6
.12 
Th
umb
whe
el 

wit
ch 

BCD) 
fo
r d
igi
ta
l 
da
ta 

nty

Re
  
tuni
r n
g no
w t
o d
igi
ta
l a
ctu
ato
rs, 
Fi
g.6.
13 

hows 
a 

lui
d p
ist
on/
cyl
ind
er 
de
vic
e u
sin
g t
hre


ina
ry-
wei
ght
ed 

tag
es 

o p
rov
ide 

oad 

osi

ion
ing 
ov
er 

he 

ang
e 0 

o 
7 

nit
s 
wi
th 
a 

esol
ut
io
n o


/7 
of 

ull 

cal
e. 
Fo
r e
xamp
le 

f 
th
e LSB 

s a 
0.
01-
in. 
mot
ion
, we 

an 

rov
ide 

osi
ti
ons 
be
twe
en

177
0.
00 

nd 
0.
07 

n. 

n 0.
01-
in. 

ncr
eme
nts
. 
Fi
g.6
.13 

hows 

he 

ctu
ato
r wi
th 

he 

oad 
po
sit
ion
ed 



/7 

f f
ull 

cal
e. 
Not
e t
hat 

ach 

yli
nde
r r
equ
ire
s i
ts 

wn 

alv
e, 
ho
wev
er 

hes
e v
alv
es 

re

nex
pens
ive 

nd 

eli
abl
e o
n-o
f s
ole
noi
d v
alv
es, 
no
t p
rec
isi
on 

erv
ova
lve
s. 
Al
so 

he 

ccu
rac
y o


oad 
po
sit
ion
ing 
de
pen
ds 

nly 

n t
he 

yli
nde
r f
ull 

tr
oke
, 
whi
ch 

s e
sse
nti
all
y f
ixe
d a
t 
th
e t
ime 


ma
nuf
act
ure 

nd 

an 
be 

eld 

o c
los
e t
ole
ran
ces
. No 
po
sit
io
n-me
asu
ring 

ran
sdu
cer 
of 

eedb
ack

oop 

s 
ne
ces
say; 
r t
hi
s 
is 

n o
pen
-lo
op 

yst
em. 
So 

ong 

s 
lui
f d 
su
ppl
y 
pr
ess
ure 

s 
su
ffi
ci
ent

y h
igh,

xte
rna
l d
ist
urb
ing 

orc
es 

ave 
no 

fec
t o
n pos
it
ioni
ng 

ccu
rac
y. 
We 

oul
d u
se 

ine
s Q1
, 
Q2
, 
an

Q4 

f t
he 

humbwh
eel 

wit
ch 

f F
ig.
6.1
2 t
o t
urn 

he 

ole
noi
d v
alv
es 

n a
nd 
of, 
the
reby 

rea
ti
ng 


imp
le 

pen-
loo
p d
igi
tal 
po
sit
ion
ing 

yst
em 
wit
h ma
nua
l 
co
mma
nd 

npu
t.

Fi
                          
g.
6.
13 
Di
gi
ta
lactuator

An
oth
er 

omme
rci
al
ly 

vai
lab
le 
di
git
al 

act
uat
or"i
s t
he 
di
git
al 
low-
f cont
rol 
val
ve. 
Al
thou
gh 



an 

e u
sed 

or 

pen-
loo
p c
ont
rol 

t 
is 
mor
e o
fte
n us
ed 

s a
n a
lt
ena
r t
ive 

o t
he 

neu
mat
ic
all

pos
it
io
ned 
pr
opor
ti
onal 
va
lve 
in 
pr
oce
ss 

ontr
ol 
fee
dbac
k sys
tems 
usi
ng di
re
ct 

igi
ta
l c
ont
ro

(DDC). 
Fi
g.
6.1
4 a
) 
compar
es 
th
ese 

wo 
met
hods 
of 
mani
pul
at
ing 
proc
ess 
lu
fid 
low 
f i
n r
espo
nse 


di
git
al 

omma
nds 

rom 
a c
ont
rol 

ompu
ter
; wh
ere
as 

.14
b) 

hows 

ome 
de
tai
ls 
of 

alv


ons
tru
cti
on 

nd 

per
ati
on. 
Si
mpl
e o
n-o
f s
ole
noi
d v
alv
es 

re 
ma
nif
old
ed 

o pr
ovi
de 

he 

esi
red

omb
ina
ti
on 

f bi
nar
y-we
igh
ted 
lo
f w 
ar
eas
, t
he 

ict
ure
d e
xampl
e u
sin
g s
ix 

its 

o p
rov
ide 


eso
lut
ion 

f 1
/63 

f f
ull 

cal
e. 
Di
git
al 

alv
es 

ave 

hei
r own 
pr
obl
ems
, i
ncl
udi
ng 
po
ssi
ble
wat
er-
hammer 

rans
ient
s due 

o s
udden 
val
ve 
cl
osur
es 

nd 
low 
f coef
fi
cient 

uncer
tai
nti
es 
whe

lo
fw i
s 
ne
ar 

he 

ami
nar
/t
urb
ule
nt 
ra
tnsi
ti
on. 
Pr
ope
r 
de
si
gn 

nd 

ppl

cat
ion 

an 

sua
ll
y 
av
oid 

uch

iff
icu
lti
es. 

igu
re 
6.
15s
.  
hows 

wo 

ar
ge 

igi
tal 

alv
es 

12 

its
) t
hat 

re 

sed 

o c
ont
rol 
lo
f w

179

5-5
00 

pm) 

f s
odi
um 
hy
poc
hlo
ri
te 

n a 
he
avy-
wat
er 

lan
t. 
Th
e c
orr
osi
ve 
lu
fid 

equ
ire
d u
se 

f a

pec
ial 

it
ani
um 

s v
alv
e c
ons
tru
cti
on 
ma
ter
ial
. 
Some 

nte
rna
l c
ons
tru
cti
on 

eta
ils 

f t
hes
e v
alv
es

re 

hown 

n F
ig.
6.1
6.

Sol
                 
id 

tat
e re
hn:

O>
nve
nti
onnl 
me功 od


Co
ny}
nit
er 

ont
rol 
of 
a 

1i
nd 

low Ne
w DDI 

eet
li
od 
   

one 
pe
r bi
t)

一撇一

矛'
o ces
r s



control



di
g 
igal

一SSR
comput
er

」i
  

source


. 呀  ̄ ̄ 明硬 ̄一 自

Pr
oce
ss户f
il

Fr
act
ion 

fto
tal 
Cv

Fi
g. 
6.
14 
Di
gi
tal 

alv
e (
Dig
ita
l 
Dy
nami
cs 

nc.

By 
  f
ar 

he 
mos
t 
co
mmo
n d
igi
tal 

ctu
ato
r i
s 
th
e e
lec
trome
cha
nic
al 

tep
ping 
mo
tor
, 
wi
del
y u
sed

n o
pen-
loo
p a
nd 

los
ed-
loo
p pos
it
ion 

nd 

pee
d c
ont
rol 

yst
ems
. 
On
e mi
ght 

rgu
e t
hat 

t 
is 
no


eal
ly 
a 
di
git
al 

ctu
ato
r s
inc
e i
t 
do
es 

ot 

esp
ond 

ire
ctl
y t
o a 

et 

f bi
nay-
r we
igh
ted 

its
, 
howe
ver

t 
is 

ot 

sua
lly 

iff
icul
t 
to 
pr
ogr
am 

he 

ompu
ter 

o p
rod
uce 
a 
pu
lse 

rai
n wi
th 
a 

ert
ai
n pu
lse 

ate

nd 

ota
l nu
mbe
r of 
pu
lse
, wh
ich 

s t
he 

ype 
of 

npu
t t
he 

tep
ping 
mot
or 

equ
ire
s. 
Ba
sic
all
y, 


tepp
ing 
mot
or 
pl
us 

ts 

sso
cia
ted 
dr
ive
r e
lec
tro
nic
s a
cce
pts 
pul
se 

rai
n i
npu
t a
nd 
pr
odu
ces 

179

mpr
over
n-
ent 
of 

ota
ry 
di
spl
ace
ment
, 
sa
y 1
.8" 

200 
pl
uses 
per 

evol
uti
on), 
for 

ach 

uls
e. 
Thus 
we

an 
con
tr
ol mot
or 
aver
age 
spe
ed 
by 
mani
pula
ti
ng p
uls
e ra
te, 

nd moto
r p
osi
ti
on 
by 
cont
rol
in
l g

ota
l 
pu
lse 

oun
t. 
We 

hou
ld 

mme
dia
tel
y ma
ke 

lea
r t
hat

Fi
g.6.
15 
12-
bit 
di
git
al 
va
lve

Fi
g.
6.
16 
Co
nst
ruc
ti
on 
de
tai
ls 

f d
igi
ta
l 
va
lve

190

. I
f 
th
e i
npu
t pu
lse 

ate 

s t
oo 

ast
, 
th
e mo
tor 
wi
ll 

mis
s" 

teps
, 
ma
king 

pee
d a
nd 
po
sit
ion

    
naccur
ate.

b. 

f t
he motor 

s at 
res
t, 
an 
ext
ena
r l 
di
stur
bing 

orqu
e grea
ter 

han t
he 
mo t
or'
s 
hol
din
g t
o r
que

    
an t
wi s
t t
he 
motor s
haft 

wa y 
fr
om its 
commande
d posi
ti
on by 
any 
number 
of 

tep
s. 
Wh en

    
he 
dist
urbanc
e is 

emo v
ed, 
th
e moto
r wil
l 
not 

ecov
er i
ts 
cor
rec
t p
osi
ti
on.
Two 
   t
ypes of 

teppi
ng moto
rs 
are 
in 
commo n 
use: 
varia
ble 
rel
ucta
nce 
and 
per
manent 
magnet

Th
e p
erma
nen
t ma
gne
t t
ype 

s 
some
wha
t e
asi
er 

o u
nde
rst
and 

o i
t 
wi
ll 

e d
esc
rib
e i
t 
br
iely
f . 
In
Fi
g.6.
17 

he 
mo
tor 
ha
s a 
pe
rma
nent 
ma
gne
t r
oto
r a
nd 

he 

tat
or 
ha
s f
our 

ai
le
nt 

lec
tro
mag
net
ic
po
les 

hat 

re 

ner
giz
ed 
ro
f m 
a 
do 

uppl
y. 

f S3 

s c
onne
ct 

o po
sit
ive 
po
lar
it
y, 
S 
l 

o ne
gat
ive
po
lar
it
y, 

nd 

2, 
S4 

re 

pen, 
an 
el
ect
roma
gne
tic 

iel
d i
s c
rea
ted 

etwe
en 
S3 

nd 
S1 
wi
th 
a 

ort

po
le 

t S3 

nd 
a 
so
uth 
po
le 

t S1
, a
tt
rac
ti
ng 

he 

oto
r i
nto 

he 
po
sit
ion 

hown. 
Wi
th 

his 

iel

ma
int
ai
ned, 

f we 

ry 

o t
wis
t t
he 

haf
t a
way 
rom 
f i
ts 

ref
err
ed 

osi
ti
on 
we 

eel 
a 

mag
net
ic

pri
ng" 

est
ori
ng 

orq
ue; 

owe
ver 
a 

uff
ic
ien
tl
y 
la
rge 

xte
na
r l 

or
que 

an 

ver
come 

he 
ma
gne
ti


pri
ng 

nd 
we 

an 

un 
r s
haf
t 
an
gle 
ea
 s 

ar 

s we 
wi
sh. 
Whe
n we 

et 

o, 

he 

oto
r wi
ll 

sna


ack" 

fte
r s
ome 

sci
ll
ati
on 

o t
he 

osi
ti
on 
of 
Fi
g.6
.17
, h
owe
ver 
we 

ave 

los
t" 

n i
nte
ger

umber 

f 
re
vol
ut
io
ns. 
To 
co
mmand 

he 

ot
or 

o 
tu
n9
r  0 

one 

te
p) 

oun
te
rc
lo
ckwi
se 
we 

onne
ct

osi

ive 

o 
S2, 
nega
ti
ve 

o 
S4 

S 
1, 
S3 
ope
n)
. 
A 
fur

her 

CW 90 

equ
ir
es 
+S 
1,-
S3, 
(S2, 
S4 
op
en)

nd 

he 

ina
l po
sit
ion 

equ
ire
s +S
4,-
S2, 

S1, 
S3 

pen
). 
Obv
iou
sly
, c
loc
kwi
se 

ota
ti
on 
mer
ely

equ
ir
es 

he 

rop
er 

equ
enc
e of 

ta
tor 

xci
ta
ti
ons
, 
an
d r
oto
r a
ver
age 

pee
d c
ont
ro
l 
is 

bta
ine
d by

han
ging 

he 

ate 

t wh
ich 

tat
or 

xci
tat
ion 

s s
wit
che
d. 
Al
thou
gh 
a而c
rop
roc
ess
or 

an 


pr
ogr
amme
d t
o p
erf
orm 

he 

equi
red 

tat
or 

xci
ta
ti
on 

wit
chi
ng, 
an
oth
er 

ppr
oac
h us
es 

vai
lab
le

Fi
                        
g.6
.17 
Pe
rma
nen
t-ma
gne
t 
st
epp
ing 
mo
tor


nte
gra
ted 

irc
uit 

hip
s (
st
epp
er 
mo
tor 

riv
ers
) 
ins
tea
d. 
Th
ese 

hips 

equi
re 

s i
npu
t o
nly 
a 
pu
lse

rai
n a
t t
he 

tep
pin
g re
f qu
enc
y a
nd 
a 

ogi
c s
igna
l 
to 

pec
ify 
CW 
or 
CCW 
rot
ati
on. 
An a
dju
sta
ble

181
re
f q
uen
cy 
pul
se 

rai
n i
s r
ead
ily 

bta
ine
d rom 
f ano
the
r I
C c
hip, 
a 

olt
age
-co
ntr
oll
ed 

sci
ll
at
or

VCO)
. 
Th
e ou
tpu
t re
f qu
enc
y of 

uch 

hip
s d
epe
nds 

ypi
cal

y o
n t
he 

alu
e of 

wo 

esi
sto
rs, 

ne

apa
cit
or, 

nd 

n i
nput 

olt
age 

dc)
, 
al
lowi
ng 

sy 
a re
f q
uen
cy 

ont
rol 
rom 
f manu
al 

npu
ts 

r d

cont
rol 
vol
tages

A 
  

impl
e 
op
en-
loo
p s
pee
d c
ont
rol 

an 

e ss
a e
mbl
ed 
ro
f m 
aV
 CO, 

te
ppe
r 
mot
or 

ri
ver
, 
po
wer

upp
ly, 

nd 

tep
per 
mot
or. 
Fo
r ma
nua
l s
pee
d c
omma
nd 
we 

oul
d u
se 
a 

0-t
un 
r po
t s 
a av
 
ari
abl


esi
st
or 

n t
he 
VCO. 
As 
lo
ng 
s 
a s
tepp
ing 

ate
s a
nd 

ist
urbi
ng 

orq
ues 

re 

ow 

nou
gh 

hat 

o s
tep


re 
mi
sse
d, 

pee
d c
ont
rol 
wi
ll 
be 

ccu
rat
e, 
a 

ypi
cal 

ppl

cat
ion 

eing 
a 
ch
art

pap
er 

riv
e f
or 


tr
ip-
cha
t 
r r
eco
rde
r. 
By 
dr
ivi
ng 

eve
ral 
mo
tor
s ro
f m 

he 

ame 

req
uenc
y s
our
ce, 

ync
hro
niz
ed
mot

ons 

t d
iff
ere
nt 
po
int
s i
n am
 ac
hine 

re 

si
a l
y o
bta
ine
d. 
Us
ing 

tan
dar
d re
f q
uen
cy-
div
ide


hip
s we 

an 

riv
e a 

econ
d mo
tor 

t a 

rec
ise 
ra
f c
ti
on 

f a
not
her 
mo
tor
's 

pee
d, 

ivi
ng 



ele
ctr
oni
c g
ear 

rai
n." 
Fo
r o
pen-
loo
p po
sit
ion 

ont
rol 

he 

rra
nge
men
t of 

ig.
6.1
8 c
an 
be 
us
ed.
Ad
dit
iona
l c
hip
s s
hown 

her
e a
re 

he 

ount
er
, c
omp
ara
tor
, a
nd 


lp 

lop. 
We 

et 

he 

esi
red
po
sit
ion 

s a 

eta
r i
n nu
mbe
r o
f mo
tor 

tep
s o
n t
he 

humb
whe
el 

wit
che
s, 

nd 

he 
va
ria
ble 

esi
st
or

n t
he 
VCO 

ele
cts 

he 

uls
e r
ate 

spe
ed) 
wi
th 
wh
ich 
we 
wi
sh 

o ma
ke 

he 
mo
ve. 
As 
pu
lse
s a
e 
r f
ed
ro
f m 

he 
VCO t
o t
he 
mo
tor
, 
th
e c
oun
ter 

ount
s 
th
em 

nd 

ends 

his 

umb
er 

o t
he 

omp
ara
tor


        
c 
t 

)l
t 

se
rate
                

厂一 一I 
            
                              
el
l 
/CCT


ogi
c 
in
put

了、rhe
train
」人ttor
了(.
'O dri
ver

E;abl
e/di
subl

岭i
s 
in
put
BCD Co
unt 

p-do
,二,
cor
n er
砷i
s i
nput

Bl 
I 
B: 
I 
B_
41 
Bi
_
d>B

BCD
   」 <B
Comparat
or 」 二B

JLnr
dul
el



介〕’

nl

_


 






:3




















eA 

 

  
Fi
g.6
.18 
Ope
n-l
oop 

osi
ti
on 

ont
rol 
us
ing 

tep 
mo
tor

182
wh
ich 

lso 

ece
ive
s t
he 

humb
whe
el 

wit
ch 
da
ta 

nd 

ompa
res 

he 

wo. 
When 
B 
(p
uls
es 

oun
ted


qua
ls 
A 
(pu
lse
s wa
nte
d) 

he 

ompa
rat
or 
A=B 

ogi
c s
igna
l go
es 
HI 

nd 

isa
ble
s t
he 
VCO,

top
ping 

he 

uls
es. 
It 
we 
no
w c
han
ge 

he 

humb
whe
el 

wit
ch 

ett

ng 

n e
it
her 

ire
cti
on, 
th
e A<B,
A>B 

omp
ara
tor 

utpu
ts 

thr
ough 

he 


lp-
lop
f ) s
wit
ch 

he 
mo
tor 

riv
er 

o t
he 

rop
er 

CW/
CCW)

ir
ect
io
n a
nd 

inc
e 
A 
# 
B.Th
e A二B 
in
le g
oes 
LO, 
ena
ble 

he 
VCO 

nd 
pr
odu
cin
g p
uls
es 
un
ti


he 

omp
ara
tor 

s a
gai
n s
ati
sf
ied. 
Not
e t
hat 
mot
or 
mo
tio
n i
s n
ot 

ens
ed, 

hus 

f 
st
eps 

re而s
sed

ue 

o e
xce
ssi
ve 
pu
lse 

ate 

nd/
or 
di
st
urbi
ng 

orq
ues
, 
th
e s
yst
em 
doe
s no
t k
now 

his 

nd 

rro


esul
ts.

Si
  
nce 

he 

ost 

nd 

impl

cit
y a
dva
nta
ges 

f s
tepp
er-
mot
or 
mo
tio
n c
ont
rol 

yst
ems 

rode 
whe

mo
tio
n s
ens
ors 

nd 

eed
bac
k l
oops 

re 

dde
d, 
muc
h e
ffo
rt 
ha
s、 
gone 

nto 

mpr
ovi
ng 

he

erf
orma
nce 
of 
ope
n-l
oop 
sys
tems
. 
 A pa
rti
cul
ar 
mot
or/
loa
d i
ner
ti
a wi
ll 
exh
ibi
t a


rro
r-f
ree
-st
art
-s
top 

ate 

EFSS
R) 

hat 

epe
nds 

n l
oad 

orq
ue 
s 
a i
n Fi
g.6
.19
. As 

ong 

s o
ur

omma
nds 

o n
ot 

equ
ire 

he 

yst
em 

o e
xce
ed 

ts 
EFSS
R, 

her
e wi
ll 

e o
ne 
mo
tio
n p
uls
e f
or 

ach

lec
tri
cal 

omma
nd 
pu
lse 

nd 

ccu
rac
y wi
ll 

e p
res
erv
ed. 
By 

cce
ler
ati
ng 

nd 

ece
ler
ati
ng 

he

oad 

rad
ual
ly, 
we 
ca
n e
nsu
re 

uch 

per
ati
on. 
Thi
s 
is 

all
ed 

ampi
ng 

nd 

s 
esi
a l
y a
chi
eve
d whe

we 

se 
a 
VCO 
s 
a t
he 
pu
lse 

rai
n s
our
ce, 

inc
e t
he 
re
f q
uen
cy 

an 

e s
che
dul
ed 
wi

h a 

ime
-va
ryi
ng

o i
nput 
vo
lta
ge. 
Bot
h e
xpo
nent
ia
l 
an
d s
tra
ight
-l
ine 

ramp
s" 

re 

sed, 
ex
pon
ent
ial 
be
ing 

ref
err
ed

or 

cce
ler
ati
on 

nd 

tra
igh
t-l
ine 
be
ing 

dequ
ate 

or 

ece
ler
ati
on. 
Th
e c
irc
uit
y 
r f
or 

onv
ert

ng 


omma
nd 

uls
e r
ate 

o t
he 
pr
ope
r s
eque
nce 

f mo
tor 

hase 

wit
chi
ngs 

s c
all
ed 
at
 r
ans
lat
or;
wh
ere
as 

he 
me
ans 

or 

ene
rat

ng 
a 
pr
ope
r pu
lse 

ate 

nd 

ount 

s c
all
ed 

n i
nde
xer
. 
Fo
r t
hos


ser
s who 
mus
t t
rad
e d
esi
gn 

ime 

nd 

kil
l f
or 

ost
, 
re
ady-
mad
e s
yst
ems 

f g
rea
t v
ers
ati
li
ty

ncl
udi
ng 
mot
or, 

ndexe
r, 

nd 

rans
lat
or 

re 
avai
labl
e.
之l
b、足 Pno7

100 200

Pil

seb
/S)

Fi
g.6.
19 
Er
ror
-re
f e
-st
at-
r s
top-
rat
e 
fo
r s
tep

The 

ingl
e-s
tep 

espons
e of 
s mot
ors 

s of
ten 
qui
te 
os
cil
lat
ory 
and 
va
rious 

che
mes 

or

mpr
ovi
ng 

amp
ing 

re 

vai
la
ble
. Th
e Lan
che
ste
r t
ype 

f me
cha
nic
al 

amp
er, 
whi
ch 
was
tes 

193

ner
gy 

n f
ri
cti
on 

or 

ons
tant 

elo
cit

es, 

s a 

imp
le 

olu
ti
on 

n s
ome 

se
a s
. A 
mor
e c
ompl
ex

ppr
oac
h u
ses 

he 

st 
a f
ew 

uls
es 

f a 
mo
ve 

o a
ppl
y ma
gne
tic 

oun
ter
-t
orq
ue 

"br
aki
ng 
pu
lse
s")

o r
edu
ce 

sci
ll
at
ion. 
Even 
mor
e c
omp
lex, 

ut 

uit
e s
ucc
ess
ful
, 
is 

he 

onc
ept 

f mi
cro
ste
ppi
ng.
Th
e mo
tor 
of 

ig.
6.1
7 h
as 

our 

teps 

er 

evo
lut
ion
, 
but 
it 

s 
mo
re 

ommo
n t
o 
us
e a
ddi
ti
ona
l s
tat
or

nd 

oto
r ma
gne
tic 

ole
s t
o g
et, 

ay, 

00 

teps 

er 

evol
ut
ion
. Mi
cro
ste
ppi
ng 

rov
ide
s 2
0,00
0 t


0,0
00 

teps 

er 

evo
lut
ion 

nd 

s 
not 

cco
mpis
lhed 
by 
mo
tor 

ede
sign 
bu
t b
y d
riv
ing 
a 

tan
dar


00 

tep
s pe
r r
evo
lut
ion 
mot
or 
wi
th 

sma
t" 
r e
lec
tro
nic
s. 
The 

asi
c c
onc
ept 

an 

e u
nde
rst
ood 



erms 

f Fi
g.6.
17. 
By 

ner
giz
ing 

oth 
S1
/S3 

nd 
S2
/S4 

imu
lta
neo
usl
y, 

he 

oto
r ma
gne
ti
c f
iel


an 

e or
ie
nte
d a
t 45',c
aus
ing 

he 

oto
r t
o mo
ve 
45',r
at
her 

han 

0*.Us
in
g t
he 

rop
er

omb
ina
ti
ons 

f i
ndi
vidu
al 

nd 

imu
lta
neou
s s
tat
or 

ole 

xci
ta
ti
ons
, we 
no
w h
ave 
do
ubl
ed 

he

umb
er 

f s
teps 
pe
r r
evo
lut
ion. 
If 
we 

ow 

an 

lso 

djus
t 
th
e r
ela
tiv
e s
tr
engt
hs 

f t
he 

tat
or 

ole

xci
ta
ti
on 

cur
rent
) f
or 

wo 

dja
cen
t po
les
, t
he 

ngu
lar 
or
ien
tat
ion 
of 

he 

tat
or 

iel
d (
and 

hus

oto
r p
osi
ti
on) 

an 
be 

nde
xed 

n e
ven 

ine
r s
teps
, 
cu
rre
nt 

rac
tic
e p
rov
idi
ng 

he 

0,0
00 

o 5
0,0
00

tep
s pe
r r
evol
uti
on 
me
nti
one
d e
arl
ie
r. 
Thi
s 
te
chn
iqu
e n
ot 

nly 

mpr
ove
s da
mpi
ng 

ut 

ive
s f
ine


ngu
lar 
mo
ti
on 

eso
lut
ion 

han 

xpe
nsi
ve 

haf
t 
en
cod
ers 

n c
omp
eti

ive 

los
ed-
loo
p s
yst
ems

Al
  
tho
ugh 

he 

dva
nta
ges 
of 

tep
per 
dr
ive
s i
n o
pen
-lo
op 

yst
ems 

re 
mo
st 

bvi
ous
, 
cl
ose
d-l
oop

ppl
ic
ati
ons 

lso 

xis
t. 
So
meo
ne 

omp
are
s 
se
ver
al 

lt
er
nat
iv
e s
olut
io
ns 

o 
a 

ine 
pr
int
er 

ape
r-f
eed

riv
e p
robl
em 
and 

how 
how 
a c
los
ed-
loo
p s
tepp
er 

riv
e c
an 

e a
nal
yze
d u
sing 

las
sic
al

ech
niq
ues 

roo
t l
ocu
s, 

tc.
) 
empl
oye
d f
or 

ont

nuo
us-
mot
io
n s
yst
ems
. 
Mo
st 

te
ppe
r-
mot
or 

riv
es

eit
her 

pen 

oop 

r c
los
ed 

oop
) a
re 

ela
ti
vel
y 
low 
po
wer 

a f
ew 

und
red 
wa
tts 

r l
ess
), 

he 

arg
est

vai
la
ble 

lec
tri
cal 
mot
ors 

urr
ent
ly 
be
ing 

bou
t 3 
hp. 
Whe
n hi
gh-
powe
r d
riv
es 

sin
g t
he

tep
-mo
tor 

rin
cip
le 

re 

equ
ire
d, 

lec
tro
-hy
dra
uli
c s
tep 
mot
ors 

re 

vai
la
ble
. Th
ese 

se 
a 

mal


lec
tro
mec
han
ica
l 
st
ep 
mot
or 

o p
osi
ti
on 

he 

poo
l o
f a 

erv
o-v
alve 

n a
n o
pen
-lo
op 

shi
a on. 
Us
ing
me
cha
nic
al 

eed
bac
k i
n a 

los
ed-
loo
p f
ash
ion
, t
he 

poo
l p
osi

ion 

s 
re
pro
duc
ed 

t a 

igh 
po
wer

eve
l (
10 
hp 

r mo
re) 

y ar
 
ota
ry 

ydr
aul
ic 
mo
tor
. 
Fi
gur
e 6.
20 

hows 

wo 

che
mes 
us
ed 



mpl
eme
nt 

his 

onc
ept
. I
n 6
.20 

a) 
a 

ow-
powe
r e
lec
tri
cal 

tep 
mot
or 

ota
tes 

he 

pool 

f a

erv
o-v
alv
e, 
wh
ich 

lso 

hen 

rans
lat
es 

ope
nin
g t
he 

alv
e) 
be
cau
se 

he 

eft 
end 
of 

he 

poo
l i
s 
th


cre
w o
f a 
ba
ll 

cre
w/nu
t u
nit
. 
Th
e nu
t o
f t
his 

nit 

ota
tes 
wi
th 

he 

igh
-po
wer 

utpu
t s
haf
t 
of 


ota
ry 

ydr
aul

c mo
tor 

riv
en 

y t
he 

alv
e. 
Ro
tat

on 

f t
his 

haf
t 
te
nds 

o t
ra
nsl
at
e 
th
e v
alv
e s
poo

ba
ck 

owa
rd 

ts 

los
ed 

osi
ti
on, 

hus 

ydr
aul

c mo
tor 

ota
ti
on 

ont
inu
es 

nti
l 
it 

ust 

qua
ls 

he

ota
tio
n c
omma
nde
d b
y t
he 

lec
tri
cal 

tep 
mot
or, 
wh
ere
upo
n t
he 

ydr
aul

c mot
or 

tops
, 
si
nce 

he

alve 

as 

ow 

etu
ne
r d 

o n
ull
. 
Thi
s 
hy
dro
-me
cha
nic
al 

rra
nge
men
t i
s a 

omp
let
e c
los
ed-
loo


erv
o s
yst
em, 
thu
s hy
dra
uli
c 
mot
or 
pu
lse
s d
upic
l a
te 

hos
e o
f t
he 

lec
tri
cal 
mo
tor
. 
Howe
ver
, 
if 

he

ver
all 
mo
tio
n c
ont
rol 

yst
em 
doe
s n
ot 
me
asu
re 

oad 
mot
ion, 
we 

an 

til
l 
ha
ve 

rror
s d
ue 

o t
he

lec
tri
cal 
mo
tor 

haf
t 
no
t du
pic
l a
ti
ng 

ach 

lec
tri
cal 

nput 

uls
e. 
Fi
gur
e 6
.20 

b) 

hows 
a 

imi
lar

194

rrangeme
nt 

or 

rans
lat
iona
l l
oad 
mot
ion. 
Rot
ay 
r mot
orsup 

o a
bout 
20 
hp 

re 
ava
ilabl
e, 
a 

ypi
cal


0 h
p mo
tor 
ha
viga 
n s
tep 

ize 

f 0.
720 m axim u m pul
se 

ate 
of 

3,000/
s, 
EFSSR 
of 
2000

pul
ses
/s, 
wi
th 

orqueof 

150 

n.-
Ibf 

t t
his 
pul
ser
ate
. 
A 

ypi
cal 

ran
sla
tio
nal 

ctu
ato
r mi
ght 

ave 


tep 

ize 
of 
0.
001 
or 
0.
0005 

n. 
wi
th 
a 
ma
ximum s
peed 
of 
300 

n/mi
n.

功"
dra
rdr
r 
pi
st
on 

uot
or El
ect
ric 

teppi
rr
g mot
or
Ball 

screw- 
nut 
uni

, 







F hi
-,
lrnr
rl
ic 
ral
re

Fi
g.6
.20 
El
ect
ro-
hyd
raul

c s
tep
pin
g a
ctua
tor

6.
6 CLOSED-
LOOP 
FEEDBACK 
SAMPLED-
DATA 
SYSTEM S
  
In 

his 

ect
ion 
we con
sid
er 
cl
ose
d-l
oop, 
sample
d-da
ta 
cont
rol 
sy
s t
ems. 
Consi
der 
th
e s
yst
em

hown 
in 

ig.
6.21 

a).
The s
ampl
ed-
dat
a z-
tr
ansf
onn mode
l o
f t
his 

igure 
wi
th a 
sampl
ed-
out
put

ign
al 
Y(
z) 

s s
hown 

n Fi
g.
6.
21 

b). 
Th
e c
los
ed-
loo
p t
ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
T( 
z) 

usi
ng 
bl
ock
di
agr
am 

educ
tion) 


Y(
z) G(
  
z)
= 
T(z
) (
6.20)
R(
z) 1
+G( z

195


:)
一 ̄/产

(a)

十 ̄ 月Z

G(
Z) Y(
Z)


                    
b)

Feedbac
k cont
rol 

yst
em 
wit
h uni
ty 

eedbac

He
re 
we 

ssume 

hat 

he 
G(z) 

s t
he 

-t
ra
nsf
orm 
of 
G(s
)=玩(
s)
G 
p 

s), 
wh
er
e GO
(s)
is

he 

er
o-
or
de
r 
ho
ld, 
an
d GP 

s) 

s 

he 

la
nt 


ans
fe
r 
fu
nct

on.
exa
A n  mpl
e 
of 
a 

igi
tal 

ont
rol 

yst
em 

s 
th
e r
obo
t d
og 
Ai
bo 

hown 

n Fi
g. 
6.
22. 
Th
e f
eed
bac

cont sy
rol ste
m o
f o
ne 

oint 
wi
th 
a 

igi
tal 
co
ntr
oll
er 

s 
sh
own 

n F
ig.
6.
22 

a). 
Th
e z
-t
ran
sfo
rm 

loc


iag
ram 
mod
el 

s 
sho
wn 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
22 

b). 
 The 

los
ed-
lo
op 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 

Y(
z) G(
  z
)D( z)
=T(
z) (
6-21)
R(
z) 1+G(z)
D( z)

DI
  
S;W
cnnv川 l
et



r) ̄/户 口(
a) 。闷卜Y 

Z)

几(L)

186
Fi
g. 
6.
22 
Ai
bo 

s a 

ophi
st
ic
ate
d e
nte
rta
inme
nt 

obo
t. 
Ai
bo 

ook
s l
ike 
a 
Ch
ihu
ahu
a a
nd 
wa
gs 

ts

ail
, 
doe
s t
ri
cks 

nd 
go
es 

or 
wa
lks
. 
Ai
bo 

epe
nds 

n a 
wi
de 

ang
e of 

ens
ors
, i
ncl
udi
ng 

ouc
h,

olor 
CCD 

ame
ra, 
ra
nge 

ind
er 

nd 

elo
cit
y s
ens
ors
. 
A 

4-b
it 
RI
SC 
mi
cro
pro
ces
sor 

nd 

6MB 


me
mor
y a
re 
bu
ilt
-i
n. 

t 
ha
s 1
8 j
oin
ts 

owe
red 

y 1
8 mot
ors
. (
a) 

eed
bac
k c
ont
rol 

yst
em 
wit
h a

ui

6i
二 t
几a
“l 
‘ 二c
.o
Un

ltr

“Ul
几l

 ̄ r
. 
・(

。) 
、 Bl

分c
,户1 k 
“d
协i

“舀r
几am 
‘m
 ̄二 二
1 o
de
 ̄协‘l
玉. 
.No
Ut
人’ e 
 ̄ t

“1at 
““G
甘(
、z)=Z
‘,一  ̄ 七。 (
卜.0、s
。、
jG _

\:
"、}.
户        
P  ,
Ij.

EXAM PLE 
6.4 OF 
CLOSED-
LOOP 
SYSTEM

No
w l
et 
us 

ons
ide
r t
he 
cl
ose
d-l
oop 
sys
tem 
as 

hown 

n Fi
g6.
23. 
We 
ha
ve 
obt
ai
ned

he 
z一t
rans
for
m model 
of 

his 

yst
em 
as 

hown 

n Fi
g.6.
21. 
The
ref
ore 
we 
ha
ve

Y(
z)   
G(习

6.22)
R(
z) 1+G(z)


n Ex
amp
le 
6.
3 we 

bta
ine
d G(
z) 

s Eg
n(6
.16
) wh
en 
T=1 

econ
d. 
Su
bst
it
ut
ing 
G(
z) 

nt

Eg
n(6.
22) 
we 

bta
in


'() 0.
Z 36782+0.
2644

6.23)
R(
z) z
2一z+0.
632
2’

inc
e t
he 

npu
t 
is 
a 

nit 
st
ep,

  
R(
z)= (
6.24)
之一I

hen


(0.
3678z+0.
2644) 0.
3678
22+0.
264
42
Y(
z) :
二二 一 二二一


z一1
)(
22一z+0
.63
22) 
  
z3一2
22 
+1
.63
222一0
.63
22
Co
mpl
et
in
g t
he 

ivi
si
on, 
we 
ha
ve
Y(
              
z)=0.
3678
2一,
+z-
2 
+1
.4z
-3 
+1
.4z
一+1
.14
7z-
5.… (
6.25)

e 

r) e"h)
r(
i) t(
Go 
(S
) s(
s+ I)
T= 1

Fi
g. 

.23 
A 
cl
ose
d-l
oop, 
sa
mpl
ed-
dat
a 
sy
ste

Th
e v
alue
s o
f 
y(
kT) 

re 

hown 

n Fi
g.
6.
24, 

sin
g t
he 

ymb
ol口。
The 

omp
let
e 
re
spo
nse 

f t
he

ampl
ed-
dat
a, 

los
ed-
loo
p s
yst
em 
is 

hown 

obt
ain
ed 
by 
MAT
LAB; 

ee 
Sec
tio
n 6.
13) 

nd

ont
ras
te
d t
o t
he 

esp
ons
e o
f a 

ont
in
uou
s s
yst
em 

whe
n T=0)
.Th
e o
ver
sho
ot 

f t
he 

amp
led

yst
em i
s 
45%, 

n c
ont
ras
t 
to 1
7% for 

he 
co
nti
nuous 
sy
stem. 
Fu
rth
ermo
re, 
th
e s
ett
li
ng 

ime 

f t
he

ample
d s
yst
em 

s t
wic
e a
s l
ong a
s t
hat 
of 

he 
cont
inu
ous s
yst
em.

I只7

-(
t1
16
  


.刃‘
    

/ 尸声尸韶 ̄入 {
,‘
.声

t.
0 // 卜闷入一 睁 ,‘ ....侧,

\ 〕、.

t).
。甘

名E


 ( 

)1
 

tl



IX


一。,


“。
一扮


Il.


l).

r !

,曲


匕_
______
_



T 
il
tt
e(verot
tds

Fi
        

. 
6.
24 
Th
e r
espons
e o
f a 

econd
-or
der 

yst
em:

) c
ont

nuo
us 
(T=0),not 
sa
mpled; 
b) 

ampl
ed 
sys
tem, 
T=I 

eco
nd

6.
7 STABILI
TY 
ANALYSIS 
IN 
THE z 

PLANE
A 
  
in
l e
ar 

ont

nuou
s f
eed
bac
k c
ont
rol 

yst
em 

s s
tab
le 

f 
alp
 
ole
s of 

he 

los
ed-
loo
p t
ran
sfe


unc
ti
on 
T( 

) 

le 

n t
he 

eft 

alf 

f t
he 
s-
p 
la
ne. 
Th
e z-

 l
ane 

s 
re
lat
ed 

o 
the 
s-

 la
ne 

y t
he

rans
for
mat
ion
z=e 
                   
ST=e 
`a
+1
XU

T (
6.
26

We 
ma
y a
lso 
wr
it
e 
th
is 

ela
ti
ons
hip 




}一e


and

Lz=(
                           
OT. (
6.2
7)

n 
the 

et-
fhan
d s 

pl
ane
, 
o'
<0,
and 

her
ef
ore 

he 

el
at
ed 
ma
gni
tu
de 

f zv
 
ari
es 

etwe
en 
0 

nd 


Th
ere
for
e t
he 

mag
ina
ry 

xis 

f t
he 
s 

pla
ne 

orr
espo
nds 

o t
he 

nit 

irc
le 

n t
he 

-pl
ane
, 
an
d t
he

nsi
de 
of 

he 

nit 
ci
rcl
e c
orr
espo
nds 

o t
he 

eft 

alf 
of 

he 
s 

pla
ne.
Th
  
ere
for
e we 

an 

ta
te 

hat 
a 

amp
led 

yst
em 

s 
st
abl
e 
if 

ll 

he 
po
les 
of 

he 

los
ed-
loo
p t
ra
nsf
er

unc
ti
on 
T(z
) 
li
e 
wi
th
in 

he 

nit 
ci
rc
le 
of 

he 
z-
p 
la
ne.

EXAMPLE 
6.5 
STABILITY 
OF 
A CLOSED-
LOOP 
SYSTEM

Le
t 
us 

ons
ide
r 
the 

yst
em 

hown 

n 
Fi
g-
6.
25, 
whe
n T=1 

nd

  
G_ 


s)二
    

6.28)
s(
s+1

Re
cal

lng 
Eq
n. 

6.1
6), 
we 
no
te 

hat

!88


z)
・z

2 
(-




.6




7z 

+ 
2+




.6




7)
8                  

“一(
1+a
)z+a
K(
                  
az+b)

6.29)

whe
re 
a=0.
3678,
and 
b=0.
2644.

(t)

(t)十 e(
t) e击



Gr
} 

s) GI
) 


I)

Fi
g. 
6.
25 
A 
cl
ose
d-l
oop 

ampl
ed 

yst
em

Th
  
e po
les 

f t
he 

los
ed-
loo
p t
ran
sfe
r f
unc
tio
n T(
z) 

re 

he 

oot
s 
of 

he 

qua
tio


1+G(
z)]=0.
We 

all 
q(
z)=1+G(
z)=0 

he 

har
act
er
is
ti
c 
eq
uat
io
n. 
The
ref
ore 
we 

bta
in

              
(z) 
=1 
+ 
G(z
) 
= 

2一(
l+a
)z+a+Ka
z+Kb二0. 
          
(6
.3
0)
When 
K =1,we 
have

q(
    
z)=z
“一z+0.
632
2=(
z一0.
50+ 

0.61
82)
(z一0.
5一j
0.61
82)=0. 
      

6.
31

Th
ere
for
e t
he 

yst
em 

s 
st
abl
e 
be
cau
se 

he 

oot
s 
li
e 
wi

hin 

he 

nit 
ci
rcl
e. 
Wh
en 
K=1
0,we 
ha
ve
q(
    
z)=z+

22 .
3102+3
.01
2=(
z+1
.15
5+j
l.
295
)(z+1
.15
5一j
1.2
95)
, 
    

6.
32


nd 

he 

yst
em 

s u
nst
abl
e b
eca
use 

oth 

oot
s 

le 

uts
ide 

he 

nit 

irc
le. 
Thi
s 
sy
ste
m i
s s
tab
le 

or
0< K < 2.
39.The 

ocus 
of 

he 

oot
s as 
K var
ies 

s di
scus
sed 

n Sect
ion 
6.
11.

We 
  no
ti
ce 

hat 
a 

eco
nd-
orde
r s
amp
led 

yst
em 

an 
be 

nst
abl
e wi
th 

ncr
esi
a n
g ga
in 
whe
re 


eco
nd-
ord
er 

ont
inuo
us 

yst
em 

s s
tab
le 

or 

ll 

alu
es 

f g
ain 

ass
umi
ng 
bo
th 

he 

ole
s o
f t
he

pen
-lo
op 

yst
em 

ie 

n t
he 

eft 

alf 
s 

pla
ne)

6.
8 PERFORMANCE 
OF 
A 
SAMPLED-
DATA,
SECOND-
      ORDER 
SYSTEM
Le
  t 

s co
nsi
der 
the 

erfo
rmance 
of 
a 

amp
led 

eco
nd-
ord
er 

yst
em 
wit
h a 

ero-
orde
r ho
ld, 



hown 

n Fi
g.6
.25
, 
when 
the 
pl
ant 



    
Gp 
(s
)= (
6.33)
s 

TS+1

We 

hen 

bta
in 
G(z
) f
or 

he 

nspe
cif
ie
d s
amp
li
ng 

eri
od 
Ta 

G(
z)
Ki
z一E)
[T一,
t(z一1
)]+i(
z一1


6.34)

z一1
)(z一E)

            
_一了h 
  m , ,.
1. o 1
wnere a = e ・ r 
he 
staor
nty 
or 
the 
sys
tem i
s anat
yzea 
oy 
cons
taenng 
the 
cnar
act
enst
nc

equat
ion

q()= 

z 
+ 
      
z z
{K[
T一;
(1一E)
] 
- 

1+E)
}+ 
K[
z 

1一E)
一TE]
+E=0. (
  
6.35)
Because 

hep
oly
nomi
al 
q(
z) 

s a 

uad
rat
ic 

nd 
ha
s r
eal 

oefi
ci
ent
s, 

he 
ne
ces
sar
y a
ndsufficient

199

ond
it
io
ns 

or 
q(
z) 

o 
ha
ve 

ll 

ts 

oot
s 
wi
th
in 

he 

nit 

ir
cl
e 
ar


q(
0)
j<1
, 
 q(
1)
>0,、
(一1
)>0・

Tab
le 
6.
3 
Max
imu
m Ga
in 

or 
a 

eco
nd-
Orde
r S
amp
led 
Sy
ste

T/丁 0 0.
1 0.
5 1 2

M axi
mum Kz CO 20.
4 4.
0 2.
32 1
,45

Th
ese 

tabi
it
l y 

ond
iti
ons 

or 
a 

econ
d-o
rde
r s
yst
em 
ca
n b
e e
sta
bli
she
d b
y ma
ppi
ng 

he 
Z- 

lan


har
act
er
is
ti
c 
equ
ati
on 

nt
o t
he 
s-

 la
ne 

nd 

hec
kin
g f
or 

osi

ive 

ef
o ic
fien
ts 

f q(
s).Us
in


hes
e c
ond
iti
ons
, 
we 

sta
bl
is
h t
he 

ece
ssa
ry 

ond
iti
ons 

rom 
Eqn
. 
(6.
35) 


1一E
      
K2< (
6.36)

一E一(
T 
/ 
z)
E’
2(
      
1+E)
K,
r< (
6.37)

T 
/ 
z)
(1
+E)
一2(
1一E)’

nd 
K>0, 
T>0.Fo
r t
hi
s 
sy
ste
m we 

an 

alc
ula
te 

he 
ma
ximu
m g
ain 
pe
rmi
ss
ibl
e f
or 
a 

tabl


yst
em. 
Th
e maxi
mum gai
n al

owabl
e i
s g
iven 
in 
Tabl
e 6.
3 f
or 

eve
ral 
va
lue
s of 
T / 
Z.I
f t
he

omput
er 
sys
tem 
ha
s s
ufic
f i
ent 
sp
eed 
of compu
tat
ion 
and 
dat
a h
and
lin
g, 
it 

s po
ssi
ble 

o s
et
TJz=0.
1 a
nd 

bta
in 

yst
em 

har
act
er
is
ti
cs 

ppr
oac
hin
g t
hos
e of 
a 

ont
in
uou
s (
nons
ampl
ed)

yst
em.
Th
  
e ma
ximu
m ov
ers
hoo
t 
of 

he 

eco
nd-
ord
er 

yst
em 

or 
a 

nit 

te
p i
npu
t 
is 

hown 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
26.
The 

erf
orma
nce 

rit
eri
on, 
int
egr
al 

qua
red 

rro
r, 

an 

e wr
it
te
n s



丁 J
o 

2 


)d
t’ (
6.38)

2‘
夕 }

\\ 火

,口
      

\ \ \ SO恢岌反


                  

St
  
abi
li珍l

nni

弓}


矛通

、 、、
    

     4
_

K 


\ \、 又众 0.
  

、、、
1.


、、
}、、
      
 ̄,月..巨
      

\、   

,'
I=0
.1 }( 、气、、 、七
 ̄ . 卜匆.‘ . .一 .一


卜,妇卜一 耳 }


 ̄,..叫巴巴匕 .阅.1门.门 ......

,....如.口 .....曰..
口...匕..晌 ...

0 
     
0.
25 
  0. 
SO .水

( 1. 
0 1.
25 
  150 
   
1万 2. 

r.
                              
"公


        
ig. 
6.
26 
Th
e 
ma
xi movershoot }
mu ,}

or 
a 

econ
d-o
rde
r s
ampl
ed 

yst
emfor 
a 
uni
tst
ep 

nput

190
Th
e l
oci 

f 
th
is 

ri
te
ri
on 

re 
gi
ven 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
27 

or 

ons
ta
nt 

alu
es 
of 
I. 
Fo
r 
a 
gi
ven 

alu
e o

T/T,one 
can 
det
ermi
ne 

he 
mi
nimum 
vaueo
l f 
1 

nd 

he 

equ
ir
ed 

alu
e o
f 
KT.
The 

pti
mal

urv
e s
hown 

n F
ig.
6.
27 

ndi
cat
es 

he 

equ
ird   
e KT 

or 
a 

pec
ifi
ed 
Tl 
 

r t
hat 
mi
nimi
zes 
I.Fo


xamp
le, 
whe
n T 
/ 
T“0.
75,we 

equ
ir
e KT=I 

n o
rde
r t
o mi
ni
miz
e t
he 

erf
orma
nce

rit
eri
on 
1.
,从

\ 双\



,朴
月仔


‘ 钾 _ 一  ̄ 一 一

众 \汉一

1.
      

又“
} \
     }

灯 i








1u
= 





5 
左公

0 m

      
1.  r尸
// 一 ,一 一 ,毛
匕、、

0.5
I= 王5一
一 ̄份尸一 ̄ f

__

伪;
      
_
_
__! 乏- 斧 、、,、


‘ ̄ ̄, ̄曰川‘闷,一 丫 圈

一 ! 2口
  

l .
l 一 口叭 .曰....臼曰阳卜.. 口晚目.口.

} { ! - 2.
  

0 
  
     
0.
2s  d

. 
SO 从水 1.
0 
   1
.21  1
,51
1 
  1.

ir

                            

Fi
        
g. 
6.
27 
Th
e l
oci 

f i
nte
gra
l 
sq
uar
ed 

rro


or 
a 

eco
nd-
orde
r 
sa
mpl
ed 

yst
em 

or 

ons
ta
nt 
va
lue
s 
of 

  
The 

tea
dy-
st
ate 
er
ror 

or a 
unit 

amp i
nput r(
t)=t i
s sho
wn inFig For 
a 
given
T 
/ 
T 
we 
can 

educ
e t
he 
st
eady
-st
at
e e
rro
r, 

ut t
he s
yst
em 
yi
elds 
gre
ate
rovershootand 
se
ttl
ing

ime 

or 
a 

tep 

nput

,时









\一、又 卜 \ 、火 饰
'r
f”

+对l
a助l
u 犷 :r夕

1.
      
5 }r
a 
j 卜\眨 、


一、汉 、、
   广一一一‘

万r

、、
交姿卜 、 、、 ̄
戈芝吮  ̄ 、御.
1口
      
、、、勿
物%断、‘ 门月... ‘一 一
、 ̄ 泛 舜三
「-
一 ;  ̄


).5  ̄了。=户(
 ̄ 一
J l
一 .. . .

叫卜 ,.  ̄. .. . 目曰目门勺.口.卜
, ̄ 吸 、

‘勺.一 一 .自自.阅口.匕  ̄ .
廿


口. .,门 .. 阳比曰 匕. . 目曰 ... 曰.... 味 曰. ..曰 臼. 曰口自 .


口:
' 
{ 以乍
   1.
U    
1.2

}i(
1 
  1_
^,
稼 ? 

          
r :
Fi
g. 
6.
28 
Th
e s
tea
dy-
st
ateerorof 
a 
second-
orders
amp
le 

yst
em
for 
                  
a 
uni
tramp 

nput 

(t) 
=t
, 
v0

191
EXAM PLE 
6.6 
DESIGN 
OF 
A SAMPLED 
SYSTEM

Le
t u
s c
ons
ide
r a 

los
ed-
loo
p s
ampl
ed 

yst
em 

s s
hown 

n Fi
g.
6.
25 
wh
en

          
G, 

s) s( (
6.39)
0.1
s+1
)(0.
005s+1


nd 
we 

eed 

o 
se
le
ct 
T 

nd 
K f
or 

ui
ta
bl
e. 
pe
rf
or
man
ce. 
As 

n 
ap
pro
xi
mat

on 
we 

egl
ec
t 

he

fec
ts 

f 
th
e t
ime 

ons
ta
nt 
22=0.
005 

eco
nd 

eca
use 

t 
is 

nly 
5% 

f 
th
e pr
ima
ry 

ime 

ons
ta
nt

l=0.
1.Th
en 
we 

an 

se 

igs
.6.
26, 
6.
27, 
an
d 6
.28 

o 
se
le
ct 
T 

nd 
K.
Limi

ing 

he 

ver
sho
ot

o 30% for 
the 
st
ep 
in
put, 
we s
ele
ct 
T/t=025 yie
ldi
ng K'
r=1 .
4. For 

hes
e v
alue
s, 
the

tea
d y
-st
at
e 
erro
r 
fo
r 
a 
uni
t 
ramp 
in
put 

s 
appr
oxi
mat
ely 
0.
6(s
ee 
Fi
g.6
.28
).
Be
   c
ause T=0. 
l, 
we t
hen s
et T=0.025 s
eco
nd and 
K==14.The sa
mpl
ing 
ra
te i
s t
hen

eq u
ire
d t
o b
e 40 

amples 
pe
r s
econ
d.
The 
   overs
hoot 

o s
tep 

nput 
and 

he 
st
ead
y-s
tat
e 
er
ror 

or 
a 

amp 

npu
t 
ma
y b
e r
educ
ed 

f 
we 

et
T 
1'
rt
o 
 e
qual 
0.
1. 
The 
over
shoot 

o a 

tep 
in
put 
wil
l 
be 
25% 
for 
KT“1
.6.Us
ing 
Fi
g.
6.
28, 
we

st
ima
te 

hat 
the 
st
eady
-st
at
e 
e r
ror 

or 
a 
uni
t 
ra
mp 
input 

s 
0.
55 

or KT=1.
6.

6.
9 CLOSED-
LOOP 
SYSTEMS 
W ITH 
DIGITAL
COMPUTER 
     COMPENSATION
  
A c
lose
d-l
o o
p, 
sa
mpl
ed 
sys
tem wi
th a 
di
git
al 
compu
ter 

sed 

o i
mpr
ovet
he 
per
for
mance 



hown 
in 
Fi
g.6.
22. 
The 

los
ed-
loo
p t
ran
sfer 

unc
tio
n i

Y(
s) 。,、 G(
z) D(z

花二叮丫卜= 1L之) (
6.40)
R(
s) 1
+G( z)D(z)
The 

rans
fer 

unct
ion 
of 

he 
comput
er 

s 
re
pres
ent
ed 
by
U(
z)
D(
z). (
6.41

E(
z)

  
n o
ur 

rio
r c
alc
ula
ti
ons 
D(z) 
wa
s r
epr
ese
nte
d s
impl
y b
y a 
ga
in 
K.As 

n i
ll
ust
ra
ti
on 

f t
he

owe
r of 

he 

ompu
ter 

s a 

omp
ens
ato
r, 
we 
wi
ll 

eco
nsi
der 

he 

eco
nd-
ord
er 

yst
em 
wit
h a

ero-
orde
r hol
d and 
a 
pl
ant

when 
T =I.
G, 

s)=s(
s+1

The
n (
see 
Eg
n.6.
16)
0.
3678(
2+0.
718
9)
G(
z)二 (
6.42)

:一I
)(
,:一0.
3678)
If 
we 
sel
ect

K(
z一0.
3678


内j
、月了

D(
z)= (

( 
7,
+r)


we 

anc
el 

he 

ole 

f G(
z) 

t z=0.
3678 

nd 

ave 

wo 

ara
met
er
s, 
r 

nd 
K,t
o s
et. 

!92
sel
ect


.359(
2一0.
3678)
D(
z) (
6.44)

z+0.
240)
we 
have

0.50(
2+0.
7189)
G(
z)D(
z) (
6.45)
(z一1)(
z+0.
240)
  

f 
we c
alc
u l
at
e t
he r
espons
e o
f t
he 
sys
tem t
o a 
uni
t 
st
ep, 
we 
fi
nd t
hat 

he 
out
put 
is 

qua
l t
o t
he

nput 

t t
he 
fourt
h s
amplin
g i
nst
ant 
an
d t
here
aft
er. 
The, 

espo
nse
s f
or 
bot
h t
he 
unco
mpensa
ted 
and

he 
compens
ated 

yst
em 
are 

hown 

n Fi
g.6.
29.
The 
over
shoot 
of 

he 
compens
ated 

yst
em 
is 
4%,
wh
ere
as 

he 
ov
ers
hoot 

f t
he 

nco
mpe
nsa
ted 

yst
em 

s 4
5%. 

t 
is 
be
yon
d t
he 

bje
cti
ve 
of 

his

ook 

o 
di
sc
uss 

ll 

he 

xte
nsi
ve 
me
tho
ds 

or 

he 

nal
yt
ic
al 

ele
cti
on 

f t
he 
pa
rame
ter
s 
of 
D(z),

nd 

he 

ead
er 

s 
re
fer
red 

o o
the
r t
ext
s. 
Ho
wev
er, 
we 
wi
ll 

ons
ide
r t
wo 
me
tho
ds 

f c
omp
ens
ato


esi
gn: 

1) 

he 
G, 

s)-

o-D(
z) 

onv
ers
ion 
me
tho
d, 

n t
he 

ol
lo
win
g p
ara
gra
phs
, 
an
d (
2) 

he

oot 

ocus 

-pl
ane 
met
hod, 

n Sect
ion 
6.
11.

攀1‘
I子
   日

1.
    
2 / ‘
火-"
01


*一?




1.
    
0 一 一 份 二 甲 一 ,

户 , .一.
臼 . .卜 乙一 . \ 一

一‘



                    

} 火 、卜、 ̄

                                        


                    

              
Cong
)r1
1sat
ed
O'
    

0.
    
6 / 一’‘
1‘
! {

/V
0.
    
4 c




从2
     r一 -

/ 落

{ 功

T 2T 3T 孑T ST   
67' 
    7T
Thne(seconds

Fi
g. 

.29 
Th
e r
esp
ons
e o
f a 

ampl
ed-
dat
a s
eco
nd-
ord
er 

yst
em 

o a 

nit 

tep 

npu

On
  
e me
tho
d f
or 

ete
rmi
ni
ng 
D(z
) i

rst 

ete
rmi
nes 
a 
co
ntr
ol
le
r G, 
(s
) f
or 
a 
gi
ven

la
nt 
GP 

s) 

or 

he 

ys
te
m s
hown 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
30
. 
Th
en 

he 

ont
ro
ll
er 

s 

,o
nve
rt
ed 

o D(
z) 

or 

he

ive
n s
amp
li
ng 

eri
od 
T.
Thi
s 
de
si
gn 
me
tho
d i
s 
ca
ll
ed 

he 
G, 
(s
) 
-t
o- 
D(
z) 

onv
ers
io
n me
tho
d. 



onv
ert
s 
th
e 
G,
, 
(s) 
of 
Fi
g.
6.
30 

o D(
z) 

f 
Fi
g.
6.
22.


s) c
:(s) G 


) 3'
(s

Fi
g.6.
30 
Th
e c
ont
inuous 

yst
em 
model 
of 
a 

ampl
ed 

yst
em

193
We 
cons
ider 
a 

irs
t-or
der 

ompe
nsa
tor

G, 

s)二K竺旦 (
6.46)
s+b
      
and 
a 
di
git
al 

ont
rol
ler
_ 之一A
  
D(
z)= (.'— . (
6.47)
之一B
We 
det
ermi
ne 

he 
z 
-t
rans
for
m of Gc 
(s
) 
an
d s
et 

t 
eq
ual 
to 
D(
z) 


Z,
    
G, 

s)
}= 
D(
z). (
      
6.48)


an
-aT
Th
en 

he 

ela
tio
nshi
p b
etwe
en 

he 

wo 

ran
sfe
r f
unc
ti
ons 

s 
A=e B=e-
tT when 
s=0
we 

equi
re

C 

1-A
)一K 


-. (
6.49)

  
1一B) 
    

EXAMPLE 
6.7 
DESIGN 
TO 
M EET 
A PHASE 
MARGI

SPECIFICATION

Co
nsi
der 
a 

yst
em 
wi
th 
a 

lant
1740
    
G_(
s)=
Y 、
     (
6.50)

(O.
25s+1


wl
th
We 
wi

l a
tt
emp
t t
o d
esi
gn 
G, 
(s
) 
so 

hat 
we 

chi
eve 
a 

has
e ma
rgi
n o
f 4
5 
0 a crossover

re
fque
ncy 

),=1
25 

ad
/s
. 
 Us

ng 

he 
Bo
de 

ia
gr
am 

f 
GP 
(s
),we 


nd 

ha
t 
th
e 
ph
ase 
ma
rg
in

s 
20
.We 

in
d t
hat 
th
e r
equ
ir
ed 

ole
-z
ero 

at
io 

s a=6
.25.
It 

s 
sp
eci
fi
ed 

ha
t 

0,=1
25,
and 


112
we 

ote 

hat
叭 =(
ab) .Ther
efo
re 
a=50 
and 
b=31
2.The 

ead 

omp
ens
ato
r i
s 
the

K(
s+50)
.5

G, 
          
(s
)= (


s+31
2)
fi
ll

W e 
sel
ect 
K i
n or
der   
to

ie
ld 

GG, 
(j
(0
)I
=1when 
  0)二 叭 =1
25 

ad/
s. 
Th
en 
we
K 二5.
6.Thec
omp
ens
at
or 
G, 
(s
) 
is 

o 
be 

eal

zed 

y 
D(
z),
and 

o we 

olve 

he 

ela
tions
hips
wi
th 
as 
el eds
ect ampl

ng 
pe
ri
od. 
Se
tt
ing 
T=0.
001 

eco
nd, 
wehave
A=e
00
-  =0
s .95
, 
B=e
03
-  

2=0
.73
, a
nd 
C二4.
85。
Then 
we 
have

4.
85(
2一0.95)
D(
z) (
6.52)
(z一0.
73)
Of 

our
se 

f we 

ele
cte
d a
not
her 

alu
e f
or 

he 

amp
lin
g p
eri
od, 

hen 

he 
coe
ffi
cie
nts

f 
D(z) 
woul
d 
di
fer.

  
n 
ge
ner
al 
we 
sel
ect 
a 

mal
l 
sa
mpl
in
g p
eri
od 

o t
hat 

he 

esi
gn 

ase
d o
n t
he 

ont
inu
ous 

yst
em
wi
ll 

ccu
rat
el
y c
arr
y ov
er 

o t
he 
z 

pla
ne. 
Howe
ver
, 
we 

hou
ld 

ot 

ele
ct 

oc 

mal
l 
a 
T,o
r t
he
194

omp
uta
tio
n r
equ
ire
men
ts 
ma
y be 
mo
re 

han 

ece
ssa
y. 
r I
n ge
ner
al, 
us
e a 

ampl

ng 
pe
rio

T二1
/10
几,wh
ere几 =C
UB 
l 
21
G,a
nd 

UB 

s 
th
e b
and
wid
th 

f t
he 

los
ed-

oop 

ont

nuo
us

yst
em.

  
he 

and
wid
th 

f 
th
e s
yst
em 

esi
gne
d i
n 
Ex
amp
le 

.7 

s C
UB=1
80 

ad/
s 
or几 =28
.6 
Hz

Th
en 
we 

el
ect 
a 
pe
ri
od 
T=0.
003 

econ
d. 
No
te 

hat 
T=0.
001 

econ
d wa
s 
us
ed 

n 
Ex
amp
le 
6.
7.

6.
10 
TIDE 
DESI
GN OF 
A W ORKTABLE 
MOTION CONTROL
SYSTEM
      
  
A n 
impo r
tant 
po s
iti
oning sys
tem in 
ma nuf
act
urin
g syst
ems is a workta
ble moti
o n contr
ol

yst
em. The s
ystem contr
o l
s t
he 
mo t
ion 
of 
a workt
able 
at 
a 
cert
ai
n locat
ion. 
We  a
ssume that 
the

abl
e i
s 
acti
vate
d in 
each axi
s by 
a mot
or 
and l
ead 
scre
w, 
as s
hown in 
Fig.
6 .
31 a). 
We consider 
the
x 
-axi
s 
a n
d examine 
the motio
n cont
rol 

or 
feedba
ck s
yst
em, as 

hown  i
n Fig.
6.31 
b). 
The g o
al 
is

o o
btai
n a fa
st r
esponse wit
h ar 
apid 
is
r e 
time a
nd set
ling 
ti
me  t
o a s
tep comma n
d  while 
not

xceedi
ng an 
overs
ho ot 
of 
5%.
Th
  e spec
iic
f ati
ons 
are 
then (
1) 
a pe
rcen
t o
ve r
shoot 

qual 
to 
5% and (
2) 
a minimum setl
ing ti
me

2% cri
teri
on) and r
ise t
ime . 
Ris
e t
ime is 
dein
f ed as 

he ti
me to re
a c
h the magnit
ud e of 
the
command.

  
To c
onfi
gur
e t
he 
s y
stem, 
we choos
e a 
po
wer 
ampl
iie
f r 
and 
mot
or 

o t
hat 

he s
yst
em 
is 
de
scr
ibe


y F
ig.
6.32
. 
Obtai
ning t
he 

rans
fer 
fu
nct
ion 
of 

he 
moto
r a
nd p
ower 

mplif
ier
, 
we h
ave
_ 、 1
G。(
S)二一丁一一::二:一一二二二. (
6.53)
S(
          
S+1U)
LS+LU)

Senae
rr
二 偏.、
            


            








二 4df
        

              

llr
alor .
ftr
rkahl

X(J
) pac+

2cr
o-or介r

oir

pur
er 穿 叫州口脚

(..
..
 ̄问 hol
    

Lead 
se
res
t-
u 心成l
c ag
八 r沉 ed)
rous
nror:d


,er
o-or
der )
         人(
+)
双t
s) )tol
    


6 ,)(
))(
u十2的

h)

Fi
g. 

.31 
A 

abl
e 
mo
tio
n c
ont
rol 
sy
ste
m: 

) a
ctu
ato
r a
nd 

abl
e; 

) b
loc
k di
agr
am

We 
wil
l 
in
it
ia
ll
y 
us
e 
a 

ont
in
uous 

yst
em 
an
d de
si
gn G, 

s) 

s 
de
scr

bed 
in 

ect

on 
6.9. 
We t
he

ob
tai
n D(z) 
fr
om 
G, 

z)・
Fir
st 
we 

el
ect 
th
e c
ont
ro
ll
er 

s 
a 
si
mpl
e 
gai
n, 
K,i
n 
or
der 

o 
det
er
mine

he 
res
pon
se 

hat 
ca
n be 
ach
iev
ed wi
thout 
a 

ompe
nsat
or. 
Pl
oting th
e r
oot 
lo
cus
, we f
ind 

hat
whe
n K=700,t
he 
domin
ant 
compl
ex r
oot
s 
ha
ve 
a 
dampi
ng r
ati
o o
f 0.
707, 

nd 
we 
ex p
ect 
a 
5%

195


+ I
     I
    

万一eel
R仁) -

枯仁) 仁十20) V(
V干了0
post
八ID
/!

Fi
g.6.
32 
Model 
of 

he 
whe
el 

ont
rol 

or 
a 
wor
k t
abl


ver
shoo
t. 
Then 
usi
ng 
a s
imula
ti
on, 
we 
fin
d t
hat 

he 
ov
ers
hoot 

s 5%, 

he 

ise 

ime 

s 0.
48 
seco
nd,

nd 
the 

etli
ng 
time 
(2
%  c
rit
eri
on) 

s 1
.12 
se
conds. 
Thes
e v
alu
es a
re 

eco
rded 
as 

te
m  1 

n Ta
ble
6.
4.

Tabl
                
e 6.
4 Per
for
manc
e f
or 
Two 
Cont
rol
ler

Co
mpe
nsat
or 
             
Per
cen
t 
   Se
ttl

ng 
Time Ri
se 
Time

G(
    
s) 
               
K 
    

ver
sho
ot 
    
(s
econ
ds) (
seconds)
1.
K 700 5.

2.
K(s
+ l 

)1(
s+62) 8000 5.

The 
next 

tep 

s t
o i
ntr
oduce 
a 

ead 
Compens
ato
r, 

o t
hat
K(
s+a)
G, 
(s
) (
6.54)

s+b)
We 
  wi

l s
ele
ct 

he 

ero 

t s=一11 

o t
hat 

he 

ompl
ex 

oot
s 
ne
ar 

he 

rig
in 
do
min
ate. 
We 
fi
nd

ha
t 
we 

eq
ui
re 

he 

ol
e 
at 
s=-
62・
Eva
lu
at

ng‘
夕e 

ai
n 
at 
th
e 
ro
ot
s, 
we 


nd 

ha
t 
K=8
000

Then t
he 
st
ep 
re
spons
e ha
s a 
ris
e t
ime of 
0.
25 s
e con
d and 
a s
ett
li
ng t
ime (2
% cri
ter
ion) 

f 0.
60
sec
ond. 
Thi
s 
is 

n i
mprove
d re
sponse, 
and we 
fi
na l
iz
e t
his 

yste
m as 
accept
abl
e.

  
t now 
remai
ns t
o s
elect 

he sampli
ng per
iod and t
hen us
e the 
me t
hod o
f Secti
on 
6.9 
to
obt
ain 
D(z
).The 
ri
se 
ti
me of 

he co
mp ens
ate
d conti
nuous 
sy
stem i
s 
0.2
5  s
eco
nd. 
Then we 

equi
re
T<<几 i
n o
rde
r t
o o
bta
ini
ng 
a 
sy
stmr
e e
spo
nse 

red
ict
ed 

y t
he 
de
sign 

f t
he 

ont
inu
ous

yst
em. 
Le
t u
s s
ele
ct 
T=0.
01 

eco
nd. 
Wehave

000(
s+11

                           
G, 

s)

s+62

Then,

D(
z)一C 

z--
A,

    
.一B
wher

A二e
一ri
r二0.
8958,
and 
B 
= 
e-
62
7'二0.
537
9.
W e 
now 
have

。a
    

l一B) 
  8000(
11)
(0.
462)=
t 二二二八 — 二二— 0471
)。
b(1一A) 62(
0.1
042)

106
Us
ing 

hi
s 
D(
z),we 

xpe
ct 
a 

esp
ons
e v
ey 
r s
imi
la
r t
o t
hat 

bta
ne
i d 

or 

he 

ont
in
uous 

yst
em
model

6.
11 
THE 
ROOT 
LOCUS 
OF 
DIGITAL 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM S

Let 
us 
cons
ide
r t
he 

rans
fer 

unc
tion 
of 

he 

yst
em 
shown 

n Fi
g.6.
33 
Re
cal
l 
tha

G(
s)=Go 
(s
)G 
p 

s)・
The 

lo
sed
-l
oop 


ans
fe
r 
fu
nct

ons 
is
Y(
z) KG(
z)D(
z)







R(z) 1
+KG(
z)D(
z)

R了
s)+ 1了,


i 
G 

s)

Fi
g. 
6.
33 
Cl
ose
d-l
oop 

yst
em 
wi
th 
a 

igi
tal 
co
ntr
oll
er

The 

har
act
eri
sti
c equat
ion 


1+KG(
                         
z)D(
z)=0,



whi
ch 
is 
ana
log
ous 

o t
he 
char
act
eri
st
ic 
eq
uat
ion 
for 

he 
s-
pla
ne 
ana
lys
is 
of 
KG(s).
Thus 
we

pl
ot 

he 
root 
loc
us 
fo
r 
the 

h a
rac
ter
is
ti
c 
equat
io
n o
f 
the 
sa
mpled 

yst
em a
s Kv a
ri
es.
The 
rul
es 
for

obt
aini
ng 

he 

oot 

ocus 

re 

umma
riz
ed 

n Ta
ble 
6.
5.

EXAMPLE 
6.8 
ROOT 
LOCUS 
OF 
SECOND-
ORDER 
SYSTEM

Co
nsi
der 
th
e 
sy
st
em 

hown 
一i
n 
Fi
g.
6.
33 
wi

h D(
z)=l
andG_
(:)=1
/s`.
The
n we 
                              
 ̄ o
bta
in
、 产 Y 、 产 ,


G(
z)
一Tz
K(z+1



z一1
) 

              


et 
T=扼 a
nd 

lo
t 

he 

oo
t 

oc
us. 
We 
now 

ave
K(
z+1

KG(
z)=

z一1
)z

Ta
ble 
6.
5 
Roo
t 
Lo
cus 

n t
he 

-pl
ane


. 
 The 

oot 
lo
cus 

tar
ts 

t 
th
e po
les 

nd 

rog
res
ses 

o t
he 

ero
s.
2. 
 The 

oot 
lo
cus 

ies 

n a 

ect
ion 

f t
he 

eal 
ax
is 

o t
he 

eto
f  
f 
an 

dd 
nu
mbe
r of 

ole
s a
nd 

eros

3. 
 The 

oot 
lo
cus 

s 
sy
mme
tri
cal 
wi
th 

esp
ect 

o t
he 
ho
riz
ont
al 

eal 
ax
is.

. 
 Th
e r
oot 

ocus 
ma
y b
rea
k a
way 

rom 
the 

eal 

xis 

nd 
may 

een
ter 

he 

eal 

xis
. Th


    
rea
kawa
y a
nd 

ntr
y po
int
s 
ar
e d
ete
rmi
ned 

rom 

he 

qua
ti
on

197
K二一N(
z)二F(
z),
D(
      
z)

dF(
a)=0
wi
th 
z= Q .
Then 
obt
ain 

he 

olut
ion 
of
d6
  

5. 
 Plot 

he 

ocus 
of 

oot
s t
hat 

ati
sfy

+KG(
z)D(
z)=0

or !
      
KG(
z)
D(z
)}
=1
and LG(
z)D(
z)=18
0’士k3600 k二0,
1,
2,.
..


nd 

he 

ole
s a
nd 

ero
s a
re 

hown 

n t
he 
z- 
pl
ane 

n Fi
g.6
.34.
The 

har
act
er
ist

c e
qua
ti
on 


、KG
(z
)=;
+耳 斗琴=
(z一1)-

                

Fi
g. 

.34 
Ro
ot 

ocu
s f
or 
Exa
mpl
e 6
.8

Let 
z=a 
and 

olve 

or 
K t
o obt
ain

K __(
a一
一1


)‘
2=F(C),

口+1


hen 

bt
ai
n 
th
e 
de
ri
va
ti
ve 

F(6)
/d6=0 

nd 

al
cu
la
te 

he 

oot
s 
as 
6,
=-3 

nd 

'2=1
.Th


ocu
s l
eav
es 

he 

wo 
po
les 

t o'
2二1 

nd 

eent
er
s a
t 
6,=-3,a
s s
hown 

n Fi
g.
6.
34. 
Th
e u
nit

irc
le 

s a
lso 

hown 

n F
ig.
6.3
4. 
Th
e s
yst
em 
al
way
s h
as 

wo 

oot
s o
uts
ide 

he 

nit 

irc
le 

nd 



lwa
ys 

nst
abl
e 
fo
r a
ll 
K>0.

198
We 
  no
w t
un 
r t
o 
th
e de
si
gn 

f 
a 

igi
ta
l 
con
tr
oll
er 
D(z
) 
to 

chi
eve 
a 

pec
if
ie
d r
espo
nse 
ut
il

zin

a 
root 

ocus 
met
hod. 
W e 
wil
l sel
ect 
a 
cont
rol
ler

(Z一a)
D(
z)=

Z一b)
Us
e (
z一a) 

o c
anc
el 

ne 
po
le 

t G(
z) 

hat 

ie
s o
n t
he 

osi
ti
ve 

eal 

xis 

f t
he 

-pl
ane
. 
Th
en

ele
ct 

z一b) 

o t
hat 

he 

ocus 

f t
he 

ompe
nsa
ted 

yst
em 
wil
l 
gi
ve 
a 

et 

f c
ompl
ex 

oot
s a
t a
de
sir
ed 
po
int 
wi
thi
n t
he 

nit 

irc
le 

n t
he 
z 

pla
ne.

EXAM PLE 
6.9 
DESIGN 
OF 
A DIGITAL 
COMPENSATOR

Le
t us 
des
ign 

a comDens
ator 
D(z)t
hat 
wi
ll 

esul
t i
n a 


                                

abl

e s
ys


em 
when 
G.(
s) 

s s
a 一 Y

de
scr
ibe
d i
n 
Ex
ampl
e 
6.
8. 
Wi
th 
D(
z)=1,
we 
ha
ve 

n u
nst
abl
e 
sy
ste
m. 
Se
lec
t 
a 
D(z
) 
as
之一 a
D(
z)=
之一b
so 

hat

K(
z+1
)(z一a)
KG(
z)D(
z)

Z一1
) 
2 

Z一b
)’

f 
we 

et 
a=1 

nd 
b=0.
2.we 
have
K(
z+1)
KG(
z)D(
z)

Z一1)
(Z一0.
2)
Us
ing 

he 

qua
ti
on 

or 
F(
a),
we 

bta
in 

he 

ntr
y p
oin
t a
s 
z=-2.
56,a
s s
hown 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
35. 
Th


oot 
lo
cus 

s 
on 

he 
un
it 
ci
rc
le 

t 
K=0.8.Thus 

he 
sy
ste
m i
s s
ta
ble 

or 
K<0.
8.I
f 
we s
el
ect
K=0.25,we 
fi
nd 
tha
t t
he 
st
ep 

esp
onse 
has 
an 
ove
rsh
oot 
of 2
0% a
nd 
a 
se
tt
li
ng 
ti
me (
2%

rit
eri
on) 
eq
ual 

o 8.
5 
seco
nds


  
f t
he 
syst
em per
for
mance 
we
re 

nade
qua
te, 
we 
woul
d i
mpr
ove 

he 

oot 

ocu
s b
y s
ele
cti
ng
a= 1 

nd 
b= -0.
98 
so 

hat

K(
z+l
) K
  
KG(
z)D(
z)

z一1
)(z+0.
98) (z一1)
Th
en 

he 

oot 

ocu
s wou
ld 

ie 

n t
he 

eal 

xis 

f t
he 

-pl
ane. 
Whe
n K=1,t
he 

oot 
of 

he

har
act
eri
st
ic 

qua
ti
oni
s 
at 
th
e o
ri
gi
n, 

nd 
T(
z)=1
/z=z
一,.
Th
en 

he 

es
pon
se 

f 
th
e 
sa
mpl
ed

yst
em 

at 

he 

ampl

ngi
nst
ant
s) 

s 
th
e i
npu
t s
tep 
de
lay
ed 
by 

ne 

amp
in
l g 

eri
od.
We 

an 

raw 


ne 

f c
ons
ta
ntgo
n t
he 

-p
la
ne. 

he 
ma
ppi
ng 

etwe
en 

he 

-pl
an
e a
nd 

he
z-
pla so
ne 
i b
ta
in
ed 

y t
he 

el
at

on 
z=e
sr.
The 


nes 

f 
co
nst
an
t杏 o
n t
he 

-p
la
ne 

re 

ad
ia


ines 
wit

Si
nce 
s=6+j
o),
we 

ave



an
”一‘


(s

一“
,一扁 ・
199
l 
n I

, "

-1 它
    


    

      

      

          

Fi
g. 

.35 
Ro
ot 

ocu
s f
or 
Ex
amp
le 
6.

劲叮.1 、 口 {
) 1

{ 。

                          

                            
一 . 1
                
{ I






l_
1 
I)

户一


0.
s /





____,

厂/令仁


_-_
__a2

0,6

丫/ 一 一0
Oa
                

/一 / }_‘_艺‘_灸尸尸
0.



_

__
_
_
了一l厅:
一, 布万

冷了二 1
2尸一 1 石

下、



1氢

口2

一’
一琳热
r I

-10 

   -08 

                

    -0 6 
   -0.
4 _刀2
、 一
6夕咋
} 


,O

0 

1 02 0a 0.6 4.x 
    LO

Re{二声


ig 

.36 
Cu
rve
s 
of 
co
nst
ant杏o
n t
he 

-pl
ane
z=e 

7' 
e 


uT
wher

J 二二 — 一
杏 田


  
-V

he 

lot 
of 

hes
e 
li
nes 

or 

ons
ta
nt杏i
s 
sh
own 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
36 

or 
a 

ang
e o
f 
T.
A c
ommo
n v
al
ue 

200
杏f
or 
ma
ny 

es
ig
n 
sp
ec
if

cat

on 

s=1
/五.
The
n 
we 
ha
ve。=一
。an

z=e-
(Q
T 
e 


OT=e 
'T 
L 

whe
re 
B二 (
OT 。

6.
12 
IMPLEM
E NTATION 
OF 
DIGITAL 
CONTROLLERS
W e 
wil
t consi
der 

he 
PID 
cont
rol
ler 
wit
h an 
s-
domai
n t
ransf
er 
funct
ion

U(

X(

S)

。。(

)=、
、十K
z+K
3s
. s

6.56)
                            

We 

an 
de
ter
min
e a 

igi
tal 

mpl
eme
nta
ti
on 

f t
his 

ont
rol

er 
by 
us
ing 
a 
di
scr
ete 

ppr
oxi
mat
ion

or 

he 
de
riva
tive 

nd 

ntegr
ati
on. 
For 

he 

ime 
de
riva
tive, 
we 
us
e t
he 
bac
kwar
d di
fer
ence 

ule
1 ._、 _. ___

T 
(x(
k!'
)一x[
(k一I)
T1). (
6.57)

The 

-t
rans
for
m o
f Eq
n. 

6.5
7) 

s 
tu


T)

he
nd 


I 

_k

二 1


1一z
一,)、
,,_
、(z一1

U(
z)=一一二二一目一 人 气z) X 

Z).

     Tz
  

Th
e i
nte
gra
ti
on 
of 
x(
t) 

an 

e r
epr
ese
nte
d b
y t
he 

orwa
rd-
rec
tan
gul
ar 

nt
egr
at
io
n a
t 
t=kT 


u(
                      
kT)=u[
(k一1
)T+Tx(
kT 

, 
                  

6.
58)
wh
ere 
u 

kT) 

s 
the 

utp
ut 
of 

he 

nt
egr
at
or 

t 
t=k
T.Th
e z
-t
ran
sfo
rm 
of 
Eqn
. 
(6
.58
) 
is
U(
                      
z)=z
一,U(
z)+T
X(z
),
and 

he 

rans
fer 

unct
ion 

s t
hen

U(
                          
z) 
  Tz
X 
                          

z) 
 (
z一1

He
nce, 

he 
z-
domai
n t
rans
fer 

unct
ion 
of 

he 
PI
D cont
rol
ler 


。(
之)
一二1

+K
/2T
z +
二,(
z -
认一1) 一 It
1)
              

6.59)

Th
  
e c
omp
let
e di
fer
enc
e e
qua
ti
on 

lgo
ri
th
m t
hat 
pr
ovi
des 

he 
PI
D c
ont
rol

er 

s o
bta
ine
d b


ddi
ng 

he 

hr
ee 

er
ms 

o 
ob
tai
n 
[we 

se 

(kT)二x(
k) 

            
u(
k)=K,
x(k
)+K2 

u(k一1)+Tx(
k)]
+(K31
T)[
x(k)
一x(
k一1)


6.60)
=[
              
K1+K2T+(
K3 
IT))
x(k)
+K3 T
x(k一1
)+K2U(
k一1
).
Egn.

6.6
0) 

an 

e i
mpl
eme
nte
d u
sing 
a 

igi
ta
l 
co
mpu
ter 

r mi
cr
opr
oce
sso
r.Of 

our
se,w e can

bta
in 
a 
PI 

r PD 

ont
role
r b
y s
ett

ng 

n a
ppr
opr
iat
e 
ga
in 

qua
l 
to 

ero.

6.
13 
DIGI
TAL 
CONTROL 
SYSTEMS 
USI
NG 
M ATLAB
Th
  
e pr
oce
ss 

f d
esi
gni
ng 

nd 

nal
yzi
ng 

ampl
ed-
dat
a s
yst
ems 

s e
nha
nce 
wi
th 

he 

se 


int
er
act
ive 
compu
ter 
too
ls. 
Ma
ny 
of 

he MATLAB f
unc
tio
ns 
for 
cont
inuous
-ti
me 
con
tro
l de
sig

have 
equi
vale
nt 
cou
nter
pats 
r f
or 

ample
d-d
a t
a s
yst
ems. 
Dis
cre
te-
ti
me  t
ran
sfer 

unc
ti
on model

201

bje
cts 

re 

bta
ine
d wi
th 

he 

f 
fu
nct

on 

imi
lar 

o c
ont

nuo
us 

ime 
mo
del
s. 
Fi
g.
6.3
7 i
ll
ust
rat
es 

he
















Yr













rU



 



r      
        




 

_ 






rr
 
匕.
  
几 1 
 c ¥
3,r 
=扩(
n i
nn, 
rl
r"
u,乃)

41





)]1 
        



拜〕}



-}
困匣z

-- e





de



ld 
Com "
    rrwtor
tia
r"reta-hir
ra
口仁夕= 

'1

sd sr
rur
pli
rr
8 t
ivu" us
s7r
rnl
rr  

G 

砂二+
; 
se


}M
  
fr=一
      
s,'

,d
j二e: 

l(
sys
e, 
T 


,oh'

GI

巨亘二颐困仁
巫醉〕
[遮班习
('
ourr
"rt 

d emrt
inrr
rnrs-t
irr
re
G 
y 


,l
”st
’‘
’ C
i{)二
一、r
J 从川塑I
’啥 t
l e

i 瓜“
as
sr,x

v功i
u烤 a 
,v
ro-
orr
lr
"rkr
rl
rl

向 ,了一r
     心
Jy 

(s
厉一三一习
    

"r
r1
. 
.T.
';ni
}`

Fi
g.6
.37 

) 
Th
e t
f 
fu
nct

on 
b) 
The 

2d 

unc
ti
on 

) Th
e d
2e 

unc
ti
on


se 

f t
f. 
Mo
del 

onv
ers
ion 

an 
be 

cco
mpl

she
d wi
th 

he 

unc
tio
ns 

2d 

nd 
d2
c, 

hown 


Fi
g.
6.
37. 
The 

unc
ti
on 

2d 

onv
ert
s 
co
nti
nuo
us-
ti
me 

yst
ems 

o d
isc
ret
e-
ti
me 

yst
ems
; 
th
e f
unc
ti
on
d2
c c
onv
ert
s d
isc
ret
e-t
ime 

yst
ems 

o c
ont

nuou
s-t
ime 

yst
ems
. 
Fo
r e
xampl
e, 

ons
ide
r t
he 

lan


rans
fer 

unct
ion


G _ 

(s)=
    


(s+1

ss
a  
pawn 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
23. 
Fo
r 
a 
sa
mpli
ng 
pe
rio
d of 
T=l 

econd
, 
we 
know 

rom 
Eg
n.(
6.1
6) 

hat
.6l)

0.
  
367¥(
2+0.7189) 
           
0.
36792+0.
2644
G(
&) (

一(
z-.


(z-

0.
36
80
)一z
2一1
8;

3 +
0.
36
80“
The.unlt

we 

an 

se 
MA
TI,
AB 

o 
obt
ai
n 
th
e G(
z),
as 

hav
en 

n 
Fi
g.
6.
38.
  
The f
unct
ions 
ste
p, impulse, 
an
d Isi
m are u
sed 
for 
si
mulat
ion 
of 
sampled-
data 
syst
ems.

nit 
st
ep 
res
ponse 
is gene
rated 
by 
step. 
The 
step 
fu
ncti
on f
ormat 
is 

hown in 
Fig.
6.39. 
The

mpuls
e r
espon
se i
s gener
a t
ed by 

h e 
func
tio
n impu
lse
, a
nd t
he r
espo
nse t
o an 
arbi
tra
y 
r i
nput 



bta
ined 
by 
the 
ls
im funct
ion. 
The 
impulse 
an 
lsi
m f
unct
ions 
ar
e s
hown i
n F
igs.
6.40 
and 6.
41,

202
%Thi
s scr
ipt 
conver
ts 

he 

ransf
er 

unc
tion
%Gp
(s)
=11
s(s
+ f
)to 
a 
di
scr
ete-
ti
me 

yst
em
%wi
th 
a 
sa
mpl
ing 
per
iod 
of 
T=1 
sec.

num=[
1]; 
den=[
'l 
1 
0]
.sy
sc=t
f(
num,
den)

T=飞;

sysd]
=c2d(
sysc,
T.'
zoh

Zer
o-or
der 
hol

>>



ut

}u
t 0.
3679z+0.
2642
Transf
er 
functi
on:
z^2-
                          
1.368z+0.
3679

Sampl
                     
ing 

ime: 


ig.
6.
38 
Us
in
g 
th
e 
c2
d f
unc
ti
on 

o 
co
nve
tG
r  (
s)=Go 
(s
)G, 
(s
) 
to 
G(
z)

esp
ect
ive
ly. 
Th
ese 

amp
led
-da
ta 

yst
em 
si
mul
at
ion 

unc
ti
ons 

per
ate 

n e
sse
nti
all
y t
he 

ame
ma
nne
r 
as 

hei
r 
co
unt
er
par
ts 

or 

ont
in
uous
-t
ime 

uns
ampl
ed) 

yst
ems
. 
Th
e ou
tpu
t 
is 
y(
kT) 

nd 



hown 

s 
y(
kT) 

eld 

ons
ta
nt 

or 

he 

eri
od 
T.


(=)

 

- 

仁一对

`巨
    
- 
 -t
D.












  
in







s 
 
  
〕=nu夺r
ut 

espn+
tse Tshoul
d be 功。.
八)I`

11
T 
= s
rnt
ulunon 

ir
tte <
*( =s
Ps 乃.几.茸 nhere几 ,
、rh e
rect
      
or

ample


                  
Y.T
]=s
tr
h(s
ys, 
T)

Fi
g.
6.
39 
The 

tep 

unc
ti
on 

ene
rat
es 

he 

utp
ut 
y(
kT) 

or 
a 

te
p i
npu

  n
We  ow 
re
consi
der 
Exa
mpl
e 6.
4a 
nd 

ppr
oac
h t
he 

rob
lem 

f o
bta
ini
ng 
a 

tep 

espo
nse 
wi

hout

til

zin
g l
ong 
div
isi
on.

20
I 



嵘:

nipul
ce

R(

) 二I

Fi
g.
6.

T 


= 















     

0 













     
Th
 



 

= 
e 

 


 

T 

















 





ht
m 


 













n 
 
 
mpul

 
 
e 

unc
ti


YI

n 

I=i

ge
ne
nr



pul



s 


e(

e 





T)

ut 
y(
kT) 

or 

n i
mpu
lse 

npu

    
!_




):
Ar
brt
rarr

npur ig
f s
?em

一 卿巨肠;
GO
  



’=out
jnr
t 
rc
匀,01
25盯 u, 

rpu
tsl
rvr
dd 





es




e旱

F 
   






.m

















db

  
 
T 
= snnul
aNon 
trr
rrc G( 
) 
=s 
l'
s 5
存),
I刀的7ar功廿s
; ame 
rot

1,
    
己ctor 口.
’s
t '
i's

h'
                
. 
TI=l
s'

m(s
t'
s,
u)
Fi
g.
6.
41 
The 

si
m f
unc
ti
on 

ene
rat
es 

he 

utp
ut 
y(
kT) 

or 

n a
rbi

rayi
r  
npu

E叉通掬仔生石疾I
EXAMPLE 
6.10
OU入了TSTEP 
RESPONSE

  
In 
Example 
6.
4, 
we 
cons
idere
d the 
pro
ble
m  of 
comp ut
ing 
the 
ste
p r
espons
e of 
a 
cl
ose
d-l
oo p

ample
d-da
ta 
sys
tem. 

n t
hat 
example
, t
he 
re
spon s
e, 
y(kT),wa s c
omputed 
usi
ng l
ong 
di
vis
ion.
We 
can 
use 
MATLAB 
to 
compute t
he 
res
pons
e y(kT) usi
ng t
he st
ep 
fun
cti
on, 
shown 
in 
Fi
g.
b.39.
Wit
h 
the 
cl
ose
d-l
oop 

ran
sfe
r f
uncti
on 
give
n b

Y(
                            
z) 
  0.3678z+0. 2644
R(
                      
z) 
  z
2一z+0
.63
22’
Th
  
e s
ubj
ect 

f d
igi
tal 
co
mpu
ter 

omp
ens
ati
on 
wa
s d
isc
uss
ed 

n Se
cti
on 
6.
9.1
n t
he 
ne
xt 

xampl

we 

econs
ider 

he 

ubj
ect 
ut
iizi
l ng 
MATLAB

204
%仆 i
s 
¥o
ri仍卯 n
era
tes 

he 

nit
鱿印 r
espo
nse,
只kT)

%t
ort 
samp
led 
da
ta 

yst
em 
gi
ven 

n Exampl
e 6
.4

num=[1[
; 
den=[1 
1句;
SYs
t-峨n um,den)

sysd
,c
w 2
d(s
ys c
,l,

zol
Y);
sy
s=t
eebac
k(s
ysd,
jl
))


-[0
:1:
20
,s
1  

ep(
sy
s,
T)
1 

12
令、


乏.奢}


扮J i

rz 二n 
j a卫: 
+ 
o 

r44

t 
W :+口h
,;=

以2

了U
       IS 20



'u 
of 
Ru
n洲 .


Fi
g.
6.
42 
Th
e di
sc
ret
e 
re
spo
nse
, 
y(
kT 
),
of 
a 

amp
led 

eco
nd-
ord
er 

yst
em 

o 
a 

nit 

te

%%%

This 

crip
t comput
es 

he 
cont
inuous-
ti
me 
unit
st
ep r
esponse f
or 

he 
sys
tem 

n Example 

.4

numg=[
i]; 
deng=(
1 1 

];sys
g=t
f(
numg,
deng)


[nd,
dd]-pade(1,
2);
sysp
=tf
(nd,
dd)

sysi
=tf
([1
],[
1,0
]);

ysi
=se
ri
es(
i.
sys
p,s
ysi

;'
}'
4 一


sys o=seri
es(sysl,
sysg);
sys =fe
edback( sys
o,[
1])


= [0:0.
1:201;
step(sys,t

1.

食之
之冬食,

0.5

0 5 l0 1 20
Ti
me

Fi
g.
6.
43 
Th
e c
ont
in
uous 

esp
ons
e, 
y(
t),
to 
a 

nit 

te
p f
or 

he 

yst
em 

f 
Fi
g6.
23

205
                                      
EXAMPLE 
6.11 
ROOT 
LOCUS 
OF 
A DIGITAL 
CONTROL 
SYSTEM
Re
  
cal
l 
ro
f m 
Eqn. 
(6.
16) 

hat 
a 
pl
ant 

s 
gi
ven 
by
0.
3678(z+0.
7189)
G(
z)
(z一1)(
z一0.3680)
K(
z一0.
3678

The 

omp
ens
ato
r 
is 

ele
cte
d t
o 
be 
D(
z)
z+0.
   2400
wi

h t
he 
pa
rame
ter 
Ka 
s 
a 

ari
abl
e 
ye
t t
o 
be 

ete
rmi
ned. 
When
_ 、_ 、 _
                      
,0.
3678(
z-+
-0.
7189)
行(z)
                          
口(z)=式 一 — (
6.62)

                         
z一1
)(z+0.
2400)
%Thi
s 
sc
rip
t ge
ner
ate
r 
the 

oot 
locu
s f
or
%t
he 
sampl
ed 
dat
a syst
em

% K(
0.3678)
(z+0.
7189)

% (
z-1)
(z+0.
2400)

num=[
0.
367
8 0.
264
4]; 
den=
[1.
000
0-0
.76
00 

0.24
00]
:sy
s=t
f(
num,
den
):
rl
ocus(sys)
;hold 
on
x=[-
1:0.
1:1]
;y=sgrt
(l-
x.^2)

pl
ot(
x,y
a'
--
',
x,
一,’
一’
) 一 巨u
r 
un
it


t司 

an3=

4.
  
6390

Fi
g.6.
44 
The 

1oc
us 

unc
tio
n f
or 

ampl
ed 

ata 

yst
ems

  h
We ave 
the 
pr
obl
em in 
af 
orm for 
whic
h the r
oot 
lo
cus meth
od is 
dir
ectl
y a
ppli
cable. 
The
r1
oeus 

unct

o n 
wor
ks 
for 
di
scr
ete
-ti
me sy
stems i
n t
he 
same way 
as f
or 
conti
nuous
-ti
me syste
ms .
Usi
ng 
a 
MAT LAB 

cri
pt, 

he 

oot l
ocus 
ass
oci
a t
ed 
with 
Egn.(
6.62
) i
s 
easi
ly 
gener
ate
d, 
as 
sh own i

Fi
g.
6.
44. 
Re
memb
er 

hat 
the 

ta
bil

ty 

egi
on 

s 
de
fi
ned 

y t
he 

nit 

ir
cl
e 
in 

he 

omp
lex 
pl
ane
. 
Th

206
MATLAB 
fu
nct
ion 

1od<
i nd 
can 

e us
ed wi
th 
th
e di
scr
ete
-ti
me sys
tem 
roo
t l
ocu
s i
n e
xact
ly 
the

ame way 
as 

or 
co
n t
inuous
-t
ime 
sys
tems 

o de
ter
mine 
the va
lue 
of 
th
e s
yst
em ga
in 
ass
ocia
ted
wi
th 

ny 

oin
t o
n t
he 

ocu
s. 
Us
ing 

1oc
fi
nd 
we 

ete
rmi
ne 

hat 
K=4.
639 
pl
ace
s t
he 

oot
s 
on

he 
un
it 
ci
rcl
e.

6.
14 
SEQUENTI
AL 
DESI
GN 
EXAMPLE:
DI
      
SK 
DRIVE 
READ 
SYSTEM

  
n 
thi
s 
chapt
er 
we wil
l 
des
ign
. 
a di
git
al 
contr
oll
er 
for 

he 
disk 
driv
e sys
tem. As 
the 
di
sk r
otat
es,
th
e sens
or h
ead r
eads t
he 
patt
ens 
r used t
o pr
ovide 
the 
ref
ere
nce error 

nformati
on. 
This e
rro

in
formati
on 
pat
ter
n i
s 
read 

nte
rmitt
entl
y 
as t
he 
head 
read
s s
tor
ed d
a t
a, 
and 
then t
he 
pat
ten 
r i
n t
un.

Sinc
e th
e di
sk 
is 
rota
tin
g a
t a 
const
ant 
speed, 
th
e t
ime, 
T,between posi

i o
n-err
or 
rea
dings 
is 

cons
tant
. Thi
s sa
mpling p
eri
od  i
s t
ypica
lly 100脚 to 1 ms. Thus we  hav
e sampl
ed  e
rro


nfor
mat
ion. 
We ma
y a
lso 
us
e a 

igi
ta
l c
ont
rol
le
r, 

s s
hown 

n F
ig.
6.
45, 

o a
chi
eve 

ati
sfa
cto



yst
em 

esp
ons
e. 

n t
hi
s 
ch
apt
er 
we 
wi

l 
de
sig
n D(
z)


. 
(z

D(
Z) G() 3讹)

45
. 
 Fe
edb
ack 
Co
ntr
ol 

yst
em 
wi
th 
a 
di
git
al 

ont
rol
ler
. 
No
te

      
ha
tG(
z) 
= 
ZI 
Go 
(s
)G, 
(s
)]・


irs
t 
we 
de
ter
mine 
G(
z),
whe
re

G(
z)“Z[
Go 

s)G, 
(s
)]・
Si
nce


    
G_ 
(s)=

     (
6.63)

(s+20)
w e 
have


   _ ,‘


Go 
(s
)G, 
(s
)二(
竺二一一
)一
s(
s+20)
We 

ot
e 
th
at 

or 
a=2
0 
an
d T=l 
ms
, e-
0r 

s 
eq
ual 

o 
0.
98
. 
Th
en 
we 

ee 

ha
t 
th
e p
ole 


‘=-
-20 

n 
Eqn
. 
(6.
63) 
ha
s 
an 

nsi
gni
ic
f a
nt 

fe


t. 
Th
ere
for
e we 

oul
d 
ao
oro
xima
te 
G_ 
 (
s) 

s:
                                                                          
‘击 Y

0.
25
G(
s 
)“
Then 
we 
need

207

(z
)=
Z{
1-
e-

T{
0.


L 
月一
(,
一;
一)

0.

5)
Z干
粤)
          
  s 
  l 
s 刀 LS 


    
,__
_了 T
z 、0
.25
T 
  

.25 
x 

0-3
二1
1一Z)
(U.
LJ)
I —
,  
_
: 
} 
I二万一.
,井二一一万-一代刃一一・
以Z一1
          
)一) (
z一1
) 
    

Z一1

We 

eed 

o s
el
ect 

he 

igi
ta
l 
con
tro
ll
er 
D(
z) 

o t
hat 

he 
de
si
re
d r
esp
ons
e i
s 
ac
hie
ved 

or 
a 

tep

nput
. 

f 
we 

et 
D(
z)二K,
the
n we 

ave
K(
0.
25 
x 

0-3

D(
z)G(
z)=

    
z一1

Th
e r
oot 

ocus 

or 

his 

yst
em 

s 
sho
wn 

n Fi
g.6
.46
. 
Wh
en 
K =4000,
the


D(
z)G(
z)=

z一1

Th
ere
for
e 
th
e c
los
ed-
loo
p t
rans
fer 

unc
tio
n i

D(
  
z)G(
z) 1
T(
z)=
1+D(
z)G(
z) 之

We 

xpe
ct 
a 

api
d r
esp
ons
e f
or 

he 

yst
em. 
Usi
ng 
MAT
LAB 
we 

emo
nst
rat
e t
hat 

he 

esp
ons
e i


tab
le 

nd 

api
d. 
Th
e pe
rce
nt 
ov
ers
hoo
t 
to 
a 

tep 

nput 
is 

%, 

nd 

he 

ett
li
ng 


me 

s 
2 
ms

Fi
g.6.
46. 
Root 

ocu

Th
  
e u
se 

f a 

igi
tal 

omp
ute
r a
s t
he 

omp
ens
ati
on 

evi
ce 

or 
a 

los
ed-
loo
p c
ont
rol 

yst
em 
has

rown 

uri
ng 

he 

ast 

wo 

eca
des 

s t
he 

ric
e a
nd 

eli
abi
li
ty 

f c
ompu
ter
s h
ave 

mpr
ove


rama
ti
cal
ly. 
A 
comp
ute
r c
an 

e us
ed 

o c
ompl
et
e ma
ny 

alc
ula
tio
ns 

uri
ng 

he 

amp
in
l g 

nte
rva

T 

nd 

o 
pr
ovi
de 

n ou
tpu
t 
si
gna
l 
th
at 

s 
us
ed 

o 
dr
iv
e a
n a
ctu
ato
r 
of 
a 

roc
ess
. 
Co
mpu
ter 

ont
rol 
is

sed 

oda
y f
or 

hemi
cal 
pr
oce
sse
s, 

irc
raf
t 
con
trol
, 
ma
chi
ne 

ool
s, 

nd 
ma
ny 

ommo
n pr
oce
sse
s.

208
The 

-tr
ans
for
m ca
n be 
us
ed 

o anal
yzet
he 

tabi
li
tya
nd 

espo
nse 
of 
a 

amp
led 

yst
em 
and 


de
sign 

ppr
opr
iat
e s
yst
ems 

nco
rpo
rat
inga 
comput
er. cont
rol 

yst
ems 
have 
be
come

ncr
esi
a n
gly 

ommo
n a
s l
ow-
cos
t 
compu
ters 
have 
become 
r avai
labl
e.

209
REFERENCES


. 
  T. 
J. 
Vie
rsma
, 
inv
est

gat
io
n i
nto中e 

ccu
rac
y of 

ydr
aul

c s
erv
omot
or
s, 
Th
esi
s 
De
lft
Un
    
iver
si
ty 

f Techno
log
y, 
1961;
Ph i

lps 
Re
searc
h Rep
ort, 

6(1
961)
507; 
17(
196
2)2
0.

. 
  G. 
S. 
Brown 
a n
d A. 
C. 
Hal
l, 
Dynamic 

ehavi
or 
and 
desi
gn 
of 

erv
ome c
hani
sms, 
Trans

ASME, 
     (
1946)
503.
3. 
  H. 
E. 
Me r
it
r , 
Hydraul
ic Cont
rol 
Sy s
tems, 
Wil
ey, 
Ne w 
Yo r
k, 1
967.
4. 
  M. 
Gui
ll
on, 
Etude 
at 
deter
minat
ion 
des 
sys
tems 
hyd r
aul
iques, 
Dunod, 
Pari
s, 
1961.
5. 
  A.
C. 
Mo r
se, 
El
ect
ronhyd r
aul
ic 
ser
vomechani
sms, 
Mc Graw-Hill
, 
New Yo
rk, 
1963.
6. 
  R. 
Wa l
ter
s, 
Hydr
aulic 
and El
ect
ro-
hydraul

c se
rvosyst
ems, 
Iif
l f
e, 
Lond
on, 
1967
7. 
  L. 
H. 
Ge y
er, 
Cont
roll
ed dampi
ng t
hroug
h dyna
mi c 
pres
sure 
feed
back, 
Dowt y 
Equi
pme
nt,
Che
    
ltenha
m, 
June, 

958.
8. 
 J . 
J. 


 Ma
  nnet
je, 
St
abi

lzi
ng ne
twor
ks 

or 
hydr
aul

c mot
ors
, 
Contr
ol 
Eng.
, 
Ju
ne (
1974) 
55.
9. 
  W. 

. 
Thaye
r, 
Tr
ansf
er 

unc
tio
ns f
or 
Moo
g s
erv
oval
ves, 
Mo o
g Te
chnic
al 
Bul
le
tin 
103
, 
Ne w
Yor
    
k, 

965.

0. 
P 
Lensse
n, 
The 
infl
u e
nce 
of d
y 
r fri
ct
ion 
and 
me c
hanical 
pa r
ame t
er
s on 
th
e s
tabi
li
ty 

nd

    
ccura
cy of 
a 

yd r
auli
c c
opying 
sys
tem, 
Proc, 

0th 
M. T. 
D. R. 
Confer
ence, 

969.

1. 
PL 
ensse
n, 
Analog 
simula
ti
o n 
of 
hydra
uli
c s
erv
o sy
stems wit
h s
tabi
li
zing 

nf
luence 
of 




    
ri
cti
on, 
(i
n 
Dutch), 
Thes
is, 
Univ
ersi
ty 
of 
Leuve
n, 
Be l
gium, 
Ap r
il
, 1
970.

2. 
R. 
Ch
iapp
uli
ni
, 
Fr
ic
ti
on 

nd 

ts 

ffe
cts 
on 


nea
r 
pos
it
ion
al 

ydr
aul
ic 

nd 

lec
tr
o-h
州ra
uic


    
ervos
yst
ems
, 
Anna
ls 
CI
RP, 
19(
1971
) 125.

3. 
T. 
J. 
Vi
ersma, I
nves
ti
gat
ions 
int
o 
th
e ac
cur
acy 
of 
hy
dra
uli
c 
ser
vomotor
s, 
Thes
is 
De
lft
Un
    

ver
sit
y o
f Tech
nolog
y, 1
961;Phi
li
ps 
Rep.
, 
16
(1961
) 
507;]7(
196
2) 20.

4. 
T. 
J. 
Vie
rsma
, 
De
sig
nin
g l
oad-
compe
nsa
tes 

ast 
re
spo
nse 

ydr
aul
ic 

erv
os, 
Co
ntr
ol 
En
g., 
May

    
1962) 
111.

5. 
PB lok 
and 
T. 
J. 
Vie
rsrr

a , 
A 
new constr
uct
ion 

or 
a l
oad-c
o mp e
nsat
ed 
fa
st 

esp
onse 
hy
dra
uli


    
ol ow-u
p s
yst
em, Proc, 
Thi
rd I
FAC  Congr
, 
196
6,Vol.
1No.2,Report 
25D.

6. 
PB lok, 
Linea
r e
lect
rohydrau
lic 
st
epp i
ng 
motor 

or 
NC  machines, 
Hydr
aul. 
Pneum.
Vol
    
.21
, 
No.
10, 

1968
) 1
17.

7. 
R. 

on 
Mi
ses
, 
Be
rec
hnu
ng 

on 
Au
sfl
uss
-un
d Ue
ber
fal
lza
hle
n, 
Z. 
ve
r. 
De
uts
ch. 
Ing. 
61

    
1917) 
447

8. 
T. 
J. 
Vi
ersma, 
Inve
sti
gat
ions 
in
to 
the 
accur
acy 
of 
hydr
au l

c s
ervomo
tor
s, 
Thesi
s 
Del
ft
Un
    

ver
sit
y of 
Technolog
y, 1
961;Phil
ips 
Rep.
, 
16(1
961)507; 
17
(196
2)20.

9. 
W. 
Wuest
, St
rot
nung 
durch 
Schli
tz
- 
und Loch
ble
n d
en 
be i 
kl
ei
ner 
Reyn
o l
ds-
Zahl
en, 
IngAr
ch.
22(1
    
954)
357

0. 
R. 
C. 
Dor
f, 
Th
e Enc
ycl
ope
dia 

f 
Ro
bot
ic
s, 

ohn 
Wi
le
y S
ons
, 
Ne
w Yo
rk. 

988.
21
.R, 
C. 
Do
rf, 
El
ect
ri
cal 
En
gin
eer
ing 
Ha
ndbo
ok, 
2n
ded. 
CRC 
Pr
ess
, 
Bo
ca 
Ra
ton, 
Fl
a.
, 
19
98.

2. 
R. 
S. 
Sa
nch
ez-
Pen
a a
nd 
M. 
Sz
nar
er
, 
Ro
bus
t 
Sy
ste
ms 
Th
eor
y 
an
d Ap
pli
cat
io
n, 

ohn 
Wi
le

    
Sons, 
N丫 1998.
23
. G. 
Zames, 

Inpu
t-Ou
tpu
t 
Fe
edba
ck 
St
abi
li
ty 

nd 
Ro
bus
tne
ss,
" 
IEEE 

ont
rol 
Sy
ste
m, 

une

      
996, 

p.61
-66.

210

4. 
K. 
Zh
ou 

nd 

. 
C. 
Doyl
e, 
Es
sen
tia
ls 

f Rob
ust 
Co
ntr
ol, 
Pr
ent
ice 
Ha
ll
, 
Up
per 
Sa
ddl
e 
Ri
ver
, 
NJ

1998
      


5. 
C. 
M. 
Clo
se 

nd 
D. 
K. 
Fr
ed
eri
ck
, 
Mo
del

ng 

nd 
An
al
ys
is 
of 
Dyn
ami
c 
Sy
st
ems
, 
2"
d 
ed
.,
    
Houghto
n Mifl
in, 
Bost
on, 
1993.

6. 
A. 
Charar
a, 
"Nonl
ine
ar 
Con t
rol 
of 
a 
Ma gn
e t
ic 
Levi
ta
ti
on S
yste
m," 
IEEE Tr
ans
act
ion
s on
Co
    
nt
rol 
Syst
em 
Technol
ogy, 
Septe
mbe r 
1996, 
pp.
513-
523.

7. 
J. 
Ye n, 
Fuzzy 
Logi
c: 
Int
ell
ige
n c
e a
nd Contro
l, 
Pre
nti
ce 
Hall
, 
Uppe
r Sad
dle 
Riv
er, 
NJ, 19
98.

8. 
X.
G>Wa
ng, 
"Es
ti
mat
ion 

n 
Pa
per 
Ma
chi
ne 
Co
nrol
t ,
" I
EEE 
Co
nro
t l 
Sy
ste
ms, 
Aug
ust 

993

pp.
    
34一3.

9. 
D. 

bar
bar
o-Ho
fer
, 
"Co
ntr
ol 

f a 

tee
l 
Ro
lli
ng 
Mi
ll
," 

EEE 
Co
nro
t l 
Sy
ste
ms, 
Ju
ne 

993

pp.
    
69-
75.
30. 
N. Mo
han, 
Power 
El e
ctr
oni
cs, 

ohn 
Wil
ey 
Sons, 
New York, 

995.
31. 
J. 
M. 
Wesis
, 
"The 
TGV  Comes 
to 
Te
xas
," 
Europ
e , 
March 
199
3, 
pp. 

8-2
0.
32. 
S>Lee, 

Int
ell
ige
nt Sens
ing 
an
d Con
ro
t l 
fo
r Advance
d Tel
epo
rta
ti
on," 

EEE 
Con
rol 
t S
yst
ems


    
une 

993, 
pp. 

9-28.

3. 

. 
V 
Wa
it 

nd 
L. 
P 
Hue
ls
man
, 
OA
T, 

0d 

d., 
Mc
Gra
w-Hi

l, 
Ne
w Yo
rk, 
19
92.

4. 
R 
G. 
Mart
in, 
The Art 

f Rob
otic
s, 
Pre
ntic
e Hal
l, 
Up
per 
Sa
ddl
e 
River
, 
NJ, 
19
9 9.

5. 
R. 
Sh
our
eshi
, 
"I
ntel

igent 
Conro
t l 
Sy
stems," 

ouna
r l 
of 
Dy
namic 
Sy
stems
, 
June 
199
3,
pp.
    
392-
400.
36
. A. 
But
ara
nd 
R.
Sal
es, 
"Con
ro
t l 
fo
r Ma
gLev 
Ve
hic
les
,"正EE 
Con
rol 
t Sy
ste
ms, 
Augus
t 
19
98,
pp. 
    
18-
25

7. 
L. 
W. 
Cou
ch, 
Di
gi
ta
l 
an
d 
An
al
og 
Co
mmu
ni
ca
ti
on 

yst
ems
, 
5`
h“.
,Ma
cmi

la
n, 
Ne
w Y
ork

1997.
      


8. 
H. 
Pa
raci 

nd 
M. J
amshi
di, 
De s
ign 
an
d I
mplement
ati
on 
of 

nte
ll
igent 
Manuf
act
uri
ng 
Sys
tems

Pr
    
ent
ice 
Hal
l, 
Upper 
Sad
dle 
Rive
r, 
N.
J., 

997.

9. 
C. 
T 
Chen, 
Ana
log 
and 
Digi
tal 
Conro
t l 
Syst
ems 
Desi
gn, 
HarcoutB
r  r
ace 
Jo
vanovi
ch,
Or
    
lando, 
Fl
a., 
1993.
40. 
B. 

ohns
ton
e, 
"J
apan'
s 
Fr
ien
dly 
Rob
ots
," 
Tec
hnol
ogy 
Revi
ew, 
June 
1999, 
pp.
66-6
9.
41. 
W. 
J. 
Gr
ant
ham 
and 
T. 
L. 
Vince
nt, 
Mo d
en 
r Conro
t l 
Syst
ems 
Anal
ysi
s 
and 
Des
ign, 
Jo
hn 
Wi
le

Sons
    
, 
Ne
w Yor
k, 

993.

2. 
K. 
Capek, 
Rossu
m' Un
ive
rsa
l 
Robots
, 
Engl
ish 

dit
ion妙 P 
Sel
ver 

nd 
N. 
Pla
yfai
r,
Do
    
ubl
eday, 
Page
, 
New Yo
rk, 
19
23.

3. 
L. 
L. Cone
, 
"Sky
cam: 
An 
Aeri
al 
Robot
ic 
Camer
a S
yste
m," 
By
te, 
Oc
tob
er 
1985, 
PP 12
2-1
28.

4. 
H. 
Ka
zer
ooni
, 
"Hu
man 
Ex
tend
ers
," 

ouna
r l 
of 
Dy
nami
c 
Sy
ste
ms, 
ASME, 
Jun
e 1
993, 
pp.
281-
      
290.

45. 
C. 
La
pis
ka, 
"Fli
ght 
Simul
at
ion,
" 
Aero
space 
Amer
ica
, 
Au gus
t 
19
93, 
pp. 
14
-17.
46. 
D. 
E. 
Bosse
rt, 
A Root

Locus 
An 
an
alysi
s 
of 
Qua
nti
ta
tiv
e Fee
dbac
k The
ory,
" 
Proc
eed
ing
s o


    
he 
Ame
ri
can 
Co
nro
t l 
Co
nfe
ren
ce, 
Ju
ne 

993, 
pp. 

698
-17
05.

7. 

. 
A. 
Gut
ie
r e
z a
nd 
M. 
Ra
bin,
" 
A 
Comp
ute
r Loo
p s
hapi
ng 
Al
gor
it
hm 

or 
Con
ro
t l
le
rs.

Pr
    
o c
eedin
gs 
of 
the 
Ameic
r an 
Conrol 
t Conf
er
ence
, 
June 
1993, 
pp. 

711一
1715.

8. 
J. 
W. Song, 

Syn t
hes
is 
of 
Co
mp e
nsat
ors 

n 
Line
ar 
Unceta
r i
n Plan
ts,
" 
Pro
ceed
ing
s o
f 
th

Co
    
nfe
rence 

n Decis
ion 

nd Con
ro
t l
, 
Dec
ember 
1992
, 
pp. 
2882-288
3.

211
49. 
M. 
Got
ts
chal
k, 

Part 

urgeon-
Part 
Robot
," 
Desi
gn 
News, 
Ju
ne 7, 

993
, p
p.6
8-7
5.
50. 
D. 
E. 
Wh i
tne
y, 

From 
Ro b
o t
s 
to 
Dei
gn,
" 
Jouna
r l 
of 
Dy
nami
c S
yst
ems, 
ASME, 
Jun
e 1
993

pp.
    
262-
270.
51. 
S. 
Ja
yasuri
ya, 
"F
requen
cy 
Doma i
n 
De s
ign fo
r Robust 
Per
for
mance 
Under 
Unce
rtai
nti
es,


    

urnal 
of 
Dynamic 
Syst
ems, 
June 1
993p p. 
439-
450 .
52. 
L. 
S. 
Shie
h, 
"Contr
ol 
of 
Unce
ta
r in 
Syst
e ms, 
"IEEE Proc
eedi
ngs
, Mar
ch 
1993
, 
pp .
99-1
10.
53. 
M. 
van de 
Panne, 

A Cont
rol

er 
for 
the 
Dy namic 
Wa l
k of 
a 
Bi
ped," 

EEE, 
December 
1992,
pp.
    
2668-
2673.

4. 
S. 
Bennet
t, 

The 
Devel
opment 
of 

h e 
PI
D Cont
rol
le
r.
" 
IEEE Con
trol 
Sy
s t
ems, 
Dece
mbe


    
993
, p
p.58-
64.

5. 
J. 
C. 
Doyl
e, 
Fee
dbac
k Cont
rol 
Th e
o y, 
r Macmil
la
n, 
New Yor
k, 
1992.

6. 
R. 
C. 
Do r
f, 

he 
Enc
yclop
edi
a of 
Roboti
cs, 
Joh
n Wil
ey&S ons, 
New York, 
198
8.

7. 
C. 
L. 
Phi
lip
ls a
nd 
H. 
T. 
Nag
le, 
Di
git
al 
Co
ntr
ol 
Sy
ste
ms, 
pr
ent
ic
e Ha
ll
, 
En
gle
woo
d Cl
ifs
, 
N.
J.

1995.
      

58
. G. 
E 
Fra
nkl

n, 

t 
al
., 
Di
git
al 
Co
ntr
ol 

f Dyn
ami
c 
Sy
ste
ms, 
2n
d e
d., 
Pr
ent
ice 
Ha
ll, 
Uppe

Saddl
    e Ri
ver
, 
NJ. 
1998.
59
. S. 
H. 
Za
k, 

Ripp
le-
Fre
e De
adb
eat 
Cont
rol
, 
"I
EEE 
Con
trol 
Sy
ste
ms, 
Augu
st 

993, 
pp.
51-
56.

0. 
C. 
La
pis
ka, 
"Fl
ig
ht 
Si
mul
at
io
n," 
Ae
ros
pac
e Ame
ri
ca, 
Aug
ust 

993
, 
pp
. 
14
-17

61
. R 
G. 
Ma
rti
n, 
Th
e Ar
t 
of 
Ro
bot

cs, 
Pr
ent
ic
e Ha
ll, 
Uppe
r Sa
ddl
e 
Ri
ver
, 
NJ
, 1
999

62
. D. 
Ra
viv 

nd 
E. 
W. 
Dj
aj
a, 

Dis
cre
ti
zed 
Con
rol
t l
ers
," 

EEE 
Co
nt
ro
l 
Sy
ste
ms, 
Ju
ne 

999

pp.
    
52-
58.
63
. R. 
C. 
Dorf
, 
Ele
ctr
ica
l 
Engi
nee
rin
g Han
db o
ok, 
2nd 

d., 
CRC Pr
ess, 
Bo
ca Rat
on, 
Fla.
, 
1998

64
. T.
M. 
Fol
ey, 
"Engi
neeri
ng 

he 
Space 
St
at
ion," 
Ae
ros
pac
e Amer
ica
, 
Octob
e r 

996
, 
pp.26
-32.

5. 
A. 
G. 
Uls
oy, 
"Co
nro
t l 

f 
Ma
chi
ni
ng 

roc
ess
es,
" 
ASME 

ouna
r l 
of 
Dy
nami
c 
Sy
ste
ms, 
Ju
ne

    
993
, p
p.301
-310.

6. 
K. 
J. 
Asro
t m, 
Comput
er-
Conro
t ll
ed 
Sy
ste
ms, 
Pr
ent
ice 
Ha
ll, 
Upper 
Sa
dd l
e 
Rive
r, 
N.J.
, 
19
97.

7. 
R. 
C. 
Drof 
and 
A. 
Kusi
ak, 
Han
dbook 
of 
Manuf
act
uri
ng 

nd Au
tomat
ion, 
Jo
hn 
Wi l
ey&So n
s,
Ne
    
w Yor
k, 
1994.

8. 
L. 
W. 
Co
uch
, Di
git
al 

nd 
An
alog 
Co
mmu
nic
ati
on 

yst
ems
, 
5t
h 
ed.
, 
Ma
cmi
ll
an, 
New 
Yor

1995.
      


9. 
M. v
an de 
Pa
nne, 
"A Con
ro
t l
le
r f
or 

he Dy
nami
c Wa
lk 
of 
a 
Bi
ped
,' 
Pr
oceed
ings 

f t
he
Co
    
nfer
ence 
on 
Dec
isi
on 
and 
Conro
t l
, 
IEEE, 
De
cemb
er 
199
2, 
pp.
2668
-26
73.
70
. K. 
S. 
Yeun
g a
nd 
H. 
M. 
La
i,” Re
for
mat

on 

f 
th
e Ny
qui
st 
Cr
it
er
ion 

or 
Di
scr
et
e 
Sys
te
ms,

    
IEEE Tran
sact
ions 
on 
Educat
ion, 
Februa
y 
r 1
988, 
pp.
32-3
4.
71
. M. Esla
mi, 
Theoy 
r of 
Sens
iti
vit
y 
in Dynamic 
Sys
tems, 
Spr
inger-
Ver
lag
, 
New 
Yor
k, 
199
4.
72
. T. 
R. 
Ku rf
ess, 

Pre
d i
cti
ve 
Cont
rol of 
a 
Roboti
c 
Grind
ing 
Sy s
tem." 

ouna
r l 
of 
Eng
ine
eri
ng 

or

    
ndus
ty 
r AS ME, 
No v
emb e
r 199
2, pp.
412-4
20.

3. 
T 
St
udt, 
"Wh y 
You 
Real
ly 
Nee
d a 
DSP 
"R&D 
Magazi
ne, 
June 
1993
, 
pp.3
2-3
4.

4. 
D. 
M. Aus
lan
der, 
Me c
haro
t ni
cs
, 
Pren
ti
ce 
Hal
l, 
Engl
ewood 
Cli
fs, 
N.
J., 

996.

5. 
R. 
Sho
ures
hi, 

Int
el
li
gen
t Co
nro
t l 

yst
ems
," 

ouna
r l 

f Dy
nami
c 
Sy
ste
ms, 
Ju
ne 

993,

    
p.
392-
400.

212
,.


D. 
J. 
Le o, 
"Co ntrol 
of 
a 
Flexi
ble F
r a
me  i
n Sl
ewing,
" Procee
dings of 
Ame ri
can 
Cont
rol
Confer
e nce, 1
99 2, 
pp.2
535 -
25 4
0.
,了

M. 
Al pert, 
"A Bul l
et 
Trai
n f
or t
he U.S.
," Fort
une, 
May 1993, 
pp.32.


J. 
L. Jones and A. M. 
Flynn, 
Mo bil
e Robo t
s, 
A. 
K. 
Pe t
ers 
Publis
hing, 
New York, 

993.

n,

V. 
Skormi n, 
"On -Line 
Diagnosti
cs o
f a 
Se l
f-
Co n
tai
ned Fl
ight 
Ac t
uator
," 
IEEE Tr
ansa
cti
ons
on 
Ae r
o space and El
ectr
onic Syst
ems , 
J a
n uay 
r 1
994, 
pp.130-141.
只)

H. 
H. Ot t
esen, 
"F ut
ure 
Servo Technolo
g i
e s 

or 
Ha r
d Disk 
Drives,
" J
. 
of 
the Magn
eti
cs
Soci
ety of J
a p
an , 
vol. 
18, 
1994, 
pp.31-36.

213
APPENDI
X 1.
HYDRAULI
C SYM BOLE

PUMPS, 
MOTORS, 
AND 
DRI
VES
Fi
xed 
  Vari
abl


ing
le 

ire
cti
on 

ump
测 二巴)
Doubl
e di
rec
tion 
pump
拭勃铡
Si
ngl
e di
rect
ion 
mot
or
城全书多
Doubl
e di
rect
ion 
mot
or
  
拭 〕铡
Si
ngl
e 
di
rec
tio
n p
ump
加ot
or


城兰)书多
wi

Si
wi

h 

ng

ever


e 
h 





sal 



gl

e 

of 



lo

low 

n 

ump
w 
di
re
di





ect

mo
io



on



蓄。
二泣) 
   -

f}
Z 
Do
ubl
e 
di
rec
ti
on 
pu
mp/
mot
or
wi
th 

wo 
di
rec
tions 
of 
low

Hydr
ost
ati
c dr
ive, 

pl
it 
sys
tem 

ype

Hydr
ost
at
ic 
dri
ve, 
co
mpa
ct,
re
ver
si
ble 
ou
tput

Semi 

ota
ry 
act
uat
or

LINEAR 
ACTUATORS



ng
le 
ac

in
g 

am 


oa
d 

et


rs 


e 

am
) 
          
}T


in
gl
e 

ct

ng 

ct
ua
to
r 

lo
ad 

et
uns
r。。p
is

on) 二
吕那


in
gl
e 

ct

ng 

ct
ua

or 


pri
ng 

et
uns 
r t
he 
pi

to
n) 二
赓铆
Do
ubl
e 

ct

ng 

ct
ua

or 幸到)

Di
fe
re
nt
ia
l 

ct
ua
to
r 
wi

h 
ov
er
si
ze 

od

214
Do
ubl
e 

ct
in
g 
ac

uat
or 
wi

h 
do
ubl
e 

nde
d 
ro
d 二
扫玲

is

on 

it
h 

dj
us

ab
le 
en
d 
cu
sh

oni

g 二
乒卿

is
to
n 
wi

h 

ix
ed 

nd 

us
hi
on
in
g 幸豆习


el
es
co
pi
c, 
si
ng
le 

ct

ng 

ct
ua
to


ele
sco
pic
, 
do
ubl
e 
ac
ti
ng 

ctu
at
or


re
ss
ur
e 

nt
en
si

ie

仁粗心仁咽侧仲片归屯一户归归
VALVE 
CONTROL 
M ECHANISM S

Undef
ined 
cont
rol

Ha
nd 

eve
r (
rot
ary 

r i

nea
r)

Pus
h but
ton

Foot 

eve

Cam 
rol
ler

Pl
ung
er 

pis
ton 

r ba
ll

Sp
ring

De
tent 
mechani
sm

Pr
essure 

eli
ef

Pr
ess
ure 

ppl
ie

Pne
uma
ti
c 
pi
lot


Hyd
raul

c p
ilo

Sol
enoi

So
len
oid
/hy
dra
uli
c 
pi
lot

215
Pn
euma
ti
c/h
ydr
aul

c pi

ot M〔二}
  


pri
ng 

ent
red 叮丁丁  ̄

DIRECTIONAL 
CONTROL 
VALVES

Di
rect
iona
l c
ont
rol 
val
ve 
wit

} I 
 I

朴中。

wo 

isc
et
r e 
po
sit

ons

Di
rect
ional 
cont
rol 
val
ve 
wit


hr
ee 

isc
ret
e 
po
siio
t n

Di
rect
ional 
cont
rol 
val
ve 
wi
th

ign
iic
f a
nt 

ros
s-o
ver 
po
siio
t ns

Val

nf
ve 

ni
wi


e 
h 

wo 
di

numbe
cr
r 
ete 
of 

and 
nte

an
medi
ate


hro
tti

ng 

osi
io
t ns

Va
lve 
wi
th 

hree 
di
scr
ete 

nd 


助吻聊卿咖

nf
ini
te 
number 
of 

nter
medi
ate }{ } }

hro
tli
ng 

osi
io
t ns

Two 
po
sii

on, 
two 

ort 
va
lve

Two 
po
sit
ion
, 
th
ree 

ort 

alv

Two 

osi
io
t n
, 
fo
ur 

ort 

alv

Two 

osi
ti
on, 
fi
ve 

ort 
va
lve

Th
ree 

osi
io
t n
, 
fo
ur 

ort 

alve
wi
th 
fu
ll
y c
los
ed 

ent
er
co
nigu
f r
ati
on

人B
Po
rt 

abe
in
l g:
Wo
  rki
ng 
li
nes 
A, 
B X
--蜘           


Y PT
            
Pi
  
lot 

ine
s 
  X, 

Pr
  
ess
ure 
ine 
l   P
Tank 
   ine 
l      
T 翩A
=j


_


-L


LL

W PT

Check 
val
ve
一 ̄-考卜一一.

216

号.
Sp
rin
g l
oad
ed 

hec
k va
lve

髯命恤
Pi

ot 

per
ate
d c
hec
k v
alv

OR 
funct
ion 
val
ve

AND 
funct
ion 
val
ve

Decel
erat
ion 
val
ve

Decel
erat
ion 
val
ve

SERVO 

Pr

el


ie
or


f 


AND 



na

PROPORTIONAL 

l 
e 



wi
nt



h 


l 









su
l 


ma
VALVE

x.
幕嘶 卿
pr
ess
ure 

imi
tat
ion)

Pi

ot 

per
ate
d d
ire
cti
ona

pr
opor
iona
t l val
ve

4-
way 

erv
o v
alv
e wi
th
mechanical 
feedback,
st
andard overl
apping 
and 
hydr
aul
ic 
zer

PRESSURE 
CONTROLS

Thro
tti

ng or
if
ice 
no
rmal
ly
cl
osed 
or 
nor
ma l

y o
pen

(o
pti
onal)

Pr
ess
ure 

eli
ef 

alv
e (
fi
xed

Pr
ess
ure 

eie
lf 
va
lve 

adj
ust
abl
e)

Det
ai
led 
sy
mbol 
of 
pi
lot
op
erat
ed 
pr
ess
ure 

eie
l f
va
lve 

compou
nd r
eli
ef 
val
ve)

217
啄啊矛尽琳怀啄---ty潮t---the甸可
Si
mpif
l i
ed 

ymb o
l o


ompound 

eli
ef 
val
ve

Pil
ot 
lo
f w 

xtena
r ll

dr
ained)


Pll
ot 
lo
f w 

nte
na
r l


dr
aine
d)

BRAKE 
VALVE

Brake 
val
ve

Unl
oad
ing 

alv


accumul
ator 
cha
rgi
ng 
val
ve)

Count
er 
bal
ance 
va
lve 

bac

pr
ess
ure 
val
ve)


equen
ce v
alv
e wi
th 

emo
te 

ont
rol

ext
ena
r l 
pi
lot

Sequenc
e v
alve 
wi
th 

ire
ct 

ont
rol
(i
nte
na
r l 
pi
lot

Of
lo
f a
din
g v
alv

Pr
ess
ure 

edu
cin
g v
alv
e (
fi
xed

Pr
ess
ure 

educ
ing 

alv
e (
adj
ust
abl
e)

Pi
lot 
ope
rat
ed 
pr
ess
ure 

educi
ng 
val
ve

Pr
ess
ure 

edu
cin
g v
alv
e wi
th

econda
y 
r s
yst
em 

eli
ef

FLOW 
CONTROLS

Th
rot
tl
e 
va
lve 
no
t 
afe
cte
d by 

isc
osi
ty \才
      
一 - 艺欢尸--

218
子曰圈甲回
Thr
ott
le 
val
ve 

fixed)

Thr
ott
le 

alve 

adjus
tabl
e)

Fl
ow 

ont
rol 

alv
e, 

res
sur
e a
nd

empe
rat
ure 
compensa
ted

Fl
ow 
cont
rol 
val
ve 
wit
h r
ever
se 
re
f e 
low

check

By
-pa
ss 
low 
f c
ont
rol 

alve

Fl
ow 
divi
der

FLUID 
PLUM BING 
AND 
STORAGE

Pr
essure 
sour
ce

Wor
king 
ine, 
l ret
ur
n l
ine, 

eed 
ine

Pi
lot 
cont
rol 
ine

Drai
n l
ine

Encl
osur
e l
ine

Fl
exi
ble 
ine
l 奋一 -,

El
ect
ric 

ine 爷
十上山山

Pi
pel
ine 
conne
cti
ons +未

Cr
oss 

ipe
lin
e (
not 
co
nne
cte
d)

Ai
r vent

Res
ervoi
r wi
th 

nle
t bel
ow 
lui
f d l
evel

Reservoi
r wi
th 

nlet 
above 
lui
f d l
evel

219
MISCELLANEOUS 
SYMBOLS



El
ect
ric 
mot
or

衅二 }拳。个


Hea
t e
ngi
ne

Ele
ctri
c 
moto
r wi
th 

ump 

nd 

riv

coupin
l g.

Pl
ugg
ed 


ne

Pl
ugg
ed 


ne 
wi
th 

ake
-of
f 
in
l e

Qu
ick 

onn
ect 
co
upl

ng

Ro
tar
y c
onn
ect
ion

Accumul
ator
含令勿
Fi
lt
er, 

trai
ner

Cool
er 
wi
th 
cool
ant 

ines

Heat
er
令今

Pr
ess
ure 

auge
, 
pr
ess
ure 

ndi
cat
or
州一

R ow 
met
er

Ther
momet
er

Pr
ess
ure 

wit
ch 

elect
ri
cal

Shut
-of 
val
ve

220
APPENDI
X 2. 
CONTROL 
TERM S 
AND 
CONCEPTS

Act
uat
or
Th
    
e d
evi
ce 

hat 

aus
es 

he 

roc
ess 

o p
rov
ide 

he 

utp
ut. 
Th
e d
evi
ce 

hat 
pr
ovi
des 

he 
mo
tiv

power 
     t
o t
he 
pr
oces
s.
Ampl
it
ude 
quant
iz
ati
on 
er
ror
Th
    
e 
sa
mp l
ed 
sig
nal 

vai
la
ble 

nly 
wi
th 
a 

imi
te
d pr
eci
si
on. 
Th
e e
rro
r be
twe
en 

he 

ctu
al
    

ignal 
and 
th
e s
ample
d si
gna
l.
Angl
e of 
depart
ur

Th
    
e 
angl
e 
at 
whic
h a 
lo
cus 

eave
s a 

omp
lex 
po
le 

n t
he 

-pl
ane

Asy
mpt ote 
ce
ntoi
r d
Th
    
e c
ent
er 

f t
he 

ine
ar 
sy
a mp
tot
es, 
6A・
As
ymptot
es
The 
    
pat
h t
he 
root 

ocu
s f
oll
ows 
s 
a t
he 
par
amete
r becomes 
ve
ry 

arg
e an
d a
ppr
oaches 

nini
f t
y.
Th
    
e 

umb er 

f a
symptot
es 

s 
eq
ual 

o t
he 
number o
f p
ole
s mi
nus 

he 
number 

f z
eros

Aut
om at
ion

    
The 
con
trol 
of a 

roce
ss 
by 
aut
omati
c 
means

Aux
ili
ary 
pol
y no
mi al
Th
    
e 
equ
ation 
that 

mme d
iat
el
y 
pre
cedes 

he 
zer
o e
nty 
r i
n t
he 
Ro
uth 

rra
y.
Bandwi
dth

The 
    
re
f q
uenc
y a
t wh
ich 

he 
re
f qu
enc
y r
esp
ons
e h
as 

ecl
ine
d 3 
dB 
ro
f m 

ts 

ow-
re
f qu
enc

val
      
ue.

Bl
ock 
di
agrams
Un
    
idi
rec
ti
ona
l, 

per
ati
ona
l 
bl
ocks 

hat 

epr
ese
nt 

he 

ran
sfe
r f
unc
tio
ns 

f t
he 

leme
nts 

f t
he

      
yst
em.
Bode 
pl
ot
    
The 
lo
gait
rhm  o
f t
he mag
nit
ude 
of 

he t
rans
fer 

unct
ion 
is 
pl
ott
ed ve
rsu
s t
he 
log
ari
thm 
of 
co,

    
he 
re
f quen
cy . 
The pha
se, 
0,of 

h e 

ran
sfer 

unct
ion 

s s
epara
tel
y p
lot
ted 
ver
sus 

he 
loga
rit
hm

    
f 

he 
re
f quency

Br
eak 

equenc
r y
    
T he 
frequenc
y at 
which t
he sy
a mp t
oti
c a
pproxi
ma t
ion 
of 
th
e re
f que
ncy r
espo
nse 

or 
a 
po
le

    
o r 

ero) 
change
s s
lope
Br
eaka way point
Th
    
e 
po i
nt 
on 
the 
rea
l 
axis 
wh er
e t
he 
locus 
de
parts 
ro
f m t
he 
rea
l 
axis 

f t
he 
s-
pla
ne.
Casc
a de 
compe nsat
ion 
network
A 
    
co
mp ensat
or 
net
wo r
k plac
ed i
n 
cascade 
or 
se
ie
r s wi
th 
the 

yste
m proc
ess.
Cauchy's 
theoem


    
f 
a 

ont
our 

nci
rc
les 
Z 

eros 

nd 
P 
po
les 

f F(
 
s) 

ra
ver
si
ng 

loc
kwi
se, 

he 

orr
espo
ndi
ng

    
ont
our 

n t
he 
F(s
)-pl
ane 

nci
rc
les 

he 

ig
r i
n o
f t
he 
F(s
)-p
lan
e N=Z一P 
ti
mes
cl
    
ockwi
se.

Charac
ter
ist
ic 
equat
ion

221
    
The 
re
lat
ion 
fo
r me
d by 
equa t
ion 
to 
zer
o t
he 
deno
minat
or 
of 
a 
tr
ans
fer 

unc
tio
n.
Cl
ose
d-l
oop f
eedback 
contol 
r syste

A 
    

yst
em t
hat 
uses 
a 
meas u
r e
me nt 

f t
he 
out
put 
and 

omp a
res 

t 
wit
h t
he 
des
ir
ed 

utp
ut.
Cl
ose
d-l
oop f
eque
r ncy 
res
po nse
Th
    
e f
re
que
ncy 

es
pon
se 

f 
th
e 
cl
os
ed-

oop 


ans
fe
r 
fu
nct

on 
T(
可).
Cl
osed-
loop 

yst
em
    
A syste
m  wit
h a 
me as
urement 
of 

he out
put s
ign
al 
and 
a co
mp ar
iso
n wi
th 

he des
ir
ed out
put

    
o generat
e an 
error 

ignal 

hat 

s 
appl
ied 
to 
the 
act
uat
or.
Co
mpe nsation
Th
    
e alt
era
tion 
or 
adjus
tment 
of 
a 
cont
rol 
sys
tem i
n or
der 

o pr
ovide 
a 
sui

abl
e 
p e
rfo
rma n
ce.
Co
mpe n s
ator
An 
    addi
ti
onal component 
or 
cir
cui
t tha
t i
s ins
ert
ed i
nto 
the s
yst
em to 
compensa
te f
or a

    
erformance 
de f
ici
ency.
Co
mple xit
y of 
desig

Th
    
e i
ntri
cate 
patt
en 
r of 
int
erwov
en p
arts 
and k
nowledge 

equi
red.
Co
nformal ma pping
A 
    

ont
our 
ma
ppi
ng 

hat 

et
ai
ns 

he 

ngl
es 

n t
he 
s-
p 
lan
e o
n t
he 
F( 
s)-
pl
ane

Cont
our 
map
A 
    

ont
our 

r t
ra
jec
tor
y i
n o
ne 
pl
ane 

s 
ma
ppe
d i
nto 

not
her 
pl
ane 

y a 

ela
tio
n F(
s).
Cont
ol 
r s
yst
em
An 
    

nte
rco
nne
cti
on 

f c
ompo
nen
ts 

ormi
ng 
a 

yst
em 

onigu
f rat
ion 

hat 
wi
ll 

rov
ide 
a 

esi
red
response.
      
Cont
olabl
r e s
yst
em
A 
    

yst
em 

s c
ont
ro
ll
ab
le 

n t
he 

nt
er
val 

to,
t 
f 
] 

f t
her
e e
xis

s a 

ont

nuo
us 

npu

u(
    
t) 

uch 

ha
t 
an
y i
ni
ti
al 

ta
te 
x(
to
)ca
n b
e d
ri
ve
n t
o 
an
y a
rbi

rar
y 
tr
ia
l 
st
at
e x
(t 
f 

in 



    
ni
te 
ti
me 

nt
er
va
l 

,一t
o>0.
Cor
ner 

eque
r ncy
    
Se
e Brea
k re
f que
nc y

Cr
it
ica
l damping
Th
    
e c
ase 
where 
dampin
g i
s 
on 

he 

oun
dar
y be
twe
en 

nde
rda
mpe
d a
nd 

ver
damp
ed.
Damped 
os
cil
lat
ion
    
An 
os
cil
lat
ion 

n wh
ich 

he 

mpl
it
ude 
decr
eas
es 
wit
h 
time.
Da
mp i
ng 
rat
io
A 
    
measu
re 
of 
dampi
ng. 
A 
di
men
sion
les
s n
umber 

f t
he s
eco
nd-
ord
er 

har
act
eri
st
ic 

qua
ti
on.
Dc 
mot
or

An 
    

lec
tri
c 
ac
tua
tor 

hat 

ses 

n i
npu
t 
vo
lta
ge 

s a 

ont
rol 

ari
abl
e.
De
adbeat 
es
r ponse
A 
    

yst
em 
wi
th 
a 

api
d r
esp
ons
e, 
mi
ni
mal 

ver
sho
ot, 

nd 

ero 

tea
dy-
st
at
e 
er
ror 

or 
a 

te

    
inpu
t.
De
cibel口b)

222
The 
    

nit
s 
of 

he 

oga
it
r h
mic 

ain

Des
ign
    
The 
process 
of c
oncei
vin
g or i
nvent
ing 
the 
forms. 
par
ts, 
and 
deta
il
s of 
a 
sys
tem t
o ac
hieve 


    
pec
ifi
ed purp
ose.
De
sign 
gap
A 
    
gap 
between t
he 
comple
x physi
cal 
syst
em and 
the 
desi
gn 
model 
in
tri
nsi
c 
to t
he 
progr
essi
on

    

om the i
ni
tia
l 
concept 

o 
the f
inal 

roduct.
De
sign 
of 
a contro
l s
yst
em
The 
    
arrangement 
or 

he pl
an of 
th
e sys
tem s
truct
ure 
and 
the 

ele
cti
on of 

uit
able 
component

and 
    
pa
ramet
ers

De
sig
n spe
cif
ica
tions
A 
    

et 
of 
pr
escri
bed 

erf
orma
nce 

rit
eri
a.
Di
gi
ta
l 
co
mput
er 

omp
ens
ator
A 
    

yst
em 

hat 

ses 
a 
di
gi
ta
l 
co
mput
er 

s t
he 

omp
ens
ato
r e
leme
nt.
Di
gi
ta
l 
co
ntol 
r s
yst
em
A 
    

ont
rol 

yst
em 

sin
g d
igi
ta
l 
si
gna
ls 

nd 
a 

igi
tal 

ompu
ter 

o 
co
ntr
ol 
a 

roc
ess

Di
ect 
r s
yst
em
Se
    
e 
Open-
loop 

yste
m.
Di
scet
r e-
ti
me appr
oximati
on
An 
    

pprox
imati
on 
used 
to 

bta
in 

he 

ime 

espo
nse 
of 
a 

yst
em 
bas
ed 

n t
he 

ivi
si
on 

f t
he

    
ime 

nt
o 
sma
ll 

ncr
eme
nts
,△,

Di
stur
bance 

ignal
An 
    

nwa
nte
d i
nput 
si
gna
l 
tha
t 
afe
cts 

he 

yst
em'
s 
out
put 

ign
al.
Domi
nant 

oot

The 
    

oot
s o
f t
he 

har
act
eri
st
ic 

qua
ti
on 

hat 

aus
e t
he 
do
min
ant 

ran
sie
nt 

esp
ons
e o
f t
he

    
yst
em.
Eng
inee
ring 
de
sign
The 
    
pro
ces
s of 

esi
gni
ng 
a 

ech
nic
al 

yst
em.
Err
or 
si
gnal
Th
    
e d
if
fe
ren
ce 

etwe
en 

he 

esi
re
d o
utpu
t, 
R(
s),a
nd 

he 

ctu
al 

utp
ut, 
Y 

s) 

The
ref
ore
E(
    
s)=R(
s)一Y(
s)
Fe
edback 
si
gnal
A 
    
mea
sure 

f t
he 

utpu
t 
of 

he 

yst
em 

sed 

or 

eed
bac
k t
o c
ont
rol 
the 

yst
em.
Fouri
er 

rans
form

Th
    
e t
ra
nsf
orma
ti
on 

f 
a 

unc
ti
on 

f 
ti
me, 
f 

t),
int
o 
th
e re
f q
uen
cy 

oma
in.
Fundament
al 
mat
rix
Se
      
e Tr
ans
iti
on 
mat
rix.
Ga
in 
mar
gin
Th
    
e i
ncr
eas
e i
n t
he 

yst
em 
ga
in 
whe
n p
has
e=一1
800 
th
at 
wi
ll 

esul
t 
in 
a 
ma
rgi
nal
ly 

ta
ble

    
yst
em 
wit
h 
in
ter
sec
tio
n o
f t
he 
-1+j
0 po
int 

n t
he 
Ny
qui
st 

iag
ram.

ntegrat
ion 
ne
twor

223
A 
    

etwo
rk 

hat 
ac
ts, 
in 
pa
rt, 


ke 

n mt
egr
at
(,
Lag 
net
wor

    
See 
Phas
e-l
ag n
etwor
k.
Lapl
ace 

ransfor

A 
    
tr
ansf
ormati
on of 
a 
fu
nct
ion 
f 

t) 

rom 
the 

ime 

oma
in 

nto 

he 

omp
lex 

req
uen
cy
do
    
mai
n外e
ldi
ng 
F(
s),
Lead 
net
work

    
See 
Phse
a -l
ag 
networ
k.
Le
ad-l
ag net
work
A 
    

e t
work 
wit
h t
he 
char
act
eri
st
ic 
of 
bo
th 
a 
lea
d net
work 
and 
a 

ag 
net
wor
k.
Li
near 
appr
oximati
on
An 
    
a pp
roxi
mate 
model 

hat 

esul
ts 

n a 

ine
ar 
rel
at
ions
hip 
be
twe
en t
he 
ou
tpu
t a
nd 

he 

npu
t o


      
he 
devi
ce.

Li
near 

yst
em
A 
    

yst
em 

hat 

ati
sie
f s 

he 
pr
ope
rti
es 

f s
upe
rpo
sit
ion 

nd 
ho
mog
ene
iy.

Locus

A 
    
path 
or 

ra
jec
tor
y t
hat 
is 

rac
ed 

ut 

s a 

ara
met
er 

s 
cha
nge
d.
Lo
gari
thmic 
magni
tude

    
he 

og
ari

hmi
c 
of 
a 
ma
gni

ude 

f 
th
e 
tr
ans
fe
r 
fu
nct

on, 
20 

ogl
of 
GI

Lo
ga r
ithmi
c plot

    
ee Bo
de plot

Mason 
loop 
rule
A 
    

ule 

hat 

nab
les 
&e 
us
er 

o o
bta
in 
a 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 

y t
ra
cin
g pa
ths 

nd 

oops 
wi

hin 


      
yst
em.
M at
he mati
cal 
mode
ls
De
    
scr
ipt
io
ns 

f 
th
e b
eha
vio
t 
of 
a 

yst
em 

sin
g ma
the
mat

cs.
Max
imum 
val
ue 

f t
he 

eque
r ncy 
es
r po
nse
A 
    
pa
ir 

f 
co
mpl
ex 
po
les 
wi
ll 
re
sul
t 

n 
a 
ma
ximu
m v
alu
e f
or 

he 

req
uen
cy 

esp
ons
e 
oc
cur
ri
ng
    
a t 
the 
re
sonant 
re
f quen
cy.
Mi
nimum phase
Al
    
l 

he 
zer
os o
f a 
tr
ans
fer 

unc
tio
n l
ie 

n t
he 

eft
-ha
nd 

ide 

f t
he 
s- 

lan
e.
Mul
tivari
abl
e cont
ol 
r s
yst
em
A 
    

yst
em 
wi
th 
mo
re 

han 

ne 

npu
t v
ari
abl
e 
or 
mor
e t
han 

ne 

utp
ut 

ari
abl
e.
Nat
ural 

equency

The 
    
re
fque
ncy 

f n
atu
ral 
os
ci
ll
at
io
n t
hat 
wo
uld 
oc
cur 

or 

wo 

omp
lex 
po
les 

f 
th
e da
mpi
ng
    
were 
equal 

o z
ero.
Ne
gati
ve 
feedback
The 
    
output 

ignal 

s 
fe
d b
ack 

o t
hat 
it 
sub
tra
cts 
ro
f m 

he 

npu
t 
si
gna
l.
Ni
chol
s c
hart
    
A c
hart 
di
spl
ayi
ng 
the 

urv
es 

or 

he 

el
at
io
nsh
ip 
be
twe
en 

he 

pen
-lo
op 

nd 

los
ed-
lo
op
re

    
quency 

e s
pon
se.

224
No
nminimum pha
s e
Tr
    
ansf
er 

unct
ions 
wi

h z
ero
s i
n t
he 

ight
-ha
nd 
s一p
lan
e.
Number 
of 
separat
e l
oci
Equ
    
al 

o the 
number 
of 
pole
s o
f t
he 
tr
ansf
er 
func
ti
on 
ass
uming 
tha
t t
he 
nu
mbe
r of 

ops 



    
re
ate
r t
han 
or 
equal 

o t
he 
number 
of 

ero
s of 

he 
tr
ans
fer 

unc
tio
n.
Nyqui
st 
st
abil
ity 
cr
ite
rion
A 
    

eed
bac
k s
yst
em 

s 
st
abl
e 
if
, 
an
d o
nly 

f, 

he 

ont
our 

n t
he 
G(
s)-
pla
ne 

oes 
no
t 
en
cir
cl


    
he(
一1,
0) 

oint 
wh
en 

he 

umb
er 

f p
ole
s o
f 
G(
s) 

n t
he 

ig
ht-
han
d s-

 l
ane 

s 
ze
ro. 


G(
    
s) 

s 
a p
ole
s 
P 

n 
th
e r
igh
t-h
and 
pl
ane
, 
th
en 

he 

umb
er 
of 

ount
er
cl
ockwi
se 

nci
rc
leme
nts
of 
    

he(
一1, 
0) 
poi
nt 
mu
st 

e e
qua
l 
to 
P 

or 
a 

ta
ble 

yst
em.
Obs
ervabl
e s
yst
em

    
A 
sy
st
em 

s 
ob
ser
va
ble 
on 

he 

nt
erv
al 

to
,t 
f 
] 
if 
an
y 
in
it
ia
l 
st
at
e 
x(
to)
is 

ni
qu
el
y 
de
te
rmi
ne


    
y 
obs
er
vi
ng 

he 

utp
ut 
y(t
) 
on 

he 

nt
erv
al 

to
,tf]・
Ope
n-l
oop c
o ntol 
r s
yste

A 
    
syst
em  t
hat 
uti
li
zes 
a 
dev
ice 
to 
cont
rol 

he 
proce
ss 
wi

hout 
usi
ng 
fee
dback. 
Thus 
th
e o
utp
ut
ha
    
s n
o efe c
t 
upon t
he 
si
gnal 

o t
he 
proces
s.
Ope
n-l
oop s
y ste

A 
    
syst
em  wit
hout 
fe
edba
ck t
hat 
di
rec
tly 
gene
rat
es 

he 
ou
tpu
t i
n 
es
r p
onse 

o an 

npu
t s
ign
al.
Opt
imi
zat
io

The 
    

djus
tme
nt 
of 

he 

ara
met
ers 

o a
chi
eve 

he 
mos
t 
fa
vor
abl
e 
or 

dva
nta
geo
us 

esi
gn.
Opt
imum 

ont
ol 
r s
yst
em
A 
    

yst
em 
whos
e p
ara
met
ers 

re 

dju
ste
d s
o t
hat 
th
e pe
rfo
rma
nce 

nde
x r
eac
hes 

n e
xtr
emu

val
      
ue.

Opt
iona
l 
co
ntol 
r s
yst
em
A 
    

yst
em 
whos
e 
pa
rame
ter
s 
ar
e 
ad
jus
ted 

o t
hat 

he 
pe
rf
orma
nce 

nde
x r
eac
hes 

n e
xtemu
r m
val
      
ue.

Over
shoot
Th
    
e amount 
by whi
ch t
he 
sys
tem 
ou
tput 

esponse 
pr
oce
eds 
beyon
d t
he 
des
ied 
r es
r po
nse

Pa
ramete
r de
sig

A 
    
method 
of s
elec
tin
g one 
or 

wo 
par
ameter
s u
sing 

he 
roo
t 
locus 
met
hod

Pe
ak 

ime
Th
    
e t
ime 

or 
a 

yst
em 

o 
re
spo
nd 

o a 

tep 

npu
t a
nd 

is
e t
o a 

eak 

esp
ons
e.
Pe
rformance 

nde

    
A 
qu
anti

ati
ve 
me
asu
re 

f t
he 

erf
orma
nce 

f a 

yst
em.
Pha
se 
mar
gin
Th
    
e a
moun
t 
of 

has
e s
hif
t 
of 

he 
GH 

j叻 a
t 
un
it
y 
ma
gni
tu
de 

hat 
wi
ll 
re
sul
t 
in 
a 
ma
rgi
nll
ay

    
tab
le 

yst
em 
wi
th 

nte
rse
cti
ons 

f t
he一1
+j0 
poi
nt 

n t
he 
Ny
qui
st 

iag
ram.
Pha
se-
lag 
net
wor

A 
    
net
work 

hat 

rov
ide
s an
 
ega
tiv
e p
has
e a
ngl
e a
nd 
as 
ign
ifi
can
t a
tte
nua
tio
n o
ver 

he

    
reque
ncy 

ange 
of 

nte
rest

225
Phase-
lead 
network

    
A n
etwork 

hat 
pr
ovide
s a 
pos
it
ive 
phas
e a
ngle 
ove
r t
he 
fre
quenc
y r
ange 
of 

nte
res
t. 
Th
us

    
hase 
le
ad 
can 
be 
use
d t
o c
ause 
a 
sy
stem 
to 
hav
e a
n a
dequa
te 
pha
se 
margi
n.
PI 

ont
rol
ler
Co
    
ntr
oll
er 
wi
th 
a 

rop
oti
rona
l 
te
rm 

nd 

n i
nte
gra
l 
te
rm 

Pro
por
ti
ona
l-I
nte
gra
l).
PI
D c
ont
ol
r l
er
    
A c
ontr
oll
er 
wit
h t
hre
e t
erms 
in wh
ich t
he 
out
put 
is 

he sum of 
a 
pro
poti
r o
nal 

erm, 



    
nt
egra
ti
ng t
erm, 
and 
a 
dif
fer
ent
iat

ng 
ter
m, wi
th 

n a
djus
tabl
e g
ain 

or 

ach 
te
rm.
Pl
ant
See 
    
Pr
oces
s.
Pol
ar 
pl
ot
A 
    

lot 
of 

he 

eal 
pa
rt 
of 
)  v



G ers
us 

he 

mag
ina
ry 

art 
of 
G(
j(o
).
Pos
iti
ve 

eedback
Th
    
e o
utpu
t s
ign
al 

s 
fe
d b
ack 

o t
hat 
is 

dds 

o t
he 

npu
t s
ign
al.
Preg
ilter

A 
    

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on, 
G, 

s),t
ha
t 

fl

ers 

he 

np
ut 

ig
nal 
R(
s) 

ri
or 

o 
th
e c
al
cu
la
ti
on 

f 
th

    
er
ror 

ignal

Pr
inci
ple 

f t
he ar
gument
Se
    
e 
Cauc
hy's 
the
ore
m.
Process

Th
    
e de
vic
e, 

lant
, 
or 

yst
em 

nde
r 
co
ntr
ol.
Process 
cont
ol
r l
er
Se
      
e PI
D cont
rol
ler

Produc
tivi
ty
Th
    
e r
ati
o 
of 

hys
ica
l 
ou
tput 
to 

hys
ica
l 
in
put 
of 

n i
ndu
str
ial 
pr
oce
ss.
Re
lat
ive 

tabi
li
ty
    
The 
prop
ert
y t
hat 

s meas
ure
d by 

he 

ela
ti
ve 

eal 
pa
rt 

f e
ach 

oot 

r p
air 

f r
oot
s o
f t
he

    
harac
ter
ist

c e
quat
ion.
Re
sonant 

equenc
r y
The 
    

req
uenc
y,件,
at 
wh
ich 

he 
ma
ximum 

alu
e o
f 
th
e f
re
que
ncy 

esp
ons
e 
of 
a 

omp
lex 
pa
ir
of 
    
pol
es 

s a
tai
ned.
Ri
se 

ime
    
The 
ti
me f
or 
a 

yst
em t
o r
espon
d t
o a 
st
ep 

nput 

n d 

tta
in 
a 

espo
nse 
eq
ua l 
to 
a 

erce
nta
ge 
of

    
he magni

ude 
of 
the 

nput. 
The 
0-100% 
ris
e t
ime, 
T,,meas
ures 

he 
time 
to 
100% o
f t
he

ma
    
gni

ude 

f t
he 

npu
t. 
Al

ern
at
iv
el
y,爪me
as
ur
es 

he 


me 

ro
m 1
0% 

o 9
0% 

f t
he

    
esp
ons
e t
o t
he 

tep 

nput

Ri
sk

Un
    
ceta
r i
nti
es 

mbo
die
d i
n t
he 

nin
ten
ded 

ons
equ
enc
es 

f a 
de
sign

Robot

    
Pr
ogr
amma bl
e c
ompute
rs 
int
egr
ate
d wit
h a 
ma
nip
ula
tor
. 
A 

epr
ogr
amma
ble
, mu
lti
func
tio
nal
ma
    
ni
pul
ato
r u
sed 
fo
r a 
var
iet
y 
of 
ta
sks.
226
Robus
t c
ont
rol 

yst
em
A 
    
sys
tem 
tha
t e
xhi
bit
s t
he 
des
ir
ed 
per
for
man
ce 
ui 
 
the 
pr
ese
nce 
of 

ign
iic
f a
nt 
pl
ant
unce
      
rta
nt
i y.
Root 

ocus

Th
    
e l
ocu
s o
r p
ath 

f t
he 

oot
s 
tr
ace
d o
ut 

n t
he 

-pl
ane 

, a 
pa
rame
ter 

s 
ch
ange
d.
Root 

ocus 
met
hod

Th
    
e me
tho
d f
or 

ete
rmi
ni
ng 

he 

ocu
s of 

oot
s 
of 

he 

har
act
er
is
ti
c 
eq
uat

on 
1+KP(
s)二0

    
s 
K 

ari
es 
ro
f m 
0 

o 
in
fin
it
y.
Roo
t l
ocus 
se
gme nt
s 
on t
he 

eal 
ax
is
Th
    
e r
oot 

ocus 
lyi
ng 
in 
a 
se
cti
on 
of 

he 

eal 

xis 

o t
he 

eto
f  
f a
n o
dd 
nu
mbe
r o
f p
ole
s a
nd
zeros.
        

Ro
ot 

ens
it
iv
iy

    
The 

ensi
ti
vi
ty 
of 

he 
roo
ts 
as 
a 

ara
meter 
ch
ang
es ro
f m i
ts 
nor
ma l 
va
lue
. 
The 
ro
ot 
se
nsit
ivi
ty

    
s 
the 

ncr
ement
al 

hange 
in 

he 

oot 
di
vid
ed 
by 
the 
pro
port
iona
l c
hange 
of 

he 
par
amete
r.
Rout
h-Hurwi
tz 

rit
eri
on
A 
    

rit
er
ion 

or 

ete
rmi
nin
g t
he 

tabi

ity 

f a 

yst
em 
by 

xami
nin
g t
he 

har
act
eri
st
ic 

qua
ti
on
of 
      

he 

rans
fer 

unc
tion. 
The 

rit
eri
on 
st
ates 

hat 

he 
number 
of 

oot
s of 

he 

har
act
eri
sti

    
equat
ion 
wit
h pos
it
ive 

ea l 
par
ts 
is 
equal 
to 

he 
number 
of 
changes 

f s
ign 
of 

he 

oeff
ic
ient


    
n 

he f
ir
st 
col
umn of 

he Rout
h a
rra
y.
Sa
mple dat

Da
    
ta 
obt
aine
d for 

he s
ystem 
vari
able
s only 
at 

isc
ret
e i
nte
rv a
ls. 
Data 
obt
ain
ed 
onc
e eve
ry

    

mp l
ing 
per
iod.
Sa
mple-dat
a s
yst
em
A 
    

yst
em 
wh
ere 
pa
to
r  
f 
th
e s
yst
em 

cts 

n s
ampl
ed 

ata 

samp
led 

ari
abl
es)

Sa
mpl

ng 

eri
od
Th
    
e p
eri
od 
wh
en 

ll 

he 
nu
mbe
rs 

eav
e o
r e
nte
r t
he 

ompu
ter
. 
Th
e p
eri
od 

or 
wh
ich 

he

    
amp
led 
va
ria
ble 

s 
he
ld 

ons
tan
t.
Set
ting 
l t
ime
Th
    
e t
ime 

equ
ire
d f
or 

he 

yst
em 
out
put 

o s
ett

e wi
thi
n ac
 
ert
ai
n p
erc
ent
age 

f t
he 

npu

ampl
    
it
ude.

ign
al-
flow gra
ph
A 
    
dia
gram  t
hat 
consi
st
s of 
nod
es conn
ecte
d by 
se
ver
al 

ire
cte
d b
ran
che
s a
nd 

hat 

s a
gr
    
aphica
l 
repres
ent
ati
on o
f a 

et 

f in
l e
ar 
rel
at
ion
s.
Si
mul
ati
on
    
A mod el 
of 
a sys
tem t
hat 
is 
used 
to 

nves
ti
gate 

he beh
avio
r o
f a 

yst
em by 
ut
il
iz
ing 
ac
tual

    
nput 
signals

Specif
ica
tions
St
    

temen t
s t
hat e
xpic
l it
ly s
tat
e what 

he dev
ice 
or pr
oduct 

s t
o be 
and 
to 
do. 
A se
t of

    

escrib
e d 
perf
ormance 
cri
te
ria.
Sta
bili


A 
    
pe
rforma n
ce measu
re 
of 
a sy
stem. 
A 
sys
tem 
is 
st
able 

f 
all 
the 
pol
es 
of 

he 

ran
sfe
r f
unc
tio


    
ave 
negati
ve r
eal 
par
ts.

227

tabi
li
ty 

f a 

ampl
ed-
dat
a s
yst
em
Th
    
e s
tab
le 

ond
it
io
n e
xis
ts 
wh
en 

ll 

he 

ole
s of 

he 

los
ed-
lo
op 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on 
T(z
) 
ar

    
wit
hin 

he 

nit 

irc
le 

n t
he 

-pl
ane


tabl
e 
syst
em
A 
    

yna
mic 

yst
em 
wi

h a 

oun
ded 

yst
em 

espo
nse 

o a 

oun
ded 

npu
t.
St
ate 
di
ff
erent
ial 
equat
ion
Th
    
e 
difer
ent
ial 
eq
uati
on 

or 

he 

tat
e 
ve
cto
r: 
z二Ax+Bu.
St
ate 
of 
a 

yst
em
    
A s
et 
of 
nu
mber
s s
uch 
th
at 
th
e knowle
d g
e o
f t
hes
e nu
mb e
rs 
and 

he 

npu
t f
unc
ti
on 
wi
ll
, 
wi
th

    
he 
equa
ti
ons 

escr
ibi
ng 
the 
dyn
a mi
cs, 
pr
ovide 

he 
fut
ure 
st
at
e 
of 

he 

yst
em.
St
ate 
var
iabl
e f
eedback
Oc
    
cur
s 
wh
en 

he 

ont
rol 

ign
al 
u,
for 

he 
pr
oce
ss 

s 
a 

ire
ct 

unc
ti
on 

f al
l 

he 

tat
e 
va
ria
ble
s.
St
ate 
var
iabl
es
The 
    

et 

f v
ari
abl
es 

hat 

esc
rib
e t
he 

yst
em.
St
ate 
vect
or

The 
    

ect
or 

ont
ai
nin
g a
ll 
n 

tat
e 
va
ria
ble
s, 
x,
,x2……,
xR・
St
eady-
state 
eror

Th
    
e er
ror 
wh en th
e ti
me per
iod i
s 
large 
and th
e tr
ansi
ent 
res
po ns
e has 
de
caye
d, 
le
avi
ng t
he

    
ont
inuous 
response.
Sy
nthesi

The 
    
p r
ocess 
by which n
ew physi
cal 
conf
igurat
ions 
are 
cre
ate
d . 
The 
combin
ing 
of

    
epa
rate 
el
eme nts 
or 
devic
es t
o f
orm ac 
oherent 
whole.
Sy
stem
An 
    

n t
erco
nn e
ction of 

lements 
and 
device
s for 
a 
desi
red 
pur
p ose.
Sy
stem s
e n
sit
ivi
ty
Th
    
e rat
io 
of t
he  c
h a
nge i
n t
he sys
tem tr
an s
fer 
funcio
t n 
to 
the chan
ge of 
a 
pr
oces
s t
ran
sfe


    
unc
io
t n 
(or 
parame t
er) 

or 
a s
ma li c
n re
me nt
al 
change.
Te
st 

nput 

igna

An 
    

npu
t s
igna
l 
us
ed 

s a 

tan
dar
d t
est 
of 
a 

yst
em'
s 
abi

ity 

o 
re
spo
nd 

deq
uat
el
y.
Thr
ee-
mode 

ont
ol
r l
er
See 
      
PI
D cont
rol
ler

Thr
ee-
ter
m c
ont
ol
r l
er
See 
      
P1
D cont
rol
ler.

Ti
me 
de
lay
A 
    
pu
re 
ime 
t d
ela
y, 
T,
so 

hat 
ev
ent
s 
oc
cur
in
r g 

t 
ti
me 
ta 
t 
on
e po
int 

n 
th
e s
yst
em 

ccur 



    
not
her 

oin
t i
n t
he 

yst
em 

t a 

at
er 

ime
, 
t+T.
Ti
me 
domai

The 
    
ma
the
mat
ica
l 
doma
in 

hat 

nco
rpo
rat
es 

he 

ime 

esp
ons
e a
nd 

he 

esc
ip
r t
ion 

f a 

yst
em

      
n t
erms 
of 

ime 

Ti
me-v
aryi
ng 

yst
em
A 
    
syst
em 

or 
whi
ch 
on
e o
r mo
re 

ara
met
ers 
ma
y v
ary 
wi
th 

ime

228
Trade-
off

Th
    
e r
esu
lt 

f ma
kin
g aj
 
udg
men
t a
bou
t h
ow 
muc
h c
omp
romi
se 
mus
t b
e ma
de 
be
twe
en

    
onf
li
cti
ng 

rit
eri
a.
Transf
er 

uncti
on

Th
    
e r
ati
o o
f t
he 
La
pla
ce 

rans
for
m o
f t
he 

utpu
t v
ari
abl
e 
to 

he 
La
pla
ce 

ran
sfo
rm 

f t
he 

npu

vari
      
abl
e.

Tr
ansf
er 

unctio
n i
n t
he 
feque
r ncy 
domai

Th
    
e 

ati
o of t
he 
out
put 
to 
th
e in
put 
si
gna
l wh
ere 

he 

nput 

s a 

nu
i s
oid. 

t 
is 

xpr
ess
ed

    
sG(
jco).
Trans
ient 
es
r pons

    
The 
re
spo
nse 
of 
a 

yst
em 

s a 

unct

on 
of 

ime

Tr
ans
iti
on 
matri
x, 
D(
( t

    
T he 
ma
tri
x e
xpo
nen
tia
l 
fu
nct
ion 

hat 

esc
rib
es 

he 

nfo
rce
d r
esp
ons
e o
f t
he 

yst
em.
升p
e number
The 
    

umb
er 
N 
of 

ole
s 
of 

he 

ra
nsf
er 

unc
ti
on, 
G(
s),
at 

he 

ri
gi
n. 
G(
s) 

s 
th
e f
orwa
rd 
pa
th

      
ransfer 
funct
ion.


elo
cit
y 
er
or 
r c
ons
tan
t,凡
Th
    
e c
ons
tan
t e
val
uat
ed 

s l
im[
sG(

'-,o
)].
The 

tea
dy-
st
ate 

rro
r f
or 
a 

amp 

npu
t (
of 

lop
e A) 

or
                                                                  

a 
    

yst
em 

s 
eq
ual 
to 
A 
/ 
K,,

Z-
plane
The 
    
pl
ane 
wit
h t
he 
ver
ti
cal 

xis 

qua
l 
to 

he 

magi
nay 
r pa
rt 

f z 

nd 

he 
ho
riz
ont
al 

xis 

qua


    
o 

he 

eal 
pa
rt 
of 
z.
Z-
trans
for

A 
    

onf
or
mal 
ma
ppi
ng 

or
m t
he 

-p
la
ne 

o 
th
e 
z-
pl
an
e b
y t
he 

el
at
io
n 
z=e 
sr.
^tr
ans
fo
rm

    
rom 

he 

-doma
in 

o t
he 
z-
domai
n.

229
图书在版编目(CI
P)数据

液压控制系统设计=Hy
     dra
ul
ic 
 Con
tr
ol 

yst
ems 
De


ig
]训汤逢瑜编著 一兰州:
兰州大学出版社,
200
4.2

  
SBN 7-311一02346-7

  
I.
液… I.
杨二 I
Q.液压控制一系统设计一教
材一英文 I
V.TH 
13

中国版本图书馆CI
     P数据核字(2
004)
第00

967
9号

液压控制系统设计
            
HYDRAULI
     C CONTROL 
SYSTEMS 
DESI
GN

杨逢瑜
                  
兰州市大学出版社出版发行
      
兰州市天水路3
08号 电话:
861
715
6 邮编:
730
000
E-ma
            
il, 
pre
ss@onbook.
com.
cn


              
ttp 
- 
//www 

nboo
k.co
m e

兰州残联福利印刷厂印刷
          
开本 :
787X1
092 
        

/16 印张 :
15
20
04年2月第 1版 20
04年2月第1次印刷
字数:37
8千字 印数 :
        
110
00册

SBN7-311-02346-7 定价:
        
250
0元

You might also like