03 Alan Cadavos - History of City-Formation and of City-Plan

History of Cities and
Theories of
Urbanization
By EnP. Alan G. Cadavos
© ECOPOLIS 2009 ® PAGE 1

Outline
1. History of Cities
• Necropolis, Cities of the Dead, Temple-Towns, (Ancient Near
East and Egypt)
• Acropolis (Classical Greek City-State)
• Imperial City (Ancient Rome)
• Fortress Cities (Dark Ages)
• Cathedral Cities (Middle Ages)
• Port Cities / Mercantile Cities (Renaissance)
• Manufacturing Cities (Industrial Revolution)
• Megalopolis (Post World War II Population Explosion)
• Post-Industrial Cities (Information Revolution)
2. Theories of Urbanization
3. Evolution of Modern Urban Planning Models
4. Modern Environmental Planning

Early Urbanization, 6000-200 BC
1. Early Urbanization coincided with the ‘Neolithic Agricultural

Revolution’ when people built permanent settlements and fixed
farms – rather than living nomadically through hunting and
gathering.
2. There was increase in tribe size to the point where hunting
and gathering could no longer provide adequate food, which
encouraged fixed settlements
3. successful domestication of selected plants and animals
generated huge food surplus that led to sedentary settlements
in alluvial plains (Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, Huang Ho,
Tiber rivers)
4. The resource base was the source of water –rivers, lakes and
oases – for irrigation of permanent farms.
5. Cattle was used to pull the plow, increasing cultivated acreage
6. Rectilinear plotting with the use of plow made easy the division
of land according to crop
7. Use of massive warehouses to store food in preparation for
drought or warfare
Theory of Early Urbanization–
“hydraulic civilization theory” by
Karl Wittfogel (1957)
• Large-scale irrigation systems and the use
of hydraulics were the prime mover behind Babylon, in Sumeria, present day Iraq
urbanization
• The agricultural revolution resulted in
higher crop yields and created huge food
surplus
• Labor specialization developed; a class of
non-farming workers --bureaucrats/
administrators, High Priests, Shamans
(healers), Craftsmen, Traders
• Strong, centralized government emerged,
backed by an urban-based military.
• Power elite was needed to coordinate and
to ensure continued operation of the
irrigation systems
• Farmers who resisted king’s authority were Ur, in Sumeria
denied water
• The hydraulic civilization model was
applicable to Mesopotamia, India, Pakistan,
and China but not to all “urban hearths” in
Antiquity because urban civilization
blossomed even without irrigation in Meso-
America (Maya, Teotihuacan, Aztec and
Inca)

Theory of Early Urbanization – 1.Religion was a major factor behind
‘Religious Model’ by Paul urbanization. Cities were religious

ceremonial centers (temples and
Wheatley (1973) ziggurats) and were seen as defenses
against supernatural forces
2.Religious leaders claimed special
knowledge of meteorological and
climatic conditions; they decided when
and how to plant crops. Successful
harvests led to more support for this
priestly class
3.Priestly class exercised political and
social control; political leader had to
claim to be a “high priest” with special
and unique knowledge.
4.Politically, there was shift from elder-
based kinship organization to complex
political system
5.shift from “ancestor worship’ to “cult
worship of totalitarian god-kings” who
controlled food storage and food
rationing
6.Development of writing enabled “god-
kings” to codify laws, and their
supposed literacy led to claims of
unique divine wisdom inaccessible to
the masses.
Paul Wheatley “Religion and the Rise of Urbanism,” “The Pivot of the
Four Quarters: A Preliminary Enquiry into the Origins and Character of
the Ancient Chinese City: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.
© ECOPOLIS 2009 ® PAGE 5 93, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1973), pp. 527-538
‘Necropolis’ – The earliest cities were called
‘cities of the dead”
• Worship of the
totalitarian ‘god-
kings’
• Totalitarian ‘god- Assyrian
kings’ sought to live God-king
forever through huge
monuments and
burial complexes Egypt Egypt
Egypt Teotihuaca, Mexico

© ECOPOLIS 2009 ® PAGE 6 Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
Greek City-States and the birth of Democracy
• The Greek city-states with
combined population of
250,000 provided the anti-
thesis to totalitarian empires.
• There were 500 polis with a
population of 3,000-5,000
people each – the most
important were Athens, Sparta, Priene
Mycenae, Priene, Minoa, and
Pergamon. Temple of Zeus at Olympia
• The Greeks also had the
Temple as centerpiece but
valued the creation of “civic Troy or Ilion
space” and the practice of
secular fields (philosophy,
Olympic sports) and humanistic
fine arts.
• Greeks provided the concepts Pergamon
of “self-government,” and
‘citizenship”
• Small size enabled the practice Mycenae
of ‘direct democracy’ (but Sparta
women, slaves and foreigners
not included)
Minoa
Hippodamus of Miletus – ‘Father of
Town Planning’ in Western Civilization
• Lawyer-architect Hippodamus
of Miletus (c. 407 BC) is
known as the “Father of Town
Planning” in Europe.
• He emphasized geometric
designs, provided the first
theoretical framework in Alexander the
planning. Great
• He designed Miletus, Priene,
Rhodes, and Thurii (Italy).
• Pericles commissioned him to
design “Piraeus” as the port of
Athens. Alexander The Great
from Macedonia
commissioned him to design
“Alexandria” in Egypt which
Alexander captured.

Athens and Acropolis
• Athens gained pre-eminence
among many Greek city-states
circa 700-404 BC, had 40,000
citizens and 100,000 slaves at its
height 450 BC
• “Athenaeum” or Q&A schools in
Athens emphasized rhetoric,
reasoned debate, logic,
philosophy, culture, and sports
(e.g., Parmenides, Pericles,
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc.)
• two distinctive functional zones
which were physically separated –
Acropolis (sacred sites & religious
temples) and Agora (civic sphere
and secular politics)
• Acropolis–made of white marble
and granite meant to shine when
struck by the sun; built to
harmonize with natural landscape
as “crown” on the peak of Mount
Lycabettus.
• “Arenas” in the Agora were venues
for public participation in social life.

Plato, 427-347 BC, on “Polluter Pays
Principle”
“And let this be the law: If any one
intentionally pollutes the water of another,
whether the water of a spring, or collected
in reservoirs, either by poisonous
substances, or by digging, or by theft, let
the injured party bring the cause before
the wardens of the city, and claim in
writing the value of the loss; if the accused
be found guilty of injuring the water by
deleterious substances, let him not only
pay damages, but purify the stream or the
cistern which contains the water, in such
manner as the laws . . . order the
purification to be made by the offender in
each case.”
Plato, Great Books of the Western World (1982), Robert Maynard
Hutchins, Editor in Chief; ISD p 216)

Aristotle, 384-322 B.C., on “Inter-
generational Equity”
“Human well-being is realized
only partly by satisfying
whatever people's
preferences happen to be at
a particular time; it is also
necessary for successive
generations to leave behind
sufficient resources so that
future generations are not
constrained in their
preferences.“
Rogers, Peter, K. F. Jalal, J.A.Boyd, An
Introduction to Sustainable Development (2006)
p 10
Greeks combined Polytheism with Secular Humanism
Venus de
Milo, 100
BC
Gallery of the Maidens
Zeus, god
of the
gods in
Greek
mythology
The god
“Hermes” Discobolus,
holding the child 500 BC
god “Dionysius”
Rome – ‘The Eternal City’
• Rome straddles 7 hills originally inhabited by pastoral communities with access
to Tiber River.
• Rome was first a ‘Republic’ run by democratic Senate until 27BC then it became
an “Empire” after the assassination of Julius Caesar who was succeeded by
dynasties of emperors/dictators
• Imperial Rome did not excel in philosophy and science but excelled in
engineering – civil works, road building, hydraulics, water provision and
sewerage
• Rome was the first ancient city to reach 1 million population in 03 AD – about the
time Jesus Christ was 6 years old.
• City was bisected by 2 main streets that met at the center called the “Forum”
where temples, government buildings, theatre, arena, market, warehouses,
libraries, schools, venues for common assembly were located
• “Basilica” was originally the official function hall of the Emperor
• Even with magnificent public buildings, Rome was overcrowded, susceptible to
epidemics, plagues, and large disastrous fires (e.g. Nero)
Rome – The ‘Imperial City’
• Romans were preoccupied with defense and built their city like a military camp called “castra” – whole
city was enclosed by a wall
• Grid-iron design: Basic street pattern useful for military movement, or marching by rectangular platoons
• Romans chose locations with good access – to major road, trade route, or sea egress
• transportation network was their primary consideration
Ancient Rome
Olynthos, Roman city
London and Paris started as army camps of the
Roman Empire
• The Roman military
camp or ‘castra’ was
the template design for
perimeter blocks,
square Palaces with
enclosed open space,
quadrangles and • Londinium 200 AD
piazzas
• Paris, ca. 400 AD
• London
Roman Road-Building
The Via Appia is being used until today.

Roman Civilization
• Roman arch, vault, duomo, quadrangle,
amphitheater, aqueduct, public baths,
underground canals and sewers, etcetera
influenced most cities in continental Europe
• Collectively, these elements are called
classical or neo-classical design

Ancient Roman Empire at its height, 117 AD
• Not colonized by Rome were
Scotland, Ireland, East Germany,
Poland, Denmark, Scandinavian
countries, Baltic states, Ukraine,
Belarus, Russia, Iran, and Saudi
Arabia

Five Major Architectural and
Engineering Feats of Roman Empire
• The Colosseum (rt. colossus) or Vespasian
Amphitheater by Emperor Vespasian
• The Forum by Emperor Trajan
• The Pantheon of the Gods and its famed
Rotunda by Emperor Trajan
• The Roman Baths Complex (2,000 people daily)
by Emperor Caracalla
• ‘Basilicas’ were originally court-halls of the
Emperors, later adopted by Catholic Church
• “Apollodorus of Damascus” was credited for many
important designs of Classical Rome under Emperor
Trajan but he was later eliminated by Emperor
Hadrian who wanted to take over architectural
design.

Reasons for the Fall of Roman Empire, 476 AD
• Moral Decay – Emperors were too obsessed with power. In power struggles,
Emperors were killed by their own sons or wives. Brothers killed their own
brothers who were rival heirs to the throne, showing the breakdown of families.
Among the elite, incest, in-breeding, deceit, and treachery were common, as well
as corruption from top to bottom.
• Emperors had ostentatious and pleasure-focused lifestyles, leading to bankruptcy
of treasury and loss of respect from the citizens. Military generals were rewarded
with multiple women and sex-orgies as prize for battle, which resulted in loss of
discipline, neglect of foot-soldiers and neglect of conquered territories.
• The State’s official persecution of early Christians and of diaspora Jews before
the reign of Constantine The Great led to sectoral strife; socio-religious divisions
among the citizenry prevented them from uniting during periods of crisis.
• Poor Governance, neglect of citizenry, neglect of conquered territories led to local
rebellions; contributing to the rise of the Vikings (Visogoths, Ostrogoths from
Scandinavia) & Huns from Asia Minor who plundered wealth of Roman cities.
• Vikings cut off Roman lifeline – the Aqueduct. Without steady supply of water,
Rome’s population went down from 1-million in 03AD to 12,000 in 400 AD
• Empire was just too large to maintain for an overstretched army fighting in
multiple fronts.
• “They bit more than they could chew.”
Socio-Cultural Theory of Urbanization
• Gideon Sjoberg (1933, 1965) “The Origin and Evolution of Cities.” In
Cities by Scientific American, New York.
• An urban area is characterized by larger size, greater density,
greater heterogeneity.
• Urbanization is basically a cultural process, primarily a result of trade
and commerce fostering socio-cultural diversity.
• Cities formed along major transportation routes and became the
center of cultural exchange of information and ideas.
• Cities brought together specialists engaged in non-agricultural Dr. Gideon Sjoberg
activities, individuals specializing in crafts centering around the
production of tools for agriculture or items recognized as valuable in
trade. The competition between these specialists within a city, and
between neighboring cities, resulted in many innovations in
technology. Advanced tools for agriculture, resulted in improved
techniques of breeding and cultivation of plants and animals.
• Cities brought together literate individuals and “scientists” to debate
and test ideas which eventually resulted in the “scientific method.”
• Because of accumulated surplus, cities became targets of conquest
and invasion and would be absorbed by transcontinental empires
that, in later periods of Nationalism and Rationalism, eventually broke
up into individual nation-states.

Fortress
Cities
Angers Castle, Angers

Bran Castle, City, France
Transylvania
• After the Fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD, central concern of
communities during Dark Ages until 800-AD was survival and security.
• Fortress Cities relied on protective town walls.
• Because of walls, cities could not grow more than one square mile.
• Above a population of 3,000, fortresses would have serious problems
about water, sanitation, waste, epidemics, privacy.
• Conflict and warfare due to population pressure stimulates urbanization
(Population Pressure Hypothesis, R.L. Carneiro, 1970)
‘Cathedral Cities’ during Middle Ages:
• Middle Ages started with Heidelberg, Germany
the rise of Charlemagne as
Emperor of Holy Roman
Empire in Dec 25, 800 AD
• Church and State became
united
• 2,500 medieval towns grew
around a cathedral, abbey,
monastery, or castle
• Cathedral is a church
where the “cathedra” or
“chair” of a Bishop is
placed, signifying the See’s
ascendancy over other
institutions
• Cities retained protective
town walls or fortification
• Towns had a radiocentric
pattern, with irregular,
narrow, twisty streets less
than 15 feet wide
• because of water
availability, towns usually
had less than 10,000
residents; with an average
radius of 12 miles (19.3
kms)

Zurich, Switzerland – Cathedral City which received the
highest world rating for ‘Quality of Life’ 2004
Zurich, Switzerland
Zurich, Switzerland
Zurich, Switzerland
Zurich, Switzerland
Munich,
Germany

Mannheim, Germany

Renaissance (1440-1769 )
• Renaissance coincided with Age of
European Exploration & Conquest
• Decline of the Role of the Church and the
rise to power of the Merchant Class who
shaped trading and treasury policies of the
Monarchies.
• Distinction between New Capital
(Bourgeoisie and Entrepreneurs) and the
Old Landed Gentry (feudal lords) who
Ideal Renaissance City in
oversaw rural manors and farming estates
for the Monarchies. Italy – “Urbino” 1498
• Florence,
• Cities were important commercial nodes for
trading companies.
• Mercantilism believed that the value of the
economy was measured by quantities of
gold and silver.
• This system drove nations to conquer
foreign lands to acquire more gold/silver,
and advantage in maritime trade
• Urbino: Neo-classical Town Hall with piazza
and streets radiating from the center

Florence, birthplace of Renaissance
Tower by Giotto
Florence cathedral
Brunelleschi Duomo Florence, Italy
Pitti Palace
Radial Urban Model (Leone Battista Alberti)
• Leone Battista Alberti (1404-1472)
• Wrote “De re Aedificatoria” (1452)
• Designed parts of St. Peter’s Basilica of
Vatican City and many features of
Florence,
• He was Secretary of six Popes, he was a
theoretical architect who never supervised
building construction
• Utilized the radiocentric pattern of
cathedral cities.
• “Ideal Cities” of the Renaissance – star-
shaped plans with streets radiating from a
central point, a church, palace or castle
• Commercial development followed
transport routes resulting in Star-shaped
pattern of land use
• Major roads radiated from center of town.
Street was allowed to curve to conform to
topography
• Design was adopted in Renaissance
cities and later in Paris

‘Mercantile Cities’ of the Renaissance
(1440-1769 )
Venice, Genoa,
Venice, Italy Amsterdam, Lisbon,
Hamburg, St. Petersburg
Venice, Italy
Venice, Italy
Venice, 1454

Vienna as Landlocked Renaissance City
Belvedere Palace, Vienna
Vienna, Austria
Vienna, Austria
Cities which flourished during Renaissance
• European cities with
over 100,000
•
population in 1700s
•
Rome
•
Venice
•
Milan
•
Paris
•
Lyons
•
London
•
Vienna
•
Amsterdam
•
Dublin
•
Berlin
•
Madrid
•
Lisbon
•
Naples
•
Palermo (Sicily)
Moscow

‘New Amsterdam’
as Mercantile City
• In 1609, British navigator Henry
Hudson under the employ of the
Dutch East India Company found the
river and harbor of New York
occupied by native Indians called
Canarsees.
• He founded a Dutch settlement he
called “New Amsterdam” to trade New York City in 1800s before the Skyscrapers
European goods with fur from the
Canarsees. Later, Dutch colonial
governor Peter Minuit purchased the
whole Manhattan island from the
Canarsees for $24 (P1,000).
• In 1664, Britain and Netherlands had
a war in Europe, and the British who
had already colonized the state of
Virginia, proceeded to capture “New
Amsterdam” and renamed it “New
York” in honor of England’s “Duke of
York.”
• Manhattan was the original County of
New York, until the addition in 1895 of
the boroughs of Bronx, Brooklyn,
Queens, and Staten Island into the
consolidated
© ECOPOLIS 2009 ® PAGECity
33 of New York.
New York City today is global center of
finance & services

William Penn in Pennsylvania
• In 1682, Englishmen William Penn and
Thomas Holme designed
‘Philadelphia’ in the British Colony of
Pennsylvania with the following
features: rectangular grid system, a
central park and four smaller parks,
one neighborhood park in each
quadrant.

Pierre Charles
L’Enfant (1784-1825)
• French architect, engineer, city
planner who prepared Plan for
Washington D.C. (1791)
• France sided with US nationalists in
the War of Independence against
Britain
• “A plan to serve as the framework for
the capital city of the new nation”
• The plan was intended as a model
for American City Planning and a
symbol of governmental power
• featured a network of wide streets
converging on major parks, and
other open spaces and on public
structures such as the Capitol and
the White House
• Forerunner of “City Beautiful
Movement” later picked up by
Ebenezer Howard (UK) and Daniel
H. Burnham (US)

Washington DC
McMillan Plan – 1901-1902

Baron Georges Eugene
Haussmann (1809-1891)
• Published the book “Architecture” 1844;
• French Architect-theorist, Prefect of Seine,
commissioned by Emperor Napoleon III to
redesign Paris, the first architect to
significantly change a city
• dominant forms in Haussmann's plans are
long, wide, tree-lined boulevards
punctuated by an abundance of circular
plazas and pocket parks
• twelve grand avenues radiating from the
‘Arc de Triomphe’; “ring streets” patterned
after Vienna’s
• land use pattern copied by most major
cities;
• first plan to address traffic flow
• Wide boulevards were meant to prevent
mob behavior;
• urban design considered workers as well
as members of ruling class

Paris, Best
Planned City of
the World
Arc de Triomphe
Eiffel Tower
Paris, Best Planned City of the World
Palace of Versailles River Seine

Arc de Triomphe
Champs Elysees
Grande Arche at La Defense,

Cathedral of® PAGE
© ECOPOLIS 2009 Notre40 Dame National Defense Center
Industrial Revolution in 1769 ushered in the
‘Manufacturing City’ or ‘Industrial City’
Invention
of steam
engine in
1769
ushered in
the
Industrial
Revolution

Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution
in the 1800s

Industrial City, 1820s beginning with
Coalbrookdale in British Midlands,
located near coal fields, called
“Blacktowns” or “Coketowns” by Charles
Dickens

Industrial Cities or Manufacturing
Cities (1769-1970s)
• Built on economy of mass production
• Characterized by massive migration
from rural areas
• Indiscriminate exploitation of natural
resources
• Resulted in pervasive air and water
pollution, more man-made disasters,
• Population Explosion after World War
II lowered value of labor power, and
stiffened competition for work
• Cities became unregulated jumbles of
activity; they needed Transport
Planning
• Impoverishment of workers as a result
of de-skilling and “Scientific
Management”
London was originally a Roman camp (castra)
and then replanned by Inigo Jones 1630
London’s Covent Garden Square designed by Iñigo Jones in 1630s featured the Royal Opera
House but eventually became a market for vegetables, fruits and flowers
London Today – Among the Five Trafalgar Square,
official center of London
Most Powerful ‘World Cities’
along with New York,
Washington DC, Tokyo, and Paris
• Sir Christopher Wren (1600s) – English
architect who prepared Plan for London (1666)
and plan for St. Paul’s Cathedral
• James Craig (1767) - Scottish architect,
planned linear new town for Edinburg
• Robert Owen (1799) – English social
reformer, conceptualized “Village of Unity and
Mutual Cooperation) in New Lanark; showcase
of Utopian or Normative Socialism
• John Gwynn (1766) – prepared a remarkable Buckingham Palace
plan called “London and Westminster
Improved”
• James Buckingham (1849) proposed an
utopian community called ‘Victoria’
• Population of 10,000
• Segregation of land uses
• Greenbelt around settlements
St. Paul’s Cathedral
Evolution of Modern Urban
Planning Models
By EnP Alan G. Cadavos

Summary by EnP. Cadavos (1)
I. Conditions that gave rise to Modern Planning Profession
• Modern Planning Profession was a response to unmanaged urbanization,
population explosion, environmental degradation in Industrial Cities
• Conservation and Parks Movement (The Rise of Landscape Architecture, USA)
• Public Health Epidemiologists & Sanitation Professionals as Earliest Planners
• Garden City Movement (Sir Ebenezer Howard and his disciples in UK)
II. City Beautiful Movement – a response to urban decay and urban blight
during the Industrial Revolution
• Daniel Hudson Burnham – Masterplanning or Traditional Planning or Imperative
Planning or Command Planning
• Le Corbusier– Radiant City led to Skyscraper Cities and the common form or
template of CBDs
III. Regional Planning & New Towns Movement – reacted to
overcongestion in Skyscraper Cities;
• reconceptualized the city in relation to its peripheries; tried to address economic
polarization, inter-area imbalance, regional divergence
• New Towns movement in America led to “urban decentralization” or ‘sprawl’ ,
spurred on by the popularity of the automobile; “the car is king” mentality.
IV. City Functional Movement – a reaction to over-emphasis of CBM on
‘form’ over function
• Euclidean Zoning – exclusionary zoning, separated incompatible land uses
• Utilities-based Linear City (Don Arturo Soria y Mata)
• Linear Industrial City (Tony Garnier)

Summary by EnP. Cadavos (2)
V. City Efficient Movement –
• attempted to rationalize urban planning in relation to economic production that had been
decentralized by transportation and communication technologies
• Transport Planning
• Ekistics – integrated economics, sociology and physical design in human settlements
planning
• Urban Renewal and Gentrification – addressed the “hollowing out” of historic city cores by
means of revitalization but also resulted in massive urban slum demolitions, giving rise to
Advocacy or Activist or Equity Planning,
VI. New Urbanism or Neo-Traditionalism
• combated indiscriminate, inhuman ‘urban renewal’ and sought to revive the lost art of
“place-making” and ‘community-building’
• Neo-Traditional Neighborhoods
• Smart Growth and ‘Compact Development’
• Cultural Heritage Conservation
VII.Environmental Planning – placed ecology and environmental constraints
at the center of planning
• Ian McHarg’s Sieve Mapping and the Rise of GIS
• Ecosystem-Based Planning
• Ecological Footprinting
• Eco-anarchism and Anti-Urbanism
• Disaster Management – Mitigation, Risk-Reduction, and Prevention
• Sustainable Cities

In US, “Conservation and
Parks Movement”
Frederick Law Olmsted Sr. (1822-1903)
• Father of American Landscape Architecture
• “Conservation and Parks movement” included
George Perkins Marsh, John Muir, Gifford Pinchot,
US President Theodore Roosevelt who all pursued
a system of American parks
• in 1870, wrote a comprehensive park planning
book named “Public Parks and the Enlargement of Frederick
Towns” Law
• “A park was never an ornamental addition to a city Olmsted
but an integral part of its fabric and a force for Sr.
future growth on several levels: economic, social
and cultural.”
• Olmsted’s Vision
• Mixed use
• Dampen class conflict
• Heighten Family & religious values
• Use urban parks as aid to social reform
• Was influenced by “Beaux Arts” design and city-
aesthetics: grandeur, monumentality (drama &
tension), exuberance, cohesiveness, symmetry. John Muir
1858-1861 – Central
Frederick Law Park, NY
Olmsted Sr.
Famous for the design of:
• Central Park, in New York
(Greens-ward Plan) together
with Calvert Vaux
• Riverside, Illinois
• Buffalo, NY parks system
• Druid Hills, Georgia
Boston’s
Emerald
Necklace

In UK, Problems of
Manufacturing Cities in 19th
century
1. At the start of industrial revolution, public health
professionals were most concerned about public
planning. The ills of Industrial city included:
• Lack of potable water due to polluted water bodies
• Disposal of garbage including human excrement, and
animal wastes
• epidemics due to congestion
• street cleaning
• Air pollution: smoke and smog
• public transport
• public housing was essentially tenements and cellars
• lack of cemeteries
2. Mid to late 1800’s – local and national leaders in UK
created the sanitarian profession
• sanitarians were vocal against epidemic diseases, filthy
streets, unhealthy disposal of garbage and sewage, air
pollution, and slum housing
• With Richardson’s Hygeia, an M.D. acted as City Planner
3. Edwin Chadwick started ‘EPIDEMIOLOGY’ in 1842 by
inquiring into the living conditions of factory workers
4. With the “filth versus germ” debate during the time of
Benjamin Clark Marsh & John Snow, the Split between
Public Health (‘germ’) and Planning (‘filth’), Housing,
and Social Services took place.
Modern Town Planning
1. Main Goals
• alleviate deterioration of living conditions John Snow
• Solve acute public health crisis associated with overcrowding and lack of
municipal and sanitary services
• Greater concern for social well being
• Improve urban design and aesthetics
• Equip planners professionally to find technical solutions to urban planning
2. Under England’s Public Health Act of 1875, counties were divided into
urban and rural sanitary districts supervised by the central government
3. UK Local Governments Act of 1888
• stated that land use has to be regulated, thus giving birth to town planning
• gave authority to boroughs, counties and towns - housing bylaws - power to
regulate housing - uniform streets with minimum widths - external lavatories -
access to back alleys for waste disposal (garbage and waste water)
• population densities set - maximum 50 houses (250 people) per acre
4. UK passed the Town Planning Act of 1909.
5. 1st National Conference on Planning & Congestion (1909)
6. In US, Public Health Association called for city planning in 1872
7. The legitimate parents of modern planning are: Public Health
Administration, Sanitary Engineering, Public Housing, Social Work, and
Baroque Urban Design
8. Planning is as old as urban formation but the initial interest was social
welfare and human living conditions rather than built environment
Sir Ebenezer Howard (1850-1928)
• Wrote Tomorrow (1898) followed by Garden Cities
of Tomorrow (1902)
• Concerned about abject living conditions and need
to change the physical form of cities:
• disperse population/industries outside the city
• create new sanitary living conditions
• Design new cities under the capitalist framework to be
workable and livable
• Drew inspiration from London World's Fair of 1851:
• Advanced concept of “Social City” – a polycentric
settlement or cluster, surrounded by greenbelt
wherein a central city of 58,000 people was to be
surrounded by “garden cities” of 30,000 people,
each city separated by permanent green space or
farmlands. Rails and roads would link the cities with
industries and nearby towns supplying fresh food
• pointed to the importance of planning land use and
city features beforehand, rather than organic and
uncontrolled growth

Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City
• Three magnets in his paradigm depicted that
both the city and the countryside had
advantages and disadvantages. Creation of
jobs and urban services in the City resulted in
poor natural environment while the
Countryside offered an excellent natural
environment but few opportunities
Garden City
1. Population ~ 30,000
2. Area ~ 1,000 acres (405 hectares)
3. agricultural greenbelt surrounds town ~ 5,000 acres (hence "garden") in
addition to garden for each house
4. high residential density (15 houses per acre/ 37 per ha)
5. Industrial and commercial zones with greenbelts between zones
6. rapid transport from Garden City to Central City by rail
7. concentric rings progressing outward. Towns would grow by cellular
addition into a complex multi-centered agglomeration of towns set
against a green background of open country
8. Objectives of Garden City
• Secure better regular employment for professionals at higher purchasing power
• reduce land use conflicts
• Secure healthier surroundings for all true workers of whatever class
• promote convenience and comfort

Ebenezer Howard and The
Garden City Movement
• Among the disciples of Ebenezer Howard were
Architects Barry Parker, Sir Frederic J. Osborn
• In 1902-03, a Sir Raymond Unwin designed
Letchworth garden city, 35 miles (56 km) north of
London from 1903 to 1920
• Louis de Soissons designed Welwyn from 1920 to
1934
• Letchworth and Welwyn Garden Cities were
influential in the development of 30 "New Towns"
after World War II by the British government,
including Stevenage, Hertfordshire and the last
(and largest) being Milton Keynes,
Buckinghamshire.
• German architects Hermann Muthesius and Bruno
Taut created Germany's first garden city of
Hellerau in 1909, the only German garden city
where Howard's ideas were thoroughly adopted.

Letchworth, Hertfordshire, UK : First Garden City
Designed by Sir
Raymond Unwin
Cottages at Birds Hill in Letchworth
Shops in the Wynd at Letchworth

Welwyn
Garden City
by Louis de
Soissons
Hampstead Garden City

Letchworth Garden Welwyn Garden
City City
London and its Greenbelt
London and its
Greenbelt–
testament to
success of Sir
Ebenezer
Howard!

City Beautiful
Movement

City Beautiful Movement
(1800-1950s)
• Movement that emphasized aesthetics in urban
design and planning -- grandeur, monumentality
(drama & tension), exuberance, cohesiveness, and
symmetry.
• City was designed as total system with main
circulation arteries, wide boulevards, a network of
parks and promenades starting from a prominent
waterfront, clusters or blocks of focal civic buildings
that would include city hall, courthouse, library,
opera house, museum, plaza, shrines, towers,
arches, obelisks; this movement copied many
features from European capitals.
• Ithis movement embraced all public works designed
with classical facades and built as grand portals to
cities -- bridges, river embankments, railroads,
colleges and universities, Roman Catholic basilicas,
public baths, etc.
• this movement was praised for its aesthetics and
circulation/transport planning but generally criticized
as ‘utopian” -- Beauty stood supreme, had little
concern for health and sanitation (hospitals,
sewerage, solid waste), mass housing, economic
growth (factories), natural hazards, geology, zoning
(incompatible land uses).
World’s Columbian Exposition of
1893 in Jackson Park, Chicago
strengthened the CBM
• Historian Mel Scott Grand Basin Court of Honor, World’s
Columbian Exposition 1892-93,
described the
Chicago Expo as
"temporary
wonderland of grand
perspectives,
shimmering lagoons
and monumental
palaces… an
enthralling amalgam
The Fisheries Building
of Classical Greece,
Imperial Rome and
Bourbon Paris" Palace of Fine Arts
City Beautiful Movement
strengthened (1890s-
1950s)
• Improving the city through
beautification
• Sanitation The Horticultural Building
• Aesthetics
• Civic Improvements
• Building Design
• Civic Spirit
• Cities influenced by CBM: Chicago
(1909), San Francisco (1905), Detroit,
Denver, Columbus, Madison, Montreal,
Canberra (Griffin and Mahony, 1913), The Statue of the
New Delhi (1911) in India, Brasília Republic
(1957) in Brazil, Abuja in Nigeria,
Islamabad,Pakistan (1959)
Daniel Hudson Burnham
(1846-1912)
• co-designed World’s Columbian Exposition of 1892-
93 in Chicago with Olmsted which drew millions of
visitors and stimulated concern for urban design
• Father of American City Planning and Prophet of
City Beautiful Movement in America
• Greatest achievement is the Plan for Chicago
(1909); and Plan for the Region of Chicago (1956);
• Also designed Baltimore, Buffalo, Cleveland, San
Francisco (1905), Manila (1903-06) and Baguio City
(1911).
• Pursued Baroque aesthetics – characterized by
grandeur, monumentality (drama & tension),
exuberance, cohesiveness, and symmetry.
• Criticism of Chicago Plan
• Planned as an aristocratic city for merchant princes;
• Did not in provide for realities of downtown real estate Plan for San
development, hence resulted in overbuilding and Francisco, 1905
congestion
• Created a business core with no conscious provision for
business expansion in the rest of the city
• commercial convenience should have been significant
• Burnham also designed Masonic Temple Building in
Chicago, Flatiron Building in New York City, Union
Station in Washington D.C.
Daniel Burnham’s quote
• “Make no little plans. They have no magic and

probably themselves will not be realized. Make big
plans; aim high in hope and work, remembering
that a noble, logical diagram once recorded will
never die, but long after we are gone will be a living
thing, asserting itself with ever-growing insistency.
Remember that our sons and grandsons are going
to do things that would stagger us. Let your
watchword be order and your beacon beauty. Think
big.”
• “Every citizen should be within walking distance of
a park.”

Plan for Chicago 1906-09:
Chicago was envisioned by
Burnham as “Paris on a Prairie”
Chicago Today
Sears Tower
Millennium Park
Wrigley Bldg
Burnham’s Plan for Manila 1903-1906
Charles-Edouard
Jeanneret (1887-1965) – ‘Le
Corbusier’
• Swiss-French architect-planner, last of the “City Beautiful
Movement” planners; wrote the book Urbanisme
• “We must decongest the centers of our cities by increasing their
density.” That paradox could be resolved by building high on a small
part of land.
• “There ought to be no more congested streets and sidewalks, no
more bustling public squares, no more untidy neighborhoods. People
would live in hygienic, regimented high-rise towers, set far apart in a
park-like landscape. This rational city would be separated into
discrete zones for working, living and leisure. Above all, everything
should be done on a big scale — big buildings, big open spaces, big
urban highways”
• "By this immense step in evolution, so brutal and so overwhelming,
we burn our bridges and break with the past.“ (no heritage
conservation)
• “We must improve circulation and increase the amount of open
space.”
• Focused more on architectural style (cubist aesthetics) than
planning – shift towards a preoccupation with visual form,
symbolism, imagery and aesthetics rather than the basic
problems of local population;
• He was criticized for the planning paradox “address congestion
by creating more congestion.”

Le Corbusier’s Radiant
City (Le Ville Radieuse)
• objective was to decongest the entire city by
increasing density at the core; “to concentrate
population without congestion.”
• City consists of uniform 60-storey large tower-
blocks and apartment-buildings that zigzag
across as a huge park. Modern building
technology could make the design possible. It
would house 3 million people.
• Each group of buildings would be isolated from
the others in a park-like setting. Flat roofs, planar
surfaces with little ornamentation, and box-like
building shapes
• Housing and office towers were grouped in
abstract formal relationships that maximized
exposure to the sun.
• Stadiums, recreational facilities, and museums
were placed along waterfronts.
• Le Corbusier’s design influenced the design of
CBDs with High-rises/Skyscrapers in office parks
• Modernism created a consistent urban image
based on the tall building, the automobile, and
the limited-access highway.

Radiant City (Le Ville
Radieuse)
• Une Ville Contemporaine (Contemporary City,
1923) – a modernist city consisting of uniform
tower blocks set within gardens meant for 3
million people
• Applied concepts to City of Chandigarh, new
capital of Punjab, India; and to Brasilia, Brazil;
Boston and Toronto Plan was devoid of economic,
social, transport, and other considerations
• urban vision was authoritarian, inflexible and
simplistic. The bureaucratically-imposed plan was
found to be socially-destructive.
• Standardization proved inhuman and disorienting;
the too-vast open spaces were inhospitable. Lack
of human-scale.
• In the United States, took the form of vast
regimented public housing projects (“Tenements”)
that damaged the urban fabric beyond repair.
Today these megaprojects are being dismantled,
as Tenement-blocks give way to rows of houses
fronting streets and sidewalks. Downtowns have
discovered that combining, not separating,
different activities is the key to success. So is the
presence of lively residential neighborhoods, old
as well as new. Cities have learned that
preserving history makes a lot more sense than
starting from zero. Le Corbusier’s vision
of Paris, 1955
Radiant City (Le Ville Radieuse)
• Une Ville Contemporaine (Contemporary City, 1923) –
a modernist city consisting of uniform tower blocks set
within gardens meant for 3 million people
• Applied concepts to City of Chandigarh, new capital of
Punjab, India; and to Brasilia, Brazil; Boston and
Toronto.
• Plan was devoid of economic, social, transport, and
other considerations
• urban vision was authoritarian, inflexible and simplistic.
The bureaucratically-imposed plan was found to be
socially-destructive.
• Standardization proved inhuman and disorienting; the
too-vast open spaces were inhospitable. Lack of
human-scale.
• In the United States, took the form of vast regimented
public housing projects (“Tenements”) that damaged the
urban fabric beyond repair. Today these megaprojects
are being dismantled, as Tenement-blocks give way to
rows of houses fronting streets and sidewalks.
Downtowns have discovered that combining, not
separating, different activities is the key to success. So
is the presence of lively residential neighborhoods, old
as well as new..

Corbusier’s design was good for temporary living
(i.e. hotels) but not for permanent residence.
Tenement Housing and the Breakdown of American

communities (1912-1960s):
black Americans and Latinos occupy Harlem

NYC and later, the Ghettos in Bronx which were
former quarters of Jewish minority who have
become increasingly rich
Architectural Modernism
• Characteristics of Modernism
• aesthetics and form
• rejected historic precedent as a source
of architectural inspiration
• considered function as the prime
generator of form
• employed materials and technology in an
innovative way.
• Morphological characteristics of
buildings
• style-free plan
• universal space
• walls freed from the function of load
bearing
• cantilevers
• glass at corners of buildings
• use of concrete
• In 1885, the 10-storey Home Insurance
Building, made possible by the use of a
steel frame and the invention of the
elevator, became the world’s first
skyscraper in the city of Chicago

Le Corbusier’s influence on high-rise Socialist Housing in
formerly communist East Europe
Brasilia, Brazil (1957) as “Radiant City”
by Lucio Costa & Oscar Niemeyer
Plaza of the Three Powers

National Congress
Our Lady Aparecida

Metropolitan Cathedral • Radiant City
attempted in
Brasilia at
huge financial
costs and
environmental
costs(forests)
Presidential Palace of the Dawn

“Palacio da Alvorada”
New Towns Movement (1920-1950s)
• Reacted to overcongestion in Le Corbusier’s Skyscraper Cities
particularly New York City and Toronto Canada
• Pursued Garden City ideas of Ebenezer Howard which they
believed could produce “better communities”
• an island of greens; green spaces are interconnected
• separation of pedestrian traffic from motor traffic
• series of superblocks or neighborhood clusters around greens
• based upon prior land assembly
• Considered endless grid-iron tracks as wasteful and unnecessary
and pursued other ways to address community problems and
issues
• Six Principles of New Towns Movement
• Plan simply, but comprehensively
• Provide ample sites in the right places for community use
• Put factories and other industrial buildings where they can be used
without wasteful transportation of people and goods
• Cars must be parked and stored (not on the streets!)
• Bring private and public land into relationship
• Arrange for the occupancy of houses
• Approach was to formulate home building corporations, financed
by companies seeking long term investments (adopted in the
Philippines as “People’s Homesite and Housing Corporation” now
NHA)
New Town, Radburn, New Jersey, ca. 1929
Radburn, New Jersey –
separation between
motor traffic and
pedestrian traffic
Greenbelt, Maryland 1937-39 New Towns
Movement in
the US
Frank Lloyd Wright
(1867-1959)
• Major US architect involved in site planning and community
planning, had 41 commissions, 532 designs, 1000+ drawings
• Wright was major proponent of urban decentralization in
reaction to overcongestion in US cities -- was believed to be
an “eco-anarchist”
• “Broadacre City” design, forerunner or apotheosis of
suburbanization trend – the anti-thesis to compact
development and transit-oriented development.
• Much activity is done by automobile.
• Under Broadacre City design, settlements would have size of
about 10km2 (1000 has) with all services and amenities of a
small city– schools, museums, markets, offices, trains etc.
and farms and factories could co-exist side by side with
homes. Families would have one acre each (4,050m2) from
federal land reserves, with sufficient space for gardens and
small farms. Plus a helicopter.
• Helicopter element made Broad-acre sound like science
fiction.
• He also designed neighborhoods and subdivisions employing
the “Quadruple Block Plan” wherein houses are set on small
square blocks of four equal sized lots surrounded on all sides
by roads, set toward the center of the block so that each
house maximized the yard space and included private space
in the center. This also allowed for more interesting views
from each house. This design would have eliminated the
straight rows of houses on parallel streets with boring views
of the front of each house.
Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City
low-density
car-oriented
freeways +
feeder roads
Multi-nucleated

Henry Wright (1878-1936)
• Wright produced “The Report of the Commission in
Housing and Regional Planning for the State of New
York”
• Stipulated the elements of a regional plan:
• Introduced concept of “superblock” in “New Town”
development in the US
• implemented in Radburn, FairLawn, New Jersey
• “Superblock” is an island of greens, bordered by
homes and carefully skirted by peripheral
automobile roads, each around open green spaces
which are themselves interconnected. There are
numerous greenways which serve as pedestrian
pathways.
• The rough Philippine equivalent of a superblock is a
modest-size rectangular subdivision dominated by
gardens and greenery.
• Wrote “Rehousing Urban America” (1935);
explained how New York developed from a city of
small trade centers to an industrial belt, to a
financial and managerial center
• co-designed Western Kentucky University
Clarence S. Stein (1882-1975)
• Co-founded Regional Planning Association of
America (1923) with Henry Wright and Lewis
Mumford
• Principal planner who pursued Ebenezer Howard’s
Garden City ideas in conceptualizing 22
government-sponsored “New Towns” or greenbelt
resettlement towns in America, under the short-
lived “US Resettlement Administration”
• Sunnyside Gardens, Queens, New York;
• Hillside Homes, Bronx, New York;
• Chatham Village, Pittsburgh;
• Baldwin Hills Village, Los Angeles;
• Reston, Virginia;
• Columbia, Maryland
• Greenbelt, Maryland;
• Greendale, Wisconsin;
• Greenhills, Ohio;
• Greenbrook NJ
• Efforts were cut short by “Great Depression”
• Wrote book New Towns for America (1951) which
was inputted into the US Housing Act of 1954.

Clarence Perry (1872-1944)
• Conceptualized “Neighborhood Unit” equivalent
to UK’s Neighborhood “Precincts”
• “Neighborhood unit” (1929) – is a self-contained,
low-rise, pedestrian-oriented residential quarter,
incorporating garden city ideas, that would be
bounded by major streets, with shops at the
intersections and a school in the middle. Around
0.272 km2 to 6.2 km2 (620 has), 6000 residents,
and a school for 920 children.
• Perry intended his neighborhood unit to satisfy
most needs of residents and bring advantages of
traditional small town living into the city.
• Six principles of Neighborhood unit: (1) Size to
support an elementary school, generally a half
mile in diameter at most, (2) boundaries on all
sides by arterial streets, (3) open spaces for small
parks and recreation of about 10% of the total
neighborhood area, (4) institutions such as
schools, community centers, and churches
grouped around a central point, (5) local shops
around the circumference at traffic junctions, and
(6) internal street system with lots of cul-de-sacs
and street widths sized to facilitate internal traffic
and discourage through traffic.

Regional Planning
Movement
Sir Patrick Geddes (1854-
1932)
• Scottish biologist, sociologist, and city planner responsible for
introducing the concept of "region" to planning and city architecture;
• Known as the ‘Father of Regional Planning’
• Famous Books
• 1904: City Development: A Study of Parks, Gardens & Culture Institutes
• 1905: Civics as Applied Sociology
• 1915: Cities in Evolution
• Popularized the framework “Folk Work Place” and the planning method
“Survey Analysis Plan” – precursor of rational-comprehensive or
synoptic planning
• He made extensive use of survey method; Planning must start with a
survey of the resources of a region, of human responses to it, and of
the resulting complexities of the cultural landscape;
• He coined the terms “city-region” and “conurbation” as the
conglomeration of urban aggregates.
• He characterized the life-cycle of cities as Inflow (waves of migration to
large cities), Build-up (overcrowding), Backflow (slum formation, central
city blight), and sprawling mass, resulting in amorphic spread, waste
and unnecessary obsolescence. He thus prophesized the ill-effects of
hyper-urbanization and the rise and decline of cities.
Sir Patrick Geddes
• Geddes stressed the social basis of the city –the relationship

between people and cities and how they affect one another.
• Geddes focused on individual action and voluntary cooperation
tempered by attention to relations with the physical environment

Sir Leslie Patrick Abercrombie
(1879-1957)
• English town planner-architect who became member of Siegfried
Barlow Commission after World War II, later on Professor of Civic
Design and Town Planning at University College London
• best known for the re-planning of London thru the County of London
Plan (1943) and the extended Greater London Regional Plan (1944)
which are called the Abercrombie Plan, where 1.25 million people
were dispersed to new towns and rural areas
• Abercrombie Plan started the “New Towns” movement in the UK
which included the building of Harlow and Crawley and the largest
'out-county' estate, Harold Hill in north-east London.
• He made award-winning designs for Dublin City and re-planned
Plymouth, Hull, Bath, Edinburgh and Bournemouth, among others.
• He founded the Council for the Preservation of Rural England
(CPRE) in 1926 as first chairman and later Honorary Secretary.
• Abercrombie was knighted in 1945. In 1945 he published A Plan for
the City & County of Kingston upon Hull, with the assistance of Sir
Edwin Lutyens.
• Abercrombie was commissioned by UK government to redesign
Hong Kong after WWII. In 1956 he was commissioned by Ethiopia
Emperor Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari) to draw up plans for the capital
of Addis Ababa.
Lewis Mumford (1895-1990)
• American thinker called the Last of the Great Humanists, Father of Historical-
Sociological Approach to Planning. Wrote “Technics and Civilization” (1934),“The
Culture of Cities” (1938) “City in History” (1961)
• The City in History was sweeping, masterful historical analysis of city development
all over the world, describes why cities came about and what their continuing
function is.
• conceived of planning as multi-disciplinary. Was extensively involved in Regional
Planning in the US East Coast.
• Mumford believed that society is dehumanized by technological culture and that it
must return to a perspective that places emotions, sensitivity, and ethics at the
heart of civilization. Urban and regional planning should emphasize an organic
relationship between people and their living spaces.
• saw the city not only as a place with poor living conditions, but also as a threat to
democracy and the breeding place of fascism, as the masses of people in the big
city could be kept ignorant and were to easy to mislead.
• recognized the physical limitations of human settlement and urged that
fundamental basic needs of society be the bases for the judicious use of
technology;
• advocated harmonious life among civilized groups in ecological balance with the
place they occupied.
• the modern city (New York 1960) is following the patterns of Imperial Roman city
(the sprawling megalopolis) which ended in collapse; if the modern city carries on
in the same vein, then it will meet the same fate as the Imperial Roman city.

Benton MacKaye (1879-1975)
• American forester, conservationist and regional planner, who
was called "father of the Appalachian Trail." He proposed the
Appalachian Trail in Oct 1921 – more than 2,000-mile footpath
from Maine to Georgia blazed through the efforts of
volunteers. He advocated preserving cultural and recreational
areas in an increasingly urbanized environment. He believed
that we should tame new technology for ecological purpose
• As a government planner, he spearheaded the idea of the
"townless highway."
• He was one of the founders of the Regional Planning
Association of America (1923)
• published The New Exploration: A Philosophy of Regional
Planning, 1928
• Prominent in regional conservationism
• applied the transect to vast river valleys
• Regional ecology tied to natural systems
• Cyclical time and organic interaction with landscape versus
industrial time and engineering
• Ridgeland areas offer indigenous balance
• Valleys filled with industrial excess
• Conservative effort based on radical analysis

City Functional
Movement

City Functional Movement (1910-70)
1. Movement meant to respond to every aspect of city problems
• Reacted to preoccupation with urban design of the “City Beautiful Movement” in US and
“Garden City Movement” in UK
• Greater concern for the functioning of cities rather than design aesthetics -- function over form
• Govt. efficiency, progressive education and recreation, good, affordable housing
• Enlist businesses & civic organization
• Emphasized opportunity rather than focus on economic and social ‘evils’ of city
• aligned planning to broader fields of public service
2. Focused on utility infrastructure and on land use zoning rather than master
planning
• Zoning was designed to separate ‘incompatible’ land uses
• However, today many land uses are no longer exactly incompatible
• Ironically, Excessive zoning creates homogeneity which leads to sterility and inconvenience.
3. Zoning originated in New York City in 1916 by Edward Bassett as “the first
attempt to control land use by a municipal government” The particular
purpose at that time was to contain the invasion of factories into the Fifth
Avenue business district and the shadowing of adjacent properties
byemerging skyscrapers.
4. Constitutionality of zoning as part of police power of the State was upheld by
US Supreme Court in 1926, as a result of Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty
Company(1926), hence the term ‘Euclidean zoning.’
5. Edward Filene and Justice Louis Brandeis, Boston Plan of 1915-16
6. Picked up in Germany -- Grundriss-plan of 1910 was Master plan for Greater
Berlin ; Rudolf Hillebrecht In Hamburg, Germany
7. in Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Helsinki & Tapiola, Finland; and Melun Senart,
France.

• Don Arturo Soria y Mata (1844-1920) – Spanish engineer,
suggested the idea “Ciudad Lineal” (linear city) an elongated Don Arturo
urban formation running from Cadiz, Spain to Paris and the
rest of Europe, up to St. Petersburg, Russia.
• logic of linear utility lines should be the basis of city lay-out;
Soria y Mata
houses and buildings could be set alongside linear utility
systems supplying water, communications and electricity. He
considered impact of technology on urban form.
• The linear city would have five functionally specialized
parallel sectors.
• a purely segregated zone for railway lines,
• a zone of production and communal enterprises, with related
scientific, technical and educational institutions,
• a green belt or buffer zone with major highway,
• a residential zone, including a band of social institutions, a band of
residential buildings and a "children's band",
• a park zone, and
• an agricultural zone with gardens and state-run farms (sovkhozy in
the Soviet Union).
• As the city expanded, additional sectors would be added to
the end of each band, so that it would become ever longer,
without growing wider
• The city may run parallel to a river and be built so that the
dominant wind would blow from the residential areas to the
industrial strip.
• Ernst May, a famous German functionalist architect,
formulated his initial plan for Magnitogorsk, a new city in the
Soviet Union, primarily following the model established in
Frankfurt settlements: identical, equidistant five-story
communal apartment buildings and an extensive network of
dining halls and other public services.

Linear
City

Tony Garnier (1869-1948)
• Noted French architect and city planner, forerunner of
avant garde 20th century French architects
• In 1901, after extensive study of sociological and
architectural problems, he formulated an elaborate
solution to use architecture to create industrial
utopias that would help control unchecked urban
growth and keep the working classes in line.
• Proposed a modern linear industrial city called “Une
Cite Industrielle” (1917-18) designed for about 35,000
inhabitants living in lushly landscaped residential
areas.
• He removed churches or law enforcement buildings,
in hope that “man could rule himself.” He was
influenced by the writings of Emile Zola.
• Concept partially adopted in his hometown of Lyons,
France.
• Four main principles: functionalism, space, greenery,
and high sunshine exposure.
• His basic idea included the separation of spaces by
function through zoning into four categories including
leisure/recreation, industry, work, and transport.
• His plan allowed vocational-type schools to be near
the industries to which they were related so that
people could be more easily educated.
Thomas Adams became father of
urban planning in Canada
1. was active in UK, USA and Canada from 1911-38
2. Formed Town Planning Institute of Canada in 1919 -
117 members in most provinces – and midwifed the
passage of Canadian city planning law in 1921
3. Adams adopted utilitarian approach to planning -
government intervention (versus English common law -
land ownership)
4. Adam saw fundamental conflict between right to life
versus right to property. However, Adams belonged to
the British liberal tradition, not socialism/communism.
Town plan should provide for the proper and efficient
carrying-on of business.
5. Adams encouraged development of small well-planned
towns and the decentralization of industrial plants.
6. Adams drafted model planning legislation for provinces
to adopt
• Made Planning mandatory
• Approval of local plan by province/state after notification and
hearing process
• Approval of land subdivision required
• Arbitration, compensation, and betterment
• Zoning for use, height, and bulk permitted
• Building densities to be limited
• Policy authority in hands of planning boards.
• Executive responsibility to a professional planner.
City Efficient
Movement

Pioneers of Transport Planning
• spurred by US Federal Highway Act of 1916 and
Interstate Highway Act of 1956
• Rapkin (1954) - developed transport and land
use study. “Traffic is a function of land use” e.g.
Chicago and Detroit Transportation Plans.
• Wesley Mitchell (1954) - advocated that plans
should be in dynamic not static terms. He was a
leading figure in setting up the Penn-Jersey
Transportation Study, an urban growth C. Britton
simulation model. Harris, ( 1895-
• Lowdon Wingo and Harvey S. Perloff (1961)-
2005) University
Urban transportation can be viewed as a basic
spatial organizer of the metropolitan region; they of Pennsylvania
showed interdependence of economics,
transport, land use and accessibility
• Britton Harris (1960) - a systems framework
• Robert A. Garin and Ira Lowry (1964) - A Model
of Metropolis published by Rand Corporation.
Garin-Lowry Spatial Allocation Model. Gravity
Model.
Dr. Harvey S. Perloff
(1915-1983) UCLA
© ECOPOLIS 2009 ® PAGE 105 Dean of Urban Planning
Dr. Konstantinos A.
Doxiadis (1913-1975)
• Started “Ekistics” as the science of human
settlements
• Coined the term “ecumenopolis” or world-wide
city
• Designed Islamabad (1959), Rawalpindi, and
Lahore, in Pakistan
• Contribution: State problems of modern
urbanization with scientific clarity and proposed a Islamabad, Pakistan
rational method of addressing those problems
• Approached town planning as a science which
would include contributions from planner, urban
designer, sociologist, geographer, economist,
demographer, politician, sociologist,
anthropologist, ecologist, etc
• Became Town Planning Chief of Greater Athens
and later Greek Minister of Housing and
Reconstruction

Dr. Francis Stuart Chapin Jr.
(1888-1974)
• First to write a comprehensive textbook on Urban and
Regional Planning
• Emphasized quantitative, statistical tools to study social
phenomena; Proposed to treat a town or region as an
evolving system and simulate its growth as a system in a
recursive manner while studying directly the influence of
different public policies on the pattern of town evolution
• Planning process should follow the cycle of human
behavioral process
• conducted pioneering research on how residents use their
city in the course of daily life, social and physical concepts
of neighborhood, and urban growth dynamics.
• Five goals of Spatial Planning
• health
• safety
• convenience
• economy
• amenity
• Co-founded American Sociological Association and US
Social Science Research Council.

Planning relies more and more on
positivist and empirical methods:
• Attempted to address the elements of ‘uncertainty’ and
‘extraneous factors’ in planning for human settlements
• T.J. Kent – “Blueprint Planning” and Urban General Plan (1964)
• Edwin C. Banfield -- Politics, Planning and the Public Interest, in
Meyerson, M. and Banfield, E.C. (eds.). New York: Free Press
• Martin Meyerson -- “Building the Middle-Range Bridge for
Comprehensive Planning”
• Albert Z. Guttenberg - "A Multiple Land Use Classification System."
(1959)
• Regional Science and Regional Economics – both treat
planning as ‘social physics’ aimed at the discovery of
presumed natural laws or regular occurrences in social
interaction, economic activity and spatial phenomena.
• ‘Spatial Interaction’ – push and pull factors, centrifugal and
centripetal forces
• ‘Spatial Modelling’
• Gravity Model – by Robert Garin and Ira Lowry

Suburbanization & ‘Motorcities’
• Suburbanization Intensified with the Baby Boom Generation or
Population Explosion after World War II.
• Primarily driven by the popularity of automobile as mode of
transport (General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler in USA; before they
lost to Toyota and Nissan in the late 1990s) – “the car is king
mentality” as popularized by broadcast media
• Public resources were increasing diverted from historic inner-cities
to gated residential subdivisions meant for the wealthier classes
• City cores lost out to suburbia and exurbia in terms of capital
improvement and employment
• Inner cities looked abandoned – hollow cores or the donut shape
according to Peirce Lewis.
• Intensification of air pollution and climate change since 1950s as
studied at Harvard University by Albert Arnold La Fon Gore.
• “Amorphic Sprawl” refers to the “low-density fragmented use of
land for consumptive urban purposes at a scale expanded faster
than what population growth requires and occurring along the
margins of existing metropolitan areas in a generally amorphic
(formless) manner.
• Over time, this pattern means more and more houses are built
farther away from the urban core that require more energy use per
person and that need to be supported by piecemeal extensions of
urban infrastructure such as roads, sewer, power and water.”
• Distances become too great for walking and this forces
dependence on the automobile; hard for old people when they can
no longer drive; hard for young people who aren’t yet old enough to
drive

Suburbanization and Amorphic Sprawl
-- “what an awful waste of space!”

Urban Renewal Movement in North
America, 1950-70s:
Ed Logue Rexford Guy

Tugwell
(1891-1979)
Robert
Moses,
New York
Catherine
Aldo Rossi, 1931-97 Bauer
Richard King Wurster
Abraham Levitt and William Levitt
Mellon, founded Levittowns in Long Island, (1905-64)
Pittsburg NY and in Pennsylvania
Urban Renewal: Robert Moses
• Robert Moses, park commissioner and
head of the city planning commission,
New York City, oversaw major public
works projects and emerged as one of
the most powerful unelected public
officials in the United States. Between
1924 and 1968, Moses conceived and
executed public works costing $27
billion. He was responsible for building Robert Moses, Chief
virtually every parkway, expressway, Planner of New
and public housing project in the NY York City
region, as well as Lincoln Center,
Shea Stadium, and two world fairs. He
built hundreds of new city playgrounds
and ordered the planting of 2 million
trees.

Urban Renewal and Tax Increment Financing
• Urban Renewal is a US Federal program under the
Comprehensive Housing Act of 1949 which was designed
to help communities improve and redevelop areas that are
outworn, physically deteriorated, unsafe, or poorly planned.
• Urban Renewal helps communities realize specific capital
projects or public assets – parks, streets and streetscape
improvements, parks and plazas, greenways, community
centers, and facilities – that would not happen on their own.
It finances incentives for private investments to create jobs,
revitalize neighborhoods and provide a full range of housing
options.
• The basic idea behind urban renewal is that future tax
revenues will pay for revitalization. The City Government
draws a line around an area (the urban renewal boundary)
and identifies desirable improvements within that area (the
urban renewal plan). The city issues urban renewal bonds
to pay for the identified improvements. As property values
increase in the area due to new investment, the rise in
property tax revenues (called “tax increment”) is used to
pay off the urban renewal bonds. This financing method is
called tax-increment financing, and it is the most common
method of paying for improvements in an urban renewal
area.
Gentrification
Montreal, Quebec
• is a mode of urban renewal which

entails up-scaling previously-
blighted areas to attract new
business and new occupants; the
Elite and their money would be
motivated to return to the inner
city
• revitalization of blighted
waterfronts and inner cores of
industrial cities which had been
previously abandoned by the Elite
and consequently invaded by the
urban poor
• Tends to result in Yuppification
(e.g. condominium clusters) and
in social exclusion of lower
classes.
Gentrification meant ‘social exclusion’ : large-scale
demolition of slums and black neighborhoods in the 1960s
• Urban Renewal through Gentrification was initially
called ‘racist’ and ‘segregationist’ and contributed
to Civil Rights protest led by Dr. Martin Luther
King. James Baldwin called ‘urban renewal’ as
‘Negro removal.’
• Manuel Castells (1983,p.160): Gentrification was
driven by the combined influence of gays,
Bohemians, hipsters, artists and yuppies who
wanted upscale neighborhoods with high real-
estate values suited to their lifestyles:
• Single, don’t have to raise a family, no need to
maintain community traditions, social life in night
bars and cabarets, non-conventional service
occupations
• Gentrification is often “centerless” and “soul-less”
–as against “New Urbanism” which is centered on
reviving some traditions. Gentrification is focused
on “comfort/convenience” while New Urbanism is
focused on “community”

Social Protest Movements and the Rise of
Advocacy or Activist or Equity Planning
• Gentrification and large-scale demolition of slums and
black neighborhoods in the 1960s gave rise to the
‘Advocacy or Activitst or Equity School of Planning,’ and
the applied disciplines of ‘community development’ and
‘conflict management’
• ‘Advocacy Planning school’ asserts that the planning
process should take the side of the poor, the last, the
least, and the lost.
• Planners should work for the redistribution of power and
resources to the powerless and the disadvantaged; to
defend the interests of weak and the poor against the
established powers of business and government.
• Action → Activist → Mobilization
• Goals are Social justice and Equity in Housing, provision
of services, environmental protection.
• Advocacy planning has both reflected and contributed to
a general trend in planning away from neutral objectivity
in definition of social problems, in favor of applying more
explicit principles of social justice.
• shifted formulation of social policy from backroom
negotiations (haggling among varied interest groups) out
into the open – as Government and Private Institutions
are forced to face the clamor of organized community
groups

‘Advocacy Planning’
• Paul Davidoff (1965): – father of “advocacy planning,” idol of
Barack Hussein Obama during Obama’s community
development work in Chicago. Called for development of
plural plans rather than a unitary plan, claimed that “public
interest” is not scientific but is political.
• Saul David Alinsky (Rules for Radicals, 1971) Conflict Paul Davidoff
Pragmatics or Conflict Confrontation as Philosophy in
Community Organizing – highlight “victimization” of the last,
the least, and the lost.
• anarcho-syndicalist community-organizing and mosquito-like mass
mobilization that confronts the State and dares the State to live up to its
own principles – but without Marxist/Maoist ideology of taking over the
State
• Sherry Arnstein – “Eight Rungs in the Ladder of Citizen
Participation” (1969) Saul David Alinsky
• Alan Altshuler –
• Allan D. Heskin– concept of ‘empowerment’ (1977)
• Norman Krumholtz – originator of “transactive planning” and
became President of the American Institute of Certified
Planners Allan
• Thomas Reiner – “A Choice Theory of Planning” Heskin
• David F. Mazziotti - “The Underlying Assumptions of
Advocacy Planning”
© ECOPOLIS 2009 ® PAGE 117 Norman Krumholtz

New Urbanism or
Neo-Traditionalism

Jane Jacobs (1916-2006)
• Co-founded the movement of “New Urbanism” also called “Neo-
Traditionalism”
• strong critic of the urban renewal policies of the 1950s which,
she claimed, destroyed communities and created isolated,
unnatural urban spaces
• Wrote “The Death and Life of Great American Cities” (1961)
one of the most influential books in planning
• In The Economy of Cities (1969), Jane Jacobs asserts that
diversity in geographic concentration, not geographic
specialization, spurs urban growth. It is the diversity of
geographically proximate industries that promotes innovation
and growth. As measured by employment, industries grow
slower in cities where they are heavily over-represented. But
City diversity promotes growth as knowledge spills over
industries.
• common theme of Jacobs’ work has been to question whether
we are building cities for people or cities for cars
• Jacobs advocated dense, mixed-use neighborhoods and
frequently cited New York City's Greenwich Village as an Jane Jacobs (1916-2006)
example of a vibrant urban community
• She prescribed that neighborhood should have mixed functions
and therefore mixed land uses to ensure that people were there
for different purposes, on different time schedules, but using
many facilities in common
• Other exponents of New Urbanism: Andres Duany, Elizabeth
Plater-Zyberk, Leon Krier, Rob Krier, Daniel Solomon, Stefanos
Polyzoides, Elizabeth Moule,

‘New Urbanism’ or ‘Neo-
Traditionalism’
• Movement in Architecture and Settlements
Planning which sought to revive ‘the lost art
of place-making’
• abhors the patterns of Suburbanization and
Amorphic Sprawl because suburbs are
anomic (anomie), apolitical, and antisocial.
Opposes the proliferation of suburbs and
exurbs
• seeks to rebuild inner city neighborhoods
around important traditions and core values;
• reorders the built environment into the form
of complete cities, towns, villages, and
neighborhoods
• employs multi-use development scheme on
focal points such as waterfronts, spectacular
or distinctive settings
• Festival atmosphere, ethnic settings,
bazaars and tiangges, street concerts
• Pedestrianization fosters informal human
interaction that revitalizes the community

Rachel Louise Carson
(1907-1964)
• first modern “eco-feminist” who sparked the environmental movement in the
United States
• American biologist who wrote Silent Spring (1962); book’s title suggested a
time when bird populations are greatly reduced as a result of pesticides bio-
accumulation and could no longer be heard singing in the Spring.
• Principle of ‘bio-magnification’ - the process by which a pollutant becomes
increasingly concentrated as it moves up the food chain and builds up in the
human body over an individual’s lifetime.
• Carson’s advocacies led to the formation of US Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) in 1970, the Environmental Impact Assessment System,
the Council of Environmental Quality; the Environmental Defense Fund was
created in 1967 with money from her estate (first ENGO)
• testified before the US Congress and campaigned against pesticide DDT -
DichloroDiphenylTrichloroethane –– that weakens the eggshells of raptors;
results in bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals in the food chain
• Ironically Carson died of cancer in 1964 before she saw the fruit of her
labor:
• In 1992, a panel of distinguished Americans declared Rachel Carson's
Silent Spring as one of the most influential books of the last century.
• She was a superwoman who almost single-handedly alerted Americans to
the dark side of industrial technology.

Environmental Planning
Ian L. McHarg (1920-2001)
• The first modern Environmental Planner who
Introduced ecological planning primarily through
map overlays that graphically integrate
environmental information.
• constraints mapping, sieve analysis, multi-
disciplinary suitability analyses to identify land
development constraints
• Pioneered the use of environmental impact
statements (EIS)
• Wrote Design With Nature (1969); Won US Medal
of Arts 1990.
• “form must follow more than just function; it must
also respect the natural environment in which it is
placed.”
• According to Ian McHarg, "the task [of design]
was given to those the engineers who, by instinct
and training, were especially suited to gouge and
scar the landscape and city without remorse."
Ian L. McHarg built the foundations for
Geographic Information System (GIS)
Land Ownership/Conservation Lands
Transportation Network
Land Cover
Agricultural Soils
Surface Water
Topography
Orthoimagery
Geodetic Control
Manual ‘Sieve Mapping’ was popular before the full

development of GIS and GPS in 1980s at MIT
Six Evils of Industrial Cities
1. Overcrowding and Traffic-Congestion
2. Pollution & Urban Heat Island Effect
3. Waste and Environmental Decay
4. “Amorphic Sprawl” or “Scattered Development”
5. “Leapfrog Development” or “Checkerboard Development”
6. Economic Polarization resulting in Mass Poverty and Urban Blight Dr. Herbert J.
in Primate Cities Gans, pioneer of
‘Policy Planning’
• Settlement patterns are dysfunctional, ugly, monotonous and ‘Blueprint
• Residents live in perceptually undifferentiated areas, many are Planning’
centerless and borderless, “without a soul.”
• People are abandoning or moving away from historic “inner cities”
– but going to places which are not better. This is called the
“Geography of Nowhere.”
• With the breakdown of human communities, people experience
“urban anomie” – the person is so overcome by feelings of
anonymity like a nameless, faceless statistic (Dr. Herbert Gans)
• Meaninglessness of life leads to a life of violence, crime, domestic James Howard
abuse and social discord. Kunstler “The
• Gans criticized “architectural determinism” – the fallacy that Geography of
architecture alone could solve the problems of poverty and civic Nowhere, The
dis-engagement Rise and
Decline of
America’s Man-
Made
Landscape.
© ECOPOLIS 2009 ® PAGE 125 ‘1993
Industrial Cities are not self-sustaining
Inputs Outputs
Energy Solid wastes
Food Waste heat

Air pollutants
Water
Water pollutants
Raw
materials Greenhouse gases
Manufactured Manufactured goods

goods Noise
Money Wealth
Information Ideas

Industrial Cities as Urban
Ecosystems
• Urban ecosystem is “a biological
community where humans
represent the dominant or
keystone species and the built
environment is the dominant
element controlling the physical
structure of the ecosystem.”
• In contrast to natural
ecosystems, the urban
ecosystem is not self-sustaining
and relies to extracting
resources from its hinterland.
• It is dominated by humans in
high-density formation and in a
manner shaped by non-
biological factors:
• Cut-throat Economic Competition
• Social complexity -- dynamic and
heterogeneous
• Authority structures to impose
Law and Order in a
heterogeneous
• Flows of people, capital,
information…. across urban
boundaries
• Resource flows into urban
areas across urban boundaries -
water, food and other natural
resources, building materials…….
(influence on region and
beyond)
• Waste flows (solid, liquid, air-
borne, including hazardous
wastes) - influence on wider
region and beyond, and on
global cycles and systems
127
Urban Heat Island Effect
Late afternoon temperature (°C)

92° 33°
Late afternoon temperature (°F)
85° 29°
Rural Suburban Commercial Downtown Urban Park Suburban Rural

residential residential residential farmland
Ambient temperature is highest at the

Central Business District
‘Megalopolis’ – term by Jean Gottmann
• Sprawling Metropolis with more than 10
million population
• Hyper-Urbanization or ‘Over-urbanization’ –
means that the rate of population growth in
megacities exceeds the increase in the
capacities of nature (carrying capacity --
food,water,air,land) and the ‘caring capacity’
of governments/LGUs to mobilize resources
and personnel to address people’s problems.
• It is also related to the phenomenon of Urban
Primacy – occurs mostly in Third World
countries where a large metropolis enjoys
extraordinary share of a country’s population,
resources, and investments by reason of
historical or political precedence.
• Urban Primacy exemplifies the economic
polarization of a country.

False Urbanization
• refers to the unexpected large-scale migration of
rural people into urban areas even though
factories and urban firms have yet no available
employment for unskilled labor force with low
education. This can happen in big or small cities.
Hyper-Urbanization: Megacities of the World

Premature Urbanization
• Forced or Premature
Urbanization – occurs as the main
result of land conversion wherein
rural land is prematurely developed
for urban uses – an irreversible
change in land use -- even though
the populations meant to use or
benefit from such urban land are
not yet present.
• “If you build it, they will come,” –
catchline from the 1989 Kevin
Kostner movie “Field of Dreams”
• Uncontrolled Urban Sprawl

Eco-Anarchism – anti-big city philosophy; return
to micro identities as spatial strategy;
Exurbia – return to the village as a lifestyle because the big city is
too expensive, and is losing its ability to connect and keep
communities together. Technological developments make it possible to
be separated by great distances without ’missing out’ because people
are updated and in touch with each other through ICTs. No need to
form cities or towns. Just scattered residences.
Agurbia – instead of suburbia, there would be manageable villages
or agurbs, which ‘feed’ on the city and have multiple relations with it in
terms of education, cooperation and work places, but holds its village
identity and values. Not motorcities or commuter towns but self-reliant
villages in the urban peripheries.
Micropolis – small city of less than 50,000 residents, built upon its
agrarian roots, values and sense of community, but embraces new
technology, knowledge, and creativity in modern life and in work. They
would form creative or high-technological clusters of small cities.
Agropolis (John Friedmann)– create connections and
interdependence among small cities, market towns, and farming
villages within a territory or eco-region so that they can build
themselves using local demand.
MIT’S 10 Guiding Principles For Ecology-Oriented Development
• COMPLETE THE WASTE and WATER CYCLES: Treat 100% of water and waste (sewer, gray
water, storm water) on-site and at all scales. Viewing the cycle from pool to planet, these
principles infiltrate buildings, ecomachines, and natural systems.
• INTEGRATE INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS: From embedded and ubiquitous digital
technologies to EcoEngineering, infrastructure systems and buildings should enhance system
flows and combine delivery methods.
• DESIGN for EFFICIENT ENERGY: Utilize on-site renewable energy technologies in conjunction
with site orientation and planning to maximize benefits of passive and climatic power
conservation.
• MAXIMIZE ON-SITE FOOD PRODUCTION: Increase self-reliance and local food production
especially of fruits and vegetables.
• ENHANCE MOBILITY & CIRCULATION: Use new modes of transportation that reduce energy
consumption from local to regional, from personal to shared. Reshape and organize the
circulation patterns to correspond to new travel modes and behavior.
• RESTORE STREAMS & RIVERS: Enhance and rehabilitate existing waterways. Restore and
protect the watershed integrity and enhance it by using technology.
• RE-ESTABLISH HABITAT & WILDLIFE: Retain, construct and restore ecological matrices to
support animal species, vegetation and topographical features. Conserve and protect existing
features during construction. Connect local level networks to regional systems.
• INCORPORATE INNOVATIVE MATERIALS: use building materials and site products (pavers,
walls, etc) that reduce energy consumption (local materials) and have the potential to adapt to
changes.
• PRESERVE CULTURE & HERITAGE: Integrate local values through preservation, protection and
integration into new building and landscape design.
• VALUE EQUITY, HEALTH & HAPPINESS: Improve living and working environments for all
demographic and age groups.
ebj@mit.edu chair phd program

Hierarchy of World Cities
• Tier 1 World Cities - New York, London, Tokyo, Paris,
• Full service world cities - Chicago, Los Angeles, Frankfurt, Milan,
Amsterdam, Hong Kong, Singapore,
• Major world cities -- San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto, Mexico City,
Beijing, Moscow
• Minor world cities -- Rome, Boston, Johannesburg, Osaka,
• Emergent globalizing cities -- Dublin, Luxembourg, Manchester,
Birmingham
• Key factors in the ‘globalness’ of a city:
• Inward migration
• Corporate headquarters
• Legal services
• ‘Producer services’
• Centrality in a ‘network of cities’
• Sources
• Sassen, S (1991): The global city – London, New York, Tokyo,
Princeton, Princeton University Press
• Taylor, P (2003): World city network: a global urban analysis, London,
Routledge (Chapter 1)

What makes a city different?
• Spatial proximity
• Infrastructure
• Historical association
• Concentration of socio-economic activity
• Centres of creativity
• Social practices and the built environment

03 Alan Cadavos - History of City-Formation and of City-Plan

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History of Cities and

© ECOPOLIS 2009 ® PAGE 1

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1. Early Urbanization coincided with the ‘Neolithic Agricultural

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‘Religious Model’ by Paul urbanization. Cities were religious

Egypt Teotihuaca, Mexico

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The Via Appia is being used until today.

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Angers Castle, Angers

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Belvedere Palace, Vienna

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McMillan Plan – 1901-1902

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Palace of Versailles River Seine

Grande Arche at La Defense,

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Cottages at Birds Hill in Letchworth

Shops in the Wynd at Letchworth

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• “Make no little plans. They have no magic and

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Tenement Housing and the Breakdown of American

black Americans and Latinos occupy Harlem

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Plaza of the Three Powers

Our Lady Aparecida

Presidential Palace of the Dawn

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• Geddes stressed the social basis of the city –the relationship

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