Design Optimization and Fabrication of High-Sensitivity SOI Pressure Sensors With High Signal-to-Noise Ratios Based On Silicon Nanowire Piezoresistors

micromachines
Article
Design Optimization and Fabrication of
High-Sensitivity SOI Pressure Sensors with
High Signal-to-Noise Ratios Based on Silicon
Nanowire Piezoresistors
Jiahong Zhang 1,2,3, *, Yang Zhao 3 , Yixian Ge 1,2,3 , Min Li 1,3, *, Lijuan Yang 4 and Xiaoli Mao 1,3
1 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Meteorological Observation and information Processing,
Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China;
geyixian@nuist.edu.cn (Y.G.); maoxiaoli@nuist.edu.cn (X.M.)
2 Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center on Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology,
Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
3 School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and
Technology, Nanjing 210044, China; zhaoyang@nuist.edu.cn
4 School of Information Science and Technology, Suqian College, Suqian 223800, China; ljyang@sqc.edu.cn
* Correspondence: jhzhang@nuist.edu.cn (J.Z.); limin_nuist@nuist.edu.cn (M.L.);
Tel.: +86-180-1389-1661 (J.Z.); +86-139-5201-9041 (M.L.)
Academic Editor: Ha Duong Ngo

Received: 15 August 2016; Accepted: 6 October 2016; Published: 14 October 2016
Abstract: In order to meet the requirement of high sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratios (SNR), this
study develops and optimizes a piezoresistive pressure sensor by using double silicon nanowire
(SiNW) as the piezoresistive sensing element. First of all, ANSYS finite element method and voltage
noise models are adopted to optimize the sensor size and the sensor output (such as sensitivity, voltage
noise and SNR). As a result, the sensor of the released double SiNW has 1.2 times more sensitivity
than that of single SiNW sensor, which is consistent with the experimental result. Our result also
displays that both the sensitivity and SNR are closely related to the geometry parameters of SiNW and
its doping concentration. To achieve high performance, a p-type implantation of 5 × 1018 cm−3 and
geometry of 10 µm long SiNW piezoresistor of 1400 nm × 100 nm cross area and 6 µm thick diaphragm
of 200 µm × 200 µm are required. Then, the proposed SiNW pressure sensor is fabricated by using the
standard complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) lithography process as well as wet-etch
release process. This SiNW pressure sensor produces a change in the voltage output when the external
pressure is applied. The involved experimental results show that the pressure sensor has a high
sensitivity of 495 mV/V·MPa in the range of 0–100 kPa. Nevertheless, the performance of the pressure
sensor is influenced by the temperature drift. Finally, for the sake of obtaining accurate and complete
information over wide temperature and pressure ranges, the data fusion technique is proposed
based on the back-propagation (BP) neural network, which is improved by the particle swarm
optimization (PSO) algorithm. The particle swarm optimization–back-propagation (PSO–BP) model
is implemented in hardware using a 32-bit STMicroelectronics (STM32) microcontroller. The results
of calibration and test experiments clearly prove that the PSO–BP neural network can be effectively
applied to minimize sensor errors derived from temperature drift.
Keywords: silicon nanowire; piezoresistive pressure sensor; high-sensitivity; high signal-to-noise ratio;
optimized design; fabrication process; data fusion; particle swarm optimization–back-propagation
(PSO–BP) neural network; temperature drift compensation
Micromachines 2016, 7, 187; doi:10.3390/mi7100187 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

Micromachines 2016, 7, 187 2 of 19
1. Introduction
To date, the microelectromechanical system (MEMS) silicon piezoresistive pressure sensors
have been used in a diverse range of commercial and engineering applications including consumer,
automobiles, biomedicine, process control, military, meteorology, and aerospace industry areas [1–6].
This is mainly attributed to the fact that they have significant advantages, including low cost, low
energy consumption, wide dynamic range, mass producibility, etc. However, the piezoresistive
pressure sensors have disadvantage over their large size, low sensitivity and poor signal-to-noise
ratios in contrast with high performance of the micromachined capacitive and resonant pressure
sensors [5–7]. To overcome these major problems, many design principles and considerations as well
as optimization methods have also been proposed [8–10], yet they basically have some inevitable
drawbacks as summarized in the available published literature [5,6].
With the rapid development of micro/nano processing technology, recently, there have been
studies trying to reduce the sizes of conventional MEMS piezoresistive pressure sensors and enhance
their low sensitivity by using a wide variety of nanomaterials and nanostructures as sensing
elements [7,11–16], such as silicon nanorods and silicon nanowires (SiNWs), which have the small
size and ultra-high piezoresistive effect [17–24]. For examples, Kim et al. [7] and Soon et al. [11]
reported the high-sensitivity piezoresistive pressure sensors using the high piezoresistive effect of
the SiNWs, respectively. Lou et al. [12] proposed a nanoelectromechanical system (NEMS)-based
piezoresistive pressure sensor by utilizing the SiNWs as the sensing elements, which has relatively
high sensitivity of about 0.6% psi−1 . Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that tradeoffs should be made
in the optimization design of NEMS piezoresistive pressure sensors. Obviously, noise determines
the minimum detection signal, which is a very important factor in the performance of the pressure
sensors, so the presence of noise is the limiting factor in the sensor design and also needs to be
carefully considered [5,6,25]. In other words, the sensor design parameters must be properly chosen to
balance the pressure sensitivity and voltage noise sources of the NEMS piezoresistive pressure sensor
given a set of design and operating constraints, especially where a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is
required for the faithful measurement of the small pressure differentials [26]. However, an exhaustive
analysis considering the influences of doping concentration and the geometry of SiNW piezoresistors
on optimizing the performance of the NEMS piezoresistive pressure sensors in terms of sensitivity and
signal-to-noise ratio has been rarely reported till now.
In this paper, in order to obtain high-performance piezoresistive pressure sensors based on silicon
on insulator (SOI), we investigate the design, optimization modeling, fabrication, measurement and
temperature drift compensation of the NEMS pressure sensor taking into account the balance between
the low voltage noise and the high pressure sensitivity. Specifically, the double single-crystal SiNW
piezoresistors with the optimal size and doping concentration are introduced as the sensing structures
for our piezoresistive pressure sensors made of SOI wafer. The SiNWs not only decrease the size and
enhance the sensitivity because of their high piezoresistive effect but also balance the voltage noise and
the sensitivity. The different noise components commonly present with the piezoresistive-type sensors
are carefully considered and modeled so as to improve the SNR. It is noteworthy that using SOI material
can reduce the leakage current through the dielectric isolation instead of P-N isolation and increase the
operation temperature of the pressure sensor. Meanwhile, the fabrication process for the SOI-based
piezoresistive pressure sensor is also compatible with complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor
(CMOS)-MEMS technology. However, the performance of piezoresistive pressure sensor is highly
dependent on temperature variation primarily due to the change in the piezoresistive coefficient with
temperature. Temperature affects the piezoresistive coefficient through a change in the mobility and
carrier concentration in the respective bands [5,24]. Unfortunately, the temperature drift of sensitivity is
more serious for silicon nanostructures [27]. For the sake of eliminating the effects of temperature and
improve measurement accuracy, the back-propagation (BP) neural network improved by the particle
swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm [28,29] is applied to achieve the temperature drift compensation
in the study.
2. Configuration of the SiNW Pressure Sensor and Basic Theory

2. Configuration of the SiNW Pressure Sensor and Basic Theory
2.1. Structure of the SiNW Pressure Sensor
2.1. Structure
According of the
to SiNW
previousPressure Sensor[17–24,30], the SiNW under the thickness of 340 nm may
literature
exhibit a good or
According to giant piezoresistive
previous effect. For the
literature [17–24,30], instance,
SiNW whenunderthe thesize is made
thickness about
of 340 nm140may nmexhibit
× 200
nm, SiNW has seven times more piezoresistive effect than that of bulk
a good or giant piezoresistive effect. For instance, when the size is made about 140 nm × 200 nm, silicon [30]. To reduce the
sensorhas
SiNW sizeseven
and times
improve
more the sensitivity, effect
piezoresistive the piezoresistive
than that of bulk pressure
siliconsensor
[30]. To based
reduce ontheSOI utilizing
sensor size
double released SiNW with high piezoresistive effect is proposed in this
and improve the sensitivity, the piezoresistive pressure sensor based on SOI utilizing double released paper. Figure 1a displays
the schematic
SiNW with high of piezoresistive
the proposed effect SOI piezoresistive
is proposed inpressure
this paper. sensor
Figure using double silicon
1a displays naowires
the schematic of
along <110> direction. The double SiNW piezoresistors (four pairs) are
the proposed SOI piezoresistive pressure sensor using double silicon naowires along <110> direction. connected like a bridge
between
The double theSiNW
middle silicon diaphragm
piezoresistors (four pairs)and arethe edge oflike
connected silicon substrate.
a bridge between Asthe we known,
middle the
silicon
fundamental
diaphragm andconcept
the edgeofof piezoresistive
silicon substrate. effect
As we is known,
the change in the electrical
the fundamental concept of resistivity of a
piezoresistive
semiconductor material resulting from an applied stress and it is commonly
effect is the change in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor material resulting from an applied employed in pressure
sensors.
stress andThat is to say employed
it is commonly when pressure applies
in pressure on the
sensors. Thatsilicon
is to saydiaphragm
when pressure (freely suspended
applies on the
membrane)
silicon of the (freely
diaphragm sensor,suspended
these SiNWs around of
membrane) diaphragm
the sensor,receive stress to
these SiNWs change
around their resistance.
diaphragm receive
The changed
stress to change resistance perceives
their resistance. Theadopting
changedthe fixed current
resistance perceives signal passed
adopting thethrough the double
fixed current signal
nanowires
passed and the
through diaphragm. The specific
double nanowires and measurement
diaphragm. The principle
specificofmeasurement
the piezoresistive
principlepressure
of the
sensor proposed by us is shown in Figure 1b. The SiNWs position and the
piezoresistive pressure sensor proposed by us is shown in Figure 1b. The SiNWs position and the sizes sizes of both SiNWs and
the proposed pressure sensor should be determined carefully by using
of both SiNWs and the proposed pressure sensor should be determined carefully by using the ANSYS the ANSYS finite element
simulation
finite element (version 14.5,(version
simulation ANSYS14.5, Inc.,ANSYS
Canonsburg, PA, USA) PA,
Inc., Canonsburg, so that
USA)the so high sensitivity
that the can be
high sensitivity
can be obtained. Generally, the SiNWs should be located to receive the maximum stress based on
obtained. Generally, the SiNWs should be located to receive the maximum stress based the
on the
simulation result.
simulation result.
Figure 1.1.(a)(a)Schematic
Figure Schematic diagram
diagram ofnanoelectromechanical
of the the nanoelectromechanical
system system
(NEMS)(NEMS) piezoresistive
piezoresistive pressure
pressure sensor using double silicon nanowire (SiNW) piezoresistors; and (b) the measurement
sensor using double silicon nanowire (SiNW) piezoresistors; and (b) the measurement principle of the
principle
SiNW of the sensor.
pressure SiNW pressure sensor.
2.2. The Sensitivity of the SiNW Pressure Sensor

2.2. The Sensitivity of the SiNW Pressure Sensor
The sensitivity is a significant indicator of the piezoresistive pressure sensor. It depends on the
The sensitivity is a significant indicator of the piezoresistive pressure sensor. It depends on
initial zero-stress resistance R of the piezoresistors, which is determined by its size and doping
the initial zero-stress resistance R of the piezoresistors, which is determined by its size and doping
concentration [5]. For a SiNW piezoresistor with area AR, the piezoresistive pressure sensitivity S is
concentration [5]. For a SiNW piezoresistor with area AR , the piezoresistive pressure sensitivity S is
given by
given by
ΔR / R 1 w AAR
S∆R/R
Δ P = AR Δ P 0 (π L σ L + πT σT )∂A
R
= = 1 (π L σ L + π T σ T )∂ A (1)
S= (1)
∆P A R ∆P
0
where ΔR represents the resistance change of the piezoresistor under the differential stress ΔP. πL
where ∆R represents the resistance change of the piezoresistor under the differential stress ∆P. πL and
and πT refer to the longitudinal piezoresistive coefficient (for stress applied parallel to the current
πT refer to the longitudinal piezoresistive coefficient (for stress applied parallel to the current flow
flow in the piezoresistor) and transverse piezoresistive coefficient (for stress applied perpendicular
in the piezoresistor) and transverse piezoresistive coefficient (for stress applied perpendicular to the
current flow), respectively, while σL and σT are the longitudinal and transverse stress in the SiNW
piezoresistors formed by the external pressure ∆P. For the NEMS piezoresistive pressure sensor with
complex structure, the stress σ of its sensitive element is obtained by ANSYS finite element simulation.
According to Equation (1), for the purpose of investigating the relationship between the sensitivity
and doping concentration as well as temperature, the dependence of the piezoresistive coefficient (π) as
functions of the doping concentration (n) and temperature (T) is taken into account. The piezoresistive
coefficient π(n,T) of the SiNW piezoresistor obeys to the following relation [5]:
300 F− 32 ( EF /K B T )
π(n, T ) = π(n0 , T0 ) (2)
T F− 1 ( EF /K B T )
2
The coefficient π(n0 ,T0 ) stands for the piezocoefficient value for the SiNW of low doping
concentration (n0 ) at room temperature (T0 ). The Fermi integral is the function of temperature (T)
and the Fermi energy (EF ), and KB denotes the Boltzmann constant. The Fermi energy is determined
from n. It is found that the piezoresistive effect significantly decreases at high temperature and
doping concentration due to carrier-phonon scattering as well as carrier-carrier scattering. In fact, the
piezoresistive coefficients of the SiNWs are sensitive to many other quantities such as size, orientation
and band structure [31–34]. According to the published papers [17–21], the SiNWs have giant
piezoresistive effect. The reason for higher piezoresistance is thanks to reduced dimensions, increased
surface depletion region and enhanced surface trapping effect under pressure [17,20,23,24,35].
2.3. The SNR of the SiNW Pressure Sensor

Noise is one of the most important factors limiting the sensitivity of piezoresistive pressure sensor.
2
The noise power spectral density of the nanowire piezoresistor Vnoise is mainly composed of Johnson
noise power spectral density VJ2 and flicker (1/f ) noise power spectral density Vf2 [5,6,36,37], which
can be described as:
2
Vnoise = VJ2 + Vf2 (3)
Johnson noise generates in resistors owing to random motion (thermal agitation) of carriers and is
independent of frequency. In the pressure sensor using double SiNW, Johnson noise is closely related
to the resistance and temperature of the nanowire, which can be expressed as [5,6,36,37]:
s
p 4K B T (l + w)
VJ = 4K B TR = (4)
nqµwt
where KB denotes the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, R is the resistance of the double SiNW
piezoresistor, n is the carrier’s concentration, q is the electron charge, µ is the hole mobility and l, w,
and t are the length, width, and thickness of the nanowire piezoresistor, respectively.
The dominant 1/f noise source in silicon piezoresistors is Hooge noise [9,36], which is a fluctuation
in resistor conductance caused by drawbacks in the bulk of the material. Different from Johnson noise,
it is a conductivity voltage noise that depends on the bias voltage. For the case of applied current,
the 1/f noise is given by the following equation:
I (l + w)
r r
α α
Vf = IR = 2
(5)
Nf (4nlwt + tb ) f nqµwt
where I is the bias current applied to the nanowire with the total number of carriers N, f is the frequency,
b is the size of suspended membrane, α is the Hooge factor, which is a device dimension-independent
parameter, and is between 3.2 × 10−6 and 5.7 × 10−6 in single crystal silicon [38].
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SNR is a key indicator of the pressure sensor and for the case when the constant current is
SNRand
applied, is a it
key indicator
may of the
ultimately bepressure
written sensor
for the and for the
quarter case whenbridge
Wheatstone the constant
circuitcurrent
as: is applied,
and it may ultimately be written for the quarter Wheatstone bridge circuit as:
Vout I (πLσ L + πT σT )R I (πLσ L + πT σT )
SNR = 20log = 20log = 20log
VoutVnoise 2
V fT2 σT ) R
L J++ π
I (π L4σV 64KBTnqμwt + πI 2T σT )
I (π L σ L 16α (6)
SNR = 20log = 20log = 20log q + 2 (6)
l +w （4nlwt ++tb ）16αI
f 2
q
Vnoise 4 V2 + V2 64K B Tnqµwt
J f l +w (4nlwt+tb2 ) f
3. Sensor
3. SensorDesign
Design
The target
The target of
of design
design and
and optimization
optimization for
for the
the piezoresistive
pressure sensor
sensor is
is to
to maximize
maximize its
its
performance, that
performance, thatisistotosay,
say,both
boththe
the signal-to-noise
signal-to-noise ratio
ratio and
and sensitivity
sensitivity of the
of the sensor
sensor should
should meetmeet
the
the desired specifications. In the following sections, we present an analysis of the sensor
desired specifications. In the following sections, we present an analysis of the sensor model design, model
design, pressure
pressure sensitivity,
sensitivity, voltage
voltage noise andnoise and the signal-to-noise
the signal-to-noise ratio. ratio.
3.1. Design Optimization Based on Finite Element Simulation

The expected working
working range
rangeofofthe
thedesigned
designedsensor
sensorusing
usingSiNWs
SiNWsis is
0–0.1 MPa.
0–0.1 MPa.To decide the
To decide
specific
the optimized
specific optimizedstructures, ANSYS
structures, ANSYS finite
finiteelement
elementsimulations
simulations areare firstly
firstly performed.
performed.
Three-dimensional finite element mesh and the average stress distribution of single and double
SiNW pressure sensors by using ANSYS simulation under 0.1 MPa are plotted in the Figure Figure 2.
2. From
the simulation results, it is found that the double SiNW exhibits greater stress and the stress of the
nanowire is substantially
substantially uniform,
uniform, thus
thus avoiding
avoiding the
the significant
significant nonlinear
nonlinear error.
error.
2. (a) Three-dimensional finite element mesh of single SiNW piezoresistive pressure sensor;
Figure 2.
(b) three-dimensional
three-dimensionalfinite
finite element
element meshmesh of double
of double SiNWSiNW piezoresistive
pressure sensor;
sensor; (c) (c)
average
average
stress stress distribution
distribution of singleofSiNW
singlepressure
SiNW pressure
sensor; sensor; (d) average
(d) average stress distribution
stress distribution of double
of double SiNW
SiNW pressure
pressure sensor;sensor;
and (e)and (e) average
average stress distribution
stress distribution of the SiNW.
of the SiNW.
Figure 33 presents
Figure presentsthethevon
vonMises
Misesequivalent
equivalentstress
stress(SEQV)
(SEQV)ofofSiNW
SiNWalongalong the
the <110>direction
<110> direction asasa
a function of structural parameters of the SiNW pressure sensor under 0.1 MPa applied
function of structural parameters of the SiNW pressure sensor under 0.1 MPa applied stress, such as stress, such
as the
the diaphragm
diaphragm size,size, the thickness
the thickness of membrane
of membrane top-layer,
top-layer, and theand theand
length length
widthand width
of the of the
nanowire.
nanowire. As we can see in Figure 3a, the effect of the thickness of membrane top-layer
As we can see in Figure 3a, the effect of the thickness of membrane top-layer on the SEQV is relatively on the
SEQV is
small. relativelythe
However, small.
SEQV However,
of double theSiNW
SEQVrapidly
of double
andSiNW rapidly and
monotonically monotonically
increases with theincreases
increase
with the increase of the diaphragm size. The fracture stress of silicon is about 300
of the diaphragm size. The fracture stress of silicon is about 300 MPa. For practical purposes, MPa. For practical
it is
purposes, to
advisable it is advisable
consider theto consider stress
maximum the maximum stress
that can be that canwithin
developed be developed
the chipwithin
as one the
fifthchip as
of the
one fifth of the fracture stress [5], thus the proposed piezoresistive pressure sensor is
fracture stress [5], thus the proposed piezoresistive pressure sensor is designed to have the diaphragm designed to
have the diaphragm size of less than 300 µm × 300 µm [7,12]. In addition to the diaphragm size, the
Micromachines 2016,7,7,187
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size
size of
ofthe
theSiNW
SiNWisisalso alsoimportant
importantparameter
parameterfor forsensor
sensordesign.
design.FromFromthe theANSYS
ANSYSsimulation
simulationresultsresults
size of less than 300 µm × 300 µm [7,12]. In addition to the diaphragm size, the size of the SiNW is also
plotted
plotted in
in Figure
Figure 3b,
3b, ititisisfound
found that
that the
the influence
influence of
of the
the width
width of
of the
the nanowire
nanowire on
on the
the SEQV
SEQV isissmall
small
important parameter for sensor design. From the ANSYS simulation results plotted in Figure 3b, it is
and
and the
the trend
trend isis monotonic
monotonic with
with the
the length
length of
of the
the SiNW.
SiNW. Besides,
Besides, itit isis concluded
concluded that
that one
one obtains
obtains
found that the influence of the width of the nanowire on the SEQV is small and the trend is monotonic
the
the relatively
relatively optimal
optimal SEQV SEQV value
value when
when the the length
length of of SiNW
SiNW varies
varies from from 22 to to 10
10 µm,
µm, which
which isis
with the length of the SiNW. Besides, it is concluded that one obtains the relatively optimal SEQV
consistent
consistentwith withthe theresult
resultreported
reportedin inthe
theliterature
literature[12].
[12].
value when the length of SiNW varies from 2 to 10 µm, which is consistent with the result reported in
After
After determining the diaphragm size and SiNW dimension,
determining the diaphragm size and SiNW dimension, the the nextnext step
step isis toto explore
explore the the
the literature [12].
relationships
relationships of the SEQV of SiNW with respect to silicon dioxide thickness and the thicknessof
of the SEQV of SiNW with respect to silicon dioxide thickness and the thickness ofthe
the
After determining the diaphragm size and SiNW dimension, the next step is to explore the
remaining
remaining silicon
silicon as as aa result
result ofof backside
backside of of silicon
silicon substrate
substrate was was etched,
etched, as as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1b.1b.
relationships of the SEQV of SiNW with respect to silicon dioxide thickness and the thickness of the
Figure 4a indicates that the thicker silicon dioxide layer is, the larger
Figure 4a indicates that the thicker silicon dioxide layer is, the larger SEQV is. Figure 4b illustrates SEQV is. Figure 4b illustrates
remaining silicon as a result of backside of silicon substrate was etched, as shown in Figure 1b. Figure 4a
that
thatthe
theSEQV
SEQVrapidlyrapidlyincreases
increaseswith withthe
thedecrease
decreaseof ofthe
thethickness
thicknessof ofthe theremaining
remainingsilicon,
silicon,but butthe
the
indicates that the thicker silicon dioxide layer is, the larger SEQV is. Figure 4b illustrates that the SEQV
thickness
thicknessshould
shouldbe begreater
greaterthan than44µm.µm.However,
However,to toobtain
obtainhighhighmaximum
maximumstress, stress,one oneshould
shouldalso also
rapidly increases with the decrease of the thickness of the remaining silicon, but the thickness should
take
take production
production issues issues into into account.
account. Considering
Considering the the stress
stress simulation,
simulation, safety safety limitations
limitations of of
be greater than 4 µm. However, to obtain high maximum stress, one should also take production issues
fabrication
fabrication process
process and and published
published high high piezoresistive
piezoresistive effect effect ofof nanowire,
nanowire, the the proposed
proposed high high
into account. Considering the stress simulation, safety limitations of fabrication process and published
performance
performancepiezoresistive
piezoresistivepressure pressuresensor
sensorisisdesigned
designedto tohave
havethe thenanowire
nanowiresize sizeunder
under1400 1400nm nm××
high piezoresistive effect of nanowire, the proposed high performance piezoresistive pressure sensor
100 nm, the nanowire length of 10 µm, the membrane top-layer
100 nm, the nanowire length of 10 µm, the membrane top-layer thickness of 100 nm, the middle thickness of 100 nm, the middle
is designed to have the nanowire size under 1400 nm × 100 nm, the nanowire length of 10 µm,
silicon
silicon dioxide
dioxide layer layer thickness
thickness of of 200
200 nm,nm, thethe diaphragm
diaphragm size size ofof 200 200 µmµm ×× 200 200 µm,
µm, and and thethe
the membrane top-layer thickness of 100 nm, the middle silicon dioxide layer thickness of 200 nm,
remaining silicon thickness of 6 µm. Of course, we need to combine
remaining silicon thickness of 6 µm. Of course, we need to combine the performance of the sensor the performance of the sensor
the diaphragm size of 200 µm × 200 µm, and the remaining silicon thickness of 6 µm. Of course, we
such
such asas sensitivity
sensitivity and and SNR SNR to to further
further analyze
analyze whether
whether these these geometric
geometric sizes sizes of of the
the sensor
sensor areare
need to combine the performance of the sensor such as sensitivity and SNR to further analyze whether
optimal.
optimal.The Thework
workisiscompleted
completedin inthe
thenext
nextsection.
section.
these geometric sizes of the sensor are optimal. The work is completed in the next section.
Figure3.3.
Figure
Figure ANSYSsimulation
3.ANSYS
ANSYS simulationresults:
simulation results:(a)
results: (a)the
(a) thevon
the vonMises
von Misesequivalent
Mises equivalentstress
equivalent stress(SEQV)
stress (SEQV)of
(SEQV) ofdouble
of doubleSiNW
double SiNWof
SiNW of
of
2 µm
22 µm length
µm length vs.
length vs. diaphragm
vs. diaphragm size
diaphragm size and
size andmembrane
and membrane thickness;
membrane thickness; and (b)
thickness; and SEQV
and (b) of
(b) SEQV double
SEQV of SiNW
of double vs.
double SiNW the
SiNW vs. length
vs. the
the
and width
length
length and of
andwidthdouble
width of SiNW.SiNW.
ofdouble
double SiNW.
Figure
Figure4.4.ANSYS
Figure ANSYSsimulation
simulationresults:
simulation results:(a)
results: (a)SEQV
(a) SEQV
SEQVof of SiNW
ofSiNW vs.
SiNWvs. silicon
vs.silicon dioxide
silicondioxide thickness;
dioxidethickness; and
and
thickness; (b)
(b)
and SEQV
SEQV
(b) of
SEQV
of
ofSiNW
SiNW
SiNW vs.
vs.vs.the
the remaining
remaining
the underlying
underlying
remaining underlying silicon
silicon thickness.
thickness.
silicon thickness.
3.2.
3.2.Sensor
SensorSensitivity
Sensitivityand
andSNR
SNRAnalysis
Analysis
To
To understand
understand the
the enhanced
enhanced sensitivity,
sensitivity, we
we compare
comparethe
the designed
designedSOISOIpressure
pressuresensor
sensor using
using
double SiNW with pressure sensors using single SiNW and bulk silicon. The simulation
double SiNW with pressure sensors using single SiNW and bulk silicon. The simulation results results

3.2. Sensor Sensitivity and SNR Analysis
obtained from ANSYS
To understand thestress analysis
enhanced and Equation
sensitivity, (1) at room
we compare temperature
the designed SOIare shown sensor
pressure in Figure 5a,
using
which demonstrates the change in resistance with the applied pressure
double SiNW with pressure sensors using single SiNW and bulk silicon. The simulation results in the range of 0 to 0.5 MPa.
It is observed
obtained that resistance
from ANSYS change
stress analysis and ofEquation
the pressure sensortemperature
(1) at room of the released double
are shown SiNW 5a,
in Figure is
consistent
which with that the
demonstrates of achange
similarly-sized
in resistanceSiNW withpressure sensor
the applied reported
pressure by range
in the Lou, et al. [12]. As a
of 0 to 0.5 MPa.
result, sensor of the released double SiNW with the proposed sizes
It is observed that resistance change of the pressure sensor of the released double SiNW has sensitivity of 120ismV/V·MPa
consistent
and it has 1.2 times more sensitivity than one of the pressure sensor of the
with that of a similarly-sized SiNW pressure sensor reported by Lou, et al. [12]. As a result, sensor released single SiNW
and has two times more sensitivity than bulk silicon sensor that is not
of the released double SiNW with the proposed sizes has sensitivity of 120 mV/V·MPa and it has released. It is worth noting
thattimes
1.2 the increase in sensitivity
more sensitivity thanisone mainly
of thedue to the released
pressure sensor ofSiNW with small
the released sizes
single provides
SiNW and has a stress
two
concentration enhanced structure [39]. If considering the high piezoresistive characteristics
times more sensitivity than bulk silicon sensor that is not released. It is worth noting that the increase of SiNW
previously
in sensitivity prepared
is mainly bydue us to
[21],
the the sensitivity
released SiNW willwithfurther significantly
small sizes provides increase to about 450
a stress concentration
mV/V·MPa.
enhanced structure [39]. If considering the high piezoresistive characteristics of SiNW previously
Based
prepared byon microscopic
us [21], piezoresistive
the sensitivity will furthermodel we previously
significantly increaseproposed
to about 450[32],
mV/Vthe ·relationship
MPa.
between sensitivity and doping concentration of SiNW is also calculated using
Based on microscopic piezoresistive model we previously proposed [32], the relationship between Equations (1) and
(2). According
sensitivity to Figure
and doping 5b, the sensitivity
concentration of SiNW decreases monotonically
is also calculated with the doping
using Equations (1) and concentration,
(2). According
which is mainly owing to the piezoresistive coefficient
to Figure 5b, the sensitivity decreases monotonically with the doping concentration, decreases with increasing
which is doping
mainly
concentration. Therefore, forcoefficient
owing to the piezoresistive the design of high-sensitivity
decreases with increasingminiature
dopingpressure sensor, the
concentration. doping
Therefore,
concentration
for the design should not be too high.
of high-sensitivity Meanwhile,
miniature pressurethe doping
sensor, theconcentration cannot beshould
doping concentration too low.notOnbe
the
too high. Meanwhile, the doping concentration cannot be too low. On the one hand, it is difficultthe
one hand, it is difficult to form an Ohmic contact when the doping concentration is low. On to
other hand, the sensor noise and temperature drift increase with the
form an Ohmic contact when the doping concentration is low. On the other hand, the sensor noise and doping concentration
decreasing,
temperaturethus drift affecting the overall
increase with the doping SNR. Therefore, the
concentration selectionthus
decreasing, of the doping
affecting theconcentration
overall SNR.
should be comprehensively considered.
Therefore, the selection of the doping concentration should be comprehensively considered.
Figure 5.
Figure (a) Relative
5. (a) Relative resistance
resistance change
change asas aa function
function of
of the
the applied
applied pressure
pressure for
for single
single and
and double
double
SiNW and
SiNW andbulk
bulksilicon;
silicon;(b)(b)
variation of the
variation sensitivity
of the of double
sensitivity SiNWSiNW
of double pressure sensor sensor
pressure with thewith
doping
the
concentration;
doping and (c) variation
concentration; of the sensitivity
and (c) variation of double SiNW
of the sensitivity pressure
of double SiNWsensor with the
pressure temperature.
sensor with the
temperature.
In addition, the sensitivity of piezoresistive pressure sensors based on SiNWs has a thermal drift
In addition,
because the sensitivity
the temperature of piezoresistive
obviously pressure sensors
affects the piezoresistive basedand
coefficient on SiNWs has a thermal
the individual values
drift because the temperature obviously affects the piezoresistive coefficient and
of resistances of the Wheatstone bridge [9,27]. Thus, the temperature coefficient of sensitivity (TCS)the individual
values
depends ofon
resistances of the Wheatstone
both the temperature bridge
coefficient of [9,27]. Thus, the(TCπ)
piezoresistance temperature
and thecoefficient
temperature of sensitivity
coefficient
(TCS) depends
of resistance on both
(TCR). In thethe temperature
case, the sensorcoefficient
should be of piezoresistance
temperature (TCπ) and
compensated boththe temperature
from the effect
coefficient of resistance (TCR). In the
of change in the resistance value and that in case, the piezoresistive coefficient. Taking into accountboth
sensor should be temperature compensated that
from isthe
TCπ effect of change
a negative quantityinbuttheTCR
resistance value and
is a positive that in
quantity, it the piezoresistive
is possible to choose coefficient. Taking
an appropriate
into
dopingaccount that TCπ at
concentration is which
a negative
both quantity but theoretically
of them can TCR is a positive
cancel quantity, it iscausing
each other, possibleantointernal
choose
an appropriate
temperature doping concentration
compensation of the sensorat[9].
which
In thisboth of the
paper, themTCRcancomponent
theoretically cancel each
of sensitivity other,
change is
causing an internal temperature compensation of the sensor [9]. In this paper, the TCR component
of sensitivity change is mainly compensated by using a Wheatstone bridge circuit with a
negative-temperature-coefficient resistance, while the TCπ component is compensated by using the
Micromachines
Micromachines 2016, 7, 187 88 of
of 19
19
PSO–BP data fusion algorithm. Figure 5c gives the theoretical calculation results for the relationship
mainly compensated
between the sensitivity by using
and the a Wheatstone
temperature. bridge
The circuit with decreases
sensitivity a negative-temperature-coefficient
monotonically with the
resistance, while the TCπ component is compensated
temperature increases, which is mainly attributed to the piezoresistive by using the PSO–BP data fusion
coefficient of thealgorithm.
SiNW
Figure 5c gives
piezoresistor the theoretical
decreases with calculation
increasing results for the relationship
the temperature [27]. A clearbetween the sensitivity
nonlinear and the
relationship is
temperature. The sensitivity decreases monotonically with the temperature
observed as the temperature increases, and the TCS extracted is around −1.7 × 10 K by linear increases, which
−4 −1 is mainly
attributed to the piezoresistive coefficient of the SiNW piezoresistor decreases with increasing the
fitting.
temperature [27]. A clear
In the following nonlinear
section, relationship
the influencing is observed
factors of noiseas and
the temperature
SNR of nanowire increases, and the
pressure TCS
sensor
extracted is around − 1.7 × 10 −4 K−1 by linear fitting.
are analyzed by using the above noise models (Equations (3)–(6)). The variation of the voltage noise
and SNRIn thewith
following
the size section,
of SiNW the piezoresistor
influencing factors
and the of noise
doping and SNR of nanowire
concentration pressure
are plotted in sensor
Figuresare 6
analyzed by using the above noise models (Equations (3)–(6)). The variation
and 7, respectively. For the constant-current case, Figure 6a,b reveals that the noise voltage of the of the voltage noise and
SNR with
double the size
SiNW of SiNW piezoresistor
is proportional and the
to the length ofdoping
SiNW concentration are plotted
as well as inversely in Figures 6to
proportional and the7,
respectively.
thickness For theItconstant-current
of SiNW. is interesting that case,
SNRFigure
follows 6a,b reveals law.
a similar that the noise
A long and voltage of the has
thin SiNW doublethe
SiNW is proportional to the length of SiNW as well as inversely proportional
better signal-to-noise ratio, which is consistent with the results of the literature [6,38]. In Figure to the thickness of SiNW.
It is interesting
6c,d, that SNRthat
it is also observed follows a similar law.
the proposed SiNW A with
long 10andµm thin SiNWand
length has100
thenm better signal-to-noise
thickness exhibits
ratio,
an which signal-to-noise
excellent is consistent with the results of the literature [6,38]. In Figure 6c,d, it is also observed that
ratio.
the proposed
As can be SiNW seenwith in 10Figure
µm length and noise
7a, the 100 nmvoltage
thickness is exhibits
inversely an proportional
excellent signal-to-noise
to the doping ratio.
As can beand
concentration seenitinchanges
Figure 7a, verytheseverely
noise voltage
at lowisconcentrations
inversely proportional to the doping
but it changes concentration
very slowly at high
and it changes very
concentrations. severelyitatcan
In addition, lowbeconcentrations
found that thebut SNR it changes very slowly
firstly increases withat high concentrations.
doping concentration
In addition,because
increasing it can be thefound that the
flicker SNRvoltage
noise firstly increases with doping
varies inversely. concentration
However, the SNR increasing because
subsequently
the flicker since
decreases noise voltage
the Johnsonvariesnoise
inversely.
voltageHowever,
tends tothedominate
SNR subsequently decreasescoefficient
and piezoresistive since the Johnson
is also
reduced. It is apparently noted that the noise minimum and signal-to-noise ratio maximum in that
noise voltage tends to dominate and piezoresistive coefficient is also reduced. It is apparently noted the
the noise
doping minimum and
concentration signal-to-noise
range of 1 × 1018 to ratio
5 ×maximum in the doping
1018 cm−3. Taking concentration
into account the good range
Ohmic × 1018
of 1contact
to 5 × 18 −3 . Taking into account the good Ohmic contact and the low power consumption
and the10lowcm power consumption of SiNW pressure sensor, p-type implantation of 5 × 1018 cm−3 of is
SiNW pressure sensor, p-type implantation of 5 × 10 18 cm−3 is then chosen in this paper. In Figure 7b,
then chosen in this paper. In Figure 7b, we can also find that the SNR has been improved after
we can also find
considering that the
the giant SNR has been
piezoresistive improved
effect. In short, after
ourconsidering
work shows the that
giantwe piezoresistive
can optimize effect.
the
In short,
design to our work
reduce theshows
noise that
and we can optimize
improve the designratio
the signal-to-noise to reduce the noise and
of piezoresistive improve
pressure the
sensor
signal-to-noise ratio of piezoresistive pressure sensor using SiNW.
using SiNW. We hope that the results of these theories can be helpful for future design of We hope that the results of these
theories canmethods
experiment be helpful tofor futurethe
achieve design
mostofoptimized
experiment methods to achieve the most optimized sensor.
sensor.
Figure 6. (a) Variation of the voltage noise with the length of SiNW; (b) variation of the voltage
Figure 6. (a) Variation of the voltage noise with the length of SiNW; (b) variation of the voltage noise
noise with the thickness
with the thickness of SiNW;
of SiNW; (c) variation
(c) variation of SNRof with
SNR the
withlength
the length of SiNW;
of SiNW; andvariation
and (d) (d) variation of
of SNR
SNR
with with the thickness
the thickness of SiNW.
of SiNW.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. (a)
(a)Variation
Variationofofthe
the voltage
voltage noise
noise with
with doping
doping concentration
concentration of SiNW
of the the SiNW piezoresistor;
piezoresistor; and
and (b) variation of SNR with doping concentration of the SiNW piezoresistor.
(b) variation of SNR with doping concentration of the SiNW piezoresistor.
4. Fabrication
4. FabricationProcess
Processof
ofSOI
SOIPiezoresistive
Piezoresistive Sensor
Sensor
The proposed
The proposed SiNW SiNW piezoresistive
piezoresistive pressurepressure
sensor with sensor with optimized
optimized size and dopingsize concentration
and doping
concentration
was fabricatedwas withfabricated
p-type (100)withSOIp-typewafer(100)
by SOI
usingwafer by using the
the standard CMOS standard CMOS process
lithography lithography
and
process and anisotropic wet-etch release process. The double-sided
anisotropic wet-etch release process. The double-sided polished SOI wafer has a 200 nm buried polished SOI wafer has oxide
a 200
nm buried
(BOX) layer andoxide (BOX)
a 100 nm toplayer and layer.
silicon a 100 Figure
nm top 8a–h silicon
brieflylayer.
shows Figure 8a–h briefly
the fabrication shows
process the
of this
fabrication
pressure process of this pressure sensor.
sensor.
Firstly, Boron ions
Firstly, Boron ionsof of20 20keV
keVenergy
energyand and5 5××10 101313 Dose/cm
Dose/cm22 werewere implanted
implanted on on the top silicon
the top silicon
layer for
layer forthe
thepiezoresistance
piezoresistanceofof thethe SiNW,
SiNW, followed
followed by annealing
by annealing for dopant
for dopant activation.
activation. Then,Then, the
the extra
extra SiO 2 layer of 50 nm and silicon nitride layer (SiNx) of 100 nm were deposited on both sides of
SiO2 layer of 50 nm and silicon nitride layer (SiNx ) of 100 nm were deposited on both sides of SOI
SOI wafer
wafer by usingby using low pressure
low pressure chemical chemical vapor deposition
vapor deposition (LPCVD). (LPCVD). The compressive
The compressive stress
stress formed
formed
in the SiOin the SiO2 adhesive layer compensates the tensile stress in the SiNx layer. For SiNW pattern
2 adhesive layer compensates the tensile stress in the SiNx layer. For SiNW pattern and
and electrical
electrical isolation,isolation,
theytheywerewere patterned
patterned and and the silicon
the top top silicon
layerlayer
was wasetchedetched by deep
by deep reactive
reactive ion
ion etching (DRIE), and the SiO 2 in the SOI wafer provides an etch stop barrier. In order to fabricate
etching (DRIE), and the SiO2 in the SOI wafer provides an etch stop barrier. In order to fabricate metal
metalafter
pad, pad,etching
after etching
extra SiO extra SiO2 and SiNx layers on front side, a 1.5 µm thick Aluminum was
2 and SiNx layers on front side, a 1.5 µm thick Aluminum was deposited
deposited onto the silicon
onto the silicon contact surfaces while contact surfaces
the Al while
pad isthe Al padby
patterned is using
patterned by process.
a liftoff using a Besides,
liftoff process.
SiNW
Besides, SiNW structures like bridge shape were released through
structures like bridge shape were released through buffered oxide etcher (BOE) solution and critical buffered oxide etcher (BOE)
solution
point and In
drying. critical
orderpoint drying.
to protect In order
against to protect
corrosion against structures,
of Aluminum corrosion of theyAluminum
are covered structures,
by thick
they are covered by thick photoresist mask. After that, the
photoresist mask. After that, the tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH) wet etch is conducted tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide to
(TMAH) wet etch is conducted to release the diaphragm structure. The
release the diaphragm structure. The substrate of the SOI wafer is ground to 675 µm, and backside of substrate of the SOI wafer is
ground to 675 µm, and backside of the substrate was gradually etched
the substrate was gradually etched by 363 K TMAH in many etch steps to obtain diaphragm less than by 363 K TMAH in many
6etch
µm steps to obtain
thickness. Finally,diaphragm
the extra lessSiO2thanand SiN6 µmmask
x
thickness.
layersFinally,
on backsidethe extra
were SiO 2 and SiNx mask
removed using BOE
layers onand
solution backside
CF4 gas,were removed
and then a Pyrex using
glass BOE
7740solution
wafer ofand 500 CF gas, and was
µm4 thickness thenplaced
a Pyrex on glass 7740
the etched
wafer of 500 µm thickness was placed on the etched backside of
backside of the SOI wafer and anodically bonded by applying an electric field (900 V DC) across the the SOI wafer and anodically
bonded by
bonding applying
interface an electric
at 360 ◦ C. Thefield (900 process
bonding V DC) across
is carriedthe bonding interfaceenvironment.
out in a vacuum at 360 °C. The bonding
process is carried
Figure out in athe
9a displays vacuum environment.
fabricated SOI piezoresistive pressure sensor die using double SiNW
of 1400 nm × 100 nm cross area and 10SOI
Figure 9a displays the fabricated µm piezoresistive
length. In addition, pressure sensor die using
semi-hermetic double
diaphragm SiNW of
packaging
1400 nm × are
structures 100 employed
nm cross area and 10inµm
as shown length.
Figure 9b.InInaddition, semi-hermetic
the following section, diaphragm
we will examinepackagingthe
structures are employed
performance of the pressure sensor. as shown in Figure 9b. In the following section, we will examine the
performance of the pressure sensor.
Figure
Figure 8. 8. Processflow
Process flowofofthe
theproposed
proposed SiNW SiNW piezoresistive
pressuresensor
sensor(the(thedrawing
drawing is is
notnot
to to
Figure
scale). 8. Process
(a) P-type flowimplantation
ion of the proposedand SiNW piezoresistive
annealing were pressure
performed on sensor
the (the
front drawing
side of (100)is silicon
not to
scale). (a) P-type ion implantation and annealing were performed on the front side of (100) silicon on
scale). (a) P-type
on insulator ion implantation anddioxide
annealing
and were performed on the front side onofboth
(100) silicon
insulator (SOI) (SOI)
wafer;wafer; (b) Silicon
(b) Silicon dioxide and siliconsilicon nitride were
nitride deposited
were deposited on both sidessides by
by using
on
usinginsulator (SOI) wafer;
low pressure chemical(b) Silicon dioxide and
vapor deposition silicon nitride
(LPCVD); werewere
(c) SiNWs deposited
formed onbyboth sides
using by
deep
low pressure
using low
chemical chemical
vapor deposition (LPCVD);(LPCVD);
(c) SiNWs were formed by using deep reactive ion
reactive ionpressure
etching (DRIE) onvapor front deposition
side; (d) Metal (c) SiNWs
deposition were formed
and patterning by using
on front side deep
were
etching
reactive(DRIE)
ion on
etchingfront side;
(DRIE) (d)
on Metal
front deposition
side; (d) Metaland patterning
deposition and on front
patterningside onwere
frontcarried
side out to
were
carried out to form electric pads; (e) Wet etch was performed to release SiNWs on front side through
form electric
carried pads; (e) Wet etch was performed to release SiNWs on front side through buffered oxide
bufferedout to form
oxide electric
etcher pads;(f)
solution; (e) Inductively
Wet etch was performed
coupled to release
plasma (ICP) SiNWs
etch was onapplied
front side
to through
remove
etcher solution;
buffered oxideon (f) Inductively
etcher solution; coupled plasma (ICP) etch was applied to remove silicon
to removeon
nitride
silicon nitride backside and (f)
theInductively coupled isplasma
corrosion window formed; (ICP)
(g) etch was appliedammonium
The tetramethyl
backside
silicon and
nitridethe corrosion
on backside window is formed; (g) The tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH)
hydroxide (TMAH) backsideand etchthe
to corrosion
release thewindow
diaphragm;is formed; (g) The tetramethyl
(h) Field-assisted ammonium
silicon-glass bonding
backside
hydroxide etch(TMAH)
to release the diaphragm;
backside etch to release(h) the
Field-assisted
diaphragm;silicon-glass bonding
(h) Field-assisted is carried
silicon-glass out in a
bonding
is carried out in a vacuum environment.
vacuum environment.
is carried out in a vacuum environment.
Figure 9. (a) A photograph of the fabricated SOI pressure sensor die using double SiNW before the
Figure
9. 9.
release;
Figure (a)
and
(a) A
A(b) photographofofthe
a photograph
photograph the
of fabricated
packaged
fabricated SOI pressure
pressure
SOI sensor.sensor
pressure sensordie
dieusing
usingdouble
doubleSiNW before
SiNW thethe
before
release; and (b) a photograph of packaged pressure
release; and (b) a photograph of packaged pressure sensor. sensor.
5. Experimental Section and Discussion

5. Experimental Section and Discussion
5.1. Experimental Setup
5.1. Experimental Setup
The test experiments are conducted to evaluate and optimize the performance of the sensor.
Figure 10 shows the proposed
The test experiments are conducted SiNW pressure
to evaluate measurement
and optimize system and the CTS-150
the performance of theconstant
sensor.
temperature
Figure 10 showsand pressure
the proposed chamber SiNW manufactured
pressure measurementby Cliphycosystem Instruments
and the Co., Limitedconstant
CTS-150 (Hong
Kong, China),
temperature andwhich can well
pressure chambermeetmanufactured
the calibrationbyrequirements of pressure
Cliphyco Instruments sensor.
Co., LimitedMeanwhile,
(Hong Kong, the
effect of temperature on the pressure sensor can also be investigated
China), which can well meet the calibration requirements of pressure sensor. Meanwhile, the effect of by using this
temperature-programmable
temperature on the pressure sensor chamber.canThe
alsocalibration
be investigated and test procedures
by using are as follows: Firstly, the
this temperature-programmable
SiNW pressure sensor without calibration is put into the
chamber. The calibration and test procedures are as follows: Firstly, the SiNW pressureCTS-150 constant temperature
sensor withoutand
pressure chamber,
calibration is put intowhich is used to
the CTS-150 produce
constant the standard
temperature andcalibration pressure which
pressure chamber, that weis want
used to
obtain, such
produce as 10, 20,calibration
the standard 30, 40 kPapressure
and so that
on. we Applied
want pressure
to obtain,changes the 20,
such as 10, resistance
30, 40 kPa of and
SiNW. so
Depend on the changed resistance and fixed current, and then
on. Applied pressure changes the resistance of SiNW. Depend on the changed resistance and fixed pressure voltage values and
temperature
current, voltage
and then value voltage
pressure are obtained
valuesby and means of our SiNW
temperature voltage pressure
value aresensor and temperature
obtained by means of
sensor
our SiNW using voltage
pressure measurement.
sensor Each sample
and temperature data (output
sensor using voltage of the Each
voltage measurement. sensor) for each
sample data
temperature and pressure are repeatedly measured three times continuously
(output voltage of the sensor) for each temperature and pressure are repeatedly measured three times and averaged to
reduce random
continuously anderrors.
averagedSecondly, the random
to reduce temperature errors. inSecondly,
the experimental chamberinisthe
the temperature changed in the
experimental
wide ranges in order to facilitate calibration pressure and temperature drift
chamber is changed in the wide ranges in order to facilitate calibration pressure and temperature drift compensation. Thirdly,
the data fusion algorithm
compensation. Thirdly, the based
data on the PSO–BP
fusion algorithm is introduced
based on the to PSO–BP
establishisthe function relationship
introduced to establish
between
the the relationship
function standard calibration
between the pressures
standard obtained
calibrationby the chamber
pressures and the
obtained pressure
by the chamber voltage
and
values as well as the temperature values obtained by our fabricated pressure
the pressure voltage values as well as the temperature values obtained by our fabricated pressure sensor in a wide range
of temperature
sensor in a wideand rangepressure. Furthermore,
of temperature the PSO–BP
and pressure. algorithm the
Furthermore, andPSO–BP
the function relationship,
algorithm and the
which minimizes
function relationship,thewhich
sensorminimizes
errors due thetosensor
the temperature
errors due todrift, are writtendrift,
the temperature into are
thewritten
embedded into
system that allows digital pressure sensor real-time and online display
the embedded system that allows digital pressure sensor real-time and online display pressure data pressure data in thin-film
transistor
in thin-film (TFT) screen(TFT)
transistor or send pressure
screen or senddata to the mobile
pressure data to terminal
the mobile byterminal
the globalbysystem
the globalfor system
mobile
communication (GSM) module. Finally, we conduct the
for mobile communication (GSM) module. Finally, we conduct the experiments to test theexperiments to test the prediction
performance ofofthe thePSO–BP
PSO–BP algorithm
algorithm based based
on the oncomparison
the comparison between between
data thatdata thatprocessed
are not are not
processed
by algorithmby and
algorithm
the data andthattheare
data that are by
processed processed
the PSO–BP by the PSO–BP algorithm.
algorithm.
Figure 10.
10. Photographs
Photographsofofthetheproposed
proposedSiNW
SiNW pressure
pressure measurement
measurement system
system andand calibration
calibration and and
test
test experimental
experimental setup.
setup. TheThe CTS-150
CTS-150 constant
constant temperature
temperature andand pressure
pressure chamber
chamber is manufactured
is manufactured by
by Cliphyco
Cliphyco Instruments
Instruments Co.,Co., Limited
Limited (Hong
(Hong Kong,
Kong, China).
China).
5.2. Sensor
5.2. Sensor Output
Output Result
Result
The sensitivity
The sensitivity analysis
analysis is
is the study of
the study of change
change in in output
output voltage
voltage with
with respect
respect to
to the
the applied
applied
pressure. Figure 11a illustrates the relationship between the output voltage value of the
pressure. Figure 11a illustrates the relationship between the output voltage value of the sensor and sensor and
the standard
the standard pressure
pressure under
under different
different temperatures.
temperatures. It is observed
It is observed that
that the
the output
output voltage
voltage increases
increases
substantially linearly with the applied pressure. However, the output curves of the
substantially linearly with the applied pressure. However, the output curves of the sensor at different sensor at
different temperatures
temperatures are not coincident
are not coincident andalso
and there are there are also differences
differences in the zero in the zero
output output
voltage voltage
as well as
as the
well as the which
sensitivity, sensitivity, which demonstrates
demonstrates that designedthat designed
SiNW SiNW
pressure pressure
sensor has asensor has a temperature
temperature drift and is
drift and iswith
consistent consistent with the of
the conclusion conclusion of the
the literature literatureThe
[12,27,32]. [12,27,32]. Thetemperature
lower the lower the temperature is,
is, the greater
the greater the output voltage is. Therefore, the sensitivity of the piezoresistive SiNW sensor has a

the output voltage is. Therefore, the sensitivity of the piezoresistive SiNW sensor has a negative
negative
temperaturetemperature coefficient.
coefficient. To be more Tointuitive,
be moreFigureintuitive, Figure 11b
11b displays thedisplays the sensorschange
sensors sensitivity sensitivity
with
change with temperature increasing. It is found that the sensitivity decreases
temperature increasing. It is found that the sensitivity decreases substantially as the temperature substantially as the
temperature increases and the TCS extracted is around
− 4 −−6.4
1 × 10 −4 K−1 by linear fitting and is in the
increases and the TCS extracted is around −6.4 × 10 K by linear fitting and is in the same order of
same order of
magnitude as magnitude as the
the theoretical theoretical
predicted predicted
value. value. As
As discussed discussed
in the in the
previous previous
theoretical theoretical
study, this is
study, this is mainly due to the fact that the piezoresistive coefficient decreases
mainly due to the fact that the piezoresistive coefficient decreases with increasing temperature. For thewith increasing
temperature.
constant-current For case
the constant-current
(0.05 mA, aroundcase 5 V (0.05 mA, around
equivalent 5 Vsensor
voltage), equivalent
of the voltage), sensor of
released double the
SiNW
released double SiNW measured by a quarter Wheatstone bridge has sensitivity
measured by a quarter Wheatstone bridge has sensitivity of 495 mV/V·MPa at room temperature and of 495 mV/V·MPa
at room
it has 1.4temperature and it hasthan
times more sensitivity 1.4 the
times more single
released sensitivity
SiNWthan the released
pressure single
sensor [7], SiNW
which pressure
matches well
sensor
with the[7], which matches
previous well
theoretical with the previous theoretical predictions.
predictions.
Figure
Figure 11.
11. (a) Dependence of
(a) Dependence ofthe
theoutput
outputvoltages
voltagesofofSOI
SOI pressure
pressure sensor
sensor without
without compensation
compensation on
on the
the pressure with temperature from −20 ◦ to 50 °C; and (b) the relationship curve between
pressure with temperature from −20 to 50 C; and (b) the relationship curve between the sensitivity the
sensitivity and temperature.
and temperature.
One notes that the sensitivity of the proposed SiNW piezoresistive pressure sensor in this
One notes that the sensitivity of the proposed SiNW piezoresistive pressure sensor in this paper
paper can be increased to more than four times as compared to that of SiNW pizoresisitve pressure
can be increased to more than four times as compared to that of SiNW pizoresisitve pressure sensor
sensor without the giant piezoresistive effect [12], which can be attributed to the obvious enhanced
without the giant piezoresistive effect [12], which can be attributed to the obvious enhanced surface
surface effect and corresponding giant piezoresistive effect of SiNW [31–34]. Recently, Sun et al.
effect and corresponding giant piezoresistive effect of SiNW [31–34]. Recently, Sun et al. measured
measured the piezoresistive coefficients of a series of SiNWs with different length and width [40]. It
the piezoresistive coefficients of a series of SiNWs with different length and width [40]. It is also
is also confirmed that there are giant piezoresistive properties in the silicon nanofilms, and their
confirmed that there are giant piezoresistive properties in the silicon nanofilms, and their piezoresistive
piezoresistive coefficients can increase even−11up to 1203 × 10−11 Pa−1, which is much higher by one
coefficients can increase even up to 1203 × 10 Pa−1 , which is much higher by one order of magnitude
order of magnitude than that of bulk silicon. They believe that the residual stress in the silicon wires
than that of bulk silicon. They believe that the residual stress in the silicon wires with different widths
with different widths has a very critical impact on their piezoresistive coefficient. However, due to
has a very critical impact on their piezoresistive coefficient. However, due to various constraints, we
various constraints, we do not carry out a more detailed analysis of the impact of residual stress on
do not carry out a more detailed analysis of the impact of residual stress on sensitivity of the pressure
sensitivity of the pressure sensor. In order to ensure the measuring precision of the piezoresistive
sensor. In order to ensure the measuring precision of the piezoresistive pressure sensor, we have
pressure sensor, we have proposed a compensation method based on the PSO–BP neural network
proposed a compensation method based on the PSO–BP neural network to solve the temperature drift
to solve the temperature drift of the sensor and achieve a linear output in the entire measuring
of the sensor and achieve a linear output in the entire measuring range.
range.
5.3. Data Fusion Using PSO–BP Algorithm
5.3. Data Fusion Using PSO–BP Algorithm
5.3.1. PSO–BP Neural Network Algorithm Overview
5.3.1. PSO–BP Neural Network Algorithm Overview
The hybrid PSO–BP algorithm combining the global PSO algorithm with the BP neural network
The two
includes hybrid PSO–BP
aspects: one isalgorithm
using the PSO combining
algorithmsthetoglobal
optimizePSO thealgorithm with the BP
BP neural network’s neural
connection
network includes each
weights between two aspects:
layer, andonethe
is using
other the PSO PSO
is using algorithms to optimize
algorithms the BPthe
to optimize neural network’s
topology of BP
connection weights between each layer, and the other is using PSO algorithms to
neural network [28,29]. This paper mainly applied PSO algorithms for neural network training, which optimize the
topology
can avoid oftheBP neural network
disadvantage [28,29].
of easily Thisinto
trapped paper
localmainly
optimum applied PSO algorithms
of BP algorithm. for neural
The fundamental
network
idea for the PSO–BP algorithm is to combine the fast global search ability of the PSO algorithmofwith
training, which can avoid the disadvantage of easily trapped into local optimum BP
algorithm. The fundamental idea for the PSO–BP algorithm is to combine the fast
the fast local search ability of BP neural network, so as to avoid getting into infinitesimal locallyglobal search
ability of the PSO algorithm with the fast local search ability of BP neural network, so as to avoid
getting into infinitesimal locally effectively and keep the merits of high prediction precision and
rapid convergence. Distinctly, the PSO–BP algorithm is not discussed in detail, for it has detailed
effectively
descriptionand keep the merits
in References [28,29].of high prediction precision and rapid convergence. Distinctly, the
PSO–BP algorithm is not discussed
As illustrated in Figure 12, the in detail,
main idealfor it has
of thedetailed
PSO–BP description in References
compensation algorithm[28,29].
can be
As illustrated
summarized in Figure
as follows: In the12, firstthe main
place, theideal
relatedof parameters
the PSO–BPofcompensation
PSO–BP neuralalgorithmnetwork are canset,
be
summarized as follows: In the first place, the related parameters of
such as the number of layers of neural network, the number of neurons in each layer and dimension PSO–BP neural network are set,
such as the The
of particle. number of layers
positions andofvelocities
neural network,
of a group theofnumber
particles of are
neurons
randomlyin each layer andindimension
initialized the range
of
of particle. The positions
[0, 1]. Secondly, the PSO–BPand velocities
is trainedofby a group
using theof particles are randomly
initial particle’s initialized
position, and each ininitialized
the range
of [0, 1]. Secondly,
particle’s the PSO–BP
fitness value is evaluated is trained
by usingby using the initial
the fitness particle’s
function and the position,
learning and each
error initialized
between the
particle’s
BP network fitness valueand
output is evaluated
the desired by using
output theisfitness function and
also calculated. the learning
Thirdly, error between
the fitness value ofthe BP
each
network output and the desired output is also calculated. Thirdly,
individual particle is compared with individual extreme value (that is, fitness value of the the fitness value of each individual
particle
individualis compared with individual
extreme point), if the fitness extreme
function value
value(that is, fitnessthe
is smaller, value of the individual
individual extreme point extreme
and
point), if the fitness
global extreme point function valuewill
of particles is smaller,
be updated the individual
or selected. extreme
Fourthly,point theand global extreme
positions point
and velocities
of
of particles will be updated
all the particles are updated, or selected.
while aFourthly,
group ofthe new positions
particlesand arevelocities
generated, of and
all the particles
then each neware
updated, while a group of new particles are generated, and then each
particle’s fitness value is evaluated, meanwhile, the learning error is also recalculated. The learning new particle’s fitness value
is evaluated,
error at currentmeanwhile,
epoch will thebe learning
reduced error is also recalculated.
by changing the particles Theposition,
learningwhicherror at current
will updateepoch
the
will be reduced by changing the particles position, which will update the
weight and threshold of the network. Fifthly, this process is repeated until the termination criteria weight and threshold of the
network. Fifthly, this
either minimum process
learning is repeated
error or maximum until the termination
number criteria
of iteration either minimum
is satisfied. Then, itlearning
can finderror
the
or maximum number of iteration is satisfied. Then, it can find the optimal
optimal positions of particles and best weight and threshold. Finally, BP neural network is trained positions of particles and
best weighttemperature
to obtain and threshold.compensation
Finally, BP neural datanetwork
by using is trained
optimizedto obtain temperature
weight compensation
and threshold. It is
data by using
noteworthy optimized
that weightgoal
the training’s andof threshold.
BP neural It network
is noteworthy that thea training’s
is to obtain minimumgoal sumofofBP neural
absolute
network is to obtain
error between a minimum
the prediction andsum the of absolute
sample erroroutput
desired between the prediction
value. In this paper,andthe
the fitness
samplefunction
desired
output value.asInthe
is described this paper, the
following fitness function is described as the following formula:
formula:
2
kk
fitness
fitness ==∑å| pp((ii))-−d d(i()i)|2 (7)
(7)
i =1
i =1
where k refers to iterations of PSO–BP algorithm, p(i) is the network’s prediction output, and d(i) is
where k refers to iterations of PSO–BP algorithm, p(i) is the network’s prediction output, and d(i) is the
the calibration value.
calibration value.
Figure 12. Flowchart

Figure 12. Flowchart depicting
depicting the
the particle
particle swarm
swarm optimization–back-propagation
optimization–back-propagation (PSO–BP)
(PSO–BP) neural
neural
network
network algorithm.
algorithm.
5.3.2. Temperature Compensation by PSO–BP Data Fusion Algorithm

According to the calibration requirement of the pressure sensor, the calibration output voltages
of the SOI pressure sensors under different pressures and temperatures (the calibration sample data)
5.3.2. Temperature Compensation by PSO–BP Data Fusion Algorithm

According to the calibration requirement of the pressure sensor, the calibration output voltages
of the SOI pressure sensors under different pressures and temperatures (the calibration sample data)
for training PSO–BP compensation algorithm are measured three times repeatedly, and the average
values are listed in Table 1, which try to avoid incorporating the random errors into the temperature
compensation using the PSO–BP data fusion method. The output standard pressure of the CTS-150
constant temperature and pressure chamber is marked as P, and the Up represents the average output
voltage of our sensor. According to Table 1, it is found that the Up changes with temperature T and
hence there is a drift in the sensor output characteristics. The temperature drift can especially cause a
few mV errors at full scale. Obviously, the pressure sensor is seriously influenced by the temperature.
Then, MATLAB (version R2013b, MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA) is applied to establish a data fusion
model based on the PSO–BP algorithm and process these training sample data. The training data must
be pre-processed to prevent nodes quickly reaching a saturated state and becoming unable to continue
learning. According to the “mapminmax” function of MATLAB, the normalized formula is as follows:
(ymax − ymin ) × ( x − xmin )

y= + ymin (8)
( xmax − xmin )
If the data are normalized to (−1, 1), ymax is 1 and ymin is −1. x is the output value of SOI pressure
sensor at a reference temperature, while xmax and xmin are the maximum and the minimum output
values, respectively. On the basis of this formula, the training data in Table 1 can be normalized.
Theoretical studies have proven that the three-layer neural network can realize any complex nonlinear
mapping problem, so the prediction model adopts a three-layer BP neural network with a single hidden
layer for temperature compensation. This paper sets the input layer with two nodes (corresponding
to the temperature signal and pressure signal without compensation), the hidden layer with five
nodes, and the output layer with one node (corresponding to pressure signal after compensation).
The maximum training times is 1500, the target error is 5 × 10−6 , the training function is “trainlm”,
the learning function is “learngdm” and the learning rate is set to 0.01. The population size is set to 40,
the inertia weight is set to 1, and learning factor is chosen to be 2.5. After the optimization algorithm
terminates, connection weights between the input layer and hidden layer ω1 , connection weights
between the output layer and hidden layer ω2 , scale factor b1 and shift factor b2 is:
 

 0.5609 

−0.5605

 


 

 

 −0.5400 
    
0.0067  −0.4122

 

0.2037

 
 
  
 

     

 
 
 1.2784 
  2.0836

 

 −0.6102    
ω1 = , ω2 = 0.7569 , b1 = −2.1011 and b2 = {−0.3886}.
−0.3668
−0.0698
     

 
 
 1.1558 
 
 

0.5410

 
 
 
 
 

0.06218 1.3690

 
    
0.3031

 


 

 
0.9639

 


 

2.991
 
Once the connection weights and other important parameters are obtained, the PSO–BP data
fusion algorithm can be ported to the 32-bit STMicroelectronics (STM32) microprocessor in the form of
C language procedures. In this case, the proposed the SiNW pressure measuring system can measure
and give the actual pressure with temperature compensation in real time.
Table 1. The calibration sample data of the SiNW pressure sensor for the training of the PSO–BP compensation algorithm, which are obtained with pressures from 0 to
100 kPa and with temperatures from −20 to 50 ◦ C.
Pressure
P = 0 kPa P = 10 kPa P = 20 kPa P = 30 kPa P = 40 kPa P = 50 kPa P = 60 kPa P = 70 kPa P = 80 kPa P = 90 kPa P = 100 kPa
Temperature
T = −20 ◦ C Up = 2.20 mV Up = 7.68 mV Up = 15.12 mV Up = 20.00 mV Up = 28.88 mV Up = 35.44 mV Up = 42.11 mV Up = 48.88 mV Up = 56.00 mV Up = 63.13 mV Up = 68.96 mV
T = −10 ◦ C Up = 4.40 mV Up = 8.44 mV Up = 14.96 mV Up = 21.81 mV Up = 28.12 mV Up = 34.72 mV Up = 41.00 mV Up = 48.08 mV Up = 54.89 mV Up = 61.88 mV Up = 66.71 mV
T = 0 ◦C Up = 3.64 mV Up = 7.73 mV Up = 14.16 mV Up = 20.71 mV Up = 26.89 mV Up = 33.35 mV Up = 39.80 mV Up = 46.20 mV Up = 53.20 mV Up = 60.22 mV Up = 66.96 mV
T = 10 ◦ C Up = 2.29 mV Up = 6.84 mV Up = 13.85 mV Up = 20.19 mV Up = 26.16 mV Up = 32.80 mV Up = 38.96 mV Up = 45.39 mV Up = 52.21 mV Up = 58.95 mV Up = 65.81 mV
Micromachines
Micromachines 2016,
2016, 7, x187
FOR PEER REVIEW 16
16 of
of 19
19
Figure 13 summarizes
Figure summarizes the the temperature
temperature compensation
compensation results results ofof the
the proposed
proposed SiNWSiNW pressure
sensor through
sensor through the the PSO–BP
PSO–BP data data fusion
fusion algorithm.
algorithm. Specifically,
Specifically, Figure
Figure 13a exhibits
exhibits the relationship
curves ofofthe
theprediction
prediction output
outputof PSO–BP
of PSO–BP neural network
neural (circle)(circle)
network and theand expected output (asterisk)
the expected output
coincide with
(asterisk) each other,
coincide with which
each indicates
other, whichthat the PSO–BPthat
indicates neural thenetwork
PSO–BP canneural
significantly weaken
network can
the influence of temperature and predict the pressure value of the sensor
significantly weaken the influence of temperature and predict the pressure value of the sensor chipchip with the minimum
error.the
with In minimum
Figure 13b,error.
it is found
In Figurethat13b,
theitfitness of PSO
is found algorithm
that the fitness ofhasPSO
reached the minimum
algorithm before
has reached the
50 iterations.
minimum In other
before words, it has
50 iterations. In converged
other words, to the optimal
it has weight and
converged to thethreshold.
optimal As plotted
weight in
and
Figure 13c,As theplotted
target error reaches − 6
× 10 error
threshold. in Figure 13c,4.6342
the target after 41 iterations
reaches 4.6342 ×of10 the after
−6 training cycle. However,
41 iterations of the
the calculation
training cycle. shows thatthe
However, the calculation
BP algorithm needsthat
shows to be iterated
the 122 timesneeds
BP algorithm to achieve
to be similar
iteratedtarget error,
122 times
which
to manifests
achieve similarthat PSO–BP
target error,algorithm significantly
which manifests improves
that PSO–BP the operating
algorithm efficiency.
significantly Figure 13d
improves the
gives the temperature
operating compensation
efficiency. Figure 13d gives errors of PSO–BP neural
the temperature network and
compensation errorstraditional
of PSO–BP BP neural
network. and
network It is traditional
clear that theBPcompensation
neural network. accuracy of PSO–BP
It is clear that theneural network isaccuracy
compensation significantly higher
of PSO–BP
than that of the BP network.
neural network is significantly higher than that of the BP network.
Figure 13. (a) The prediction output of the PSO–BP neural network algorithm; (b) fitness curve;
Figure 13. (a) The prediction output of the PSO–BP neural network algorithm; (b) fitness curve;
(c)
(c) mean-squared
mean-squared error
error curve
curve of
of the
the PSO–BP
PSO–BP neural
neural network
network algorithm;
algorithm; and
and (d)
(d) error
error curves
curves of
of BP
BP
algorithm and the PSO–BP algorithm
algorithm and the PSO–BP algorithm
However, we need to further verify this compensation algorithm at actual situation and to
However, we need to further verify this compensation algorithm at actual situation and to
ensure reliability under the other temperatures (45, 25 and −15 °C are chosen) different from the
ensure reliability under the other temperatures (45, 25 and −15 ◦ C are chosen) different from the
samples. The results are plotted in Figure 14. Figure 14a illustrates the relationship curves between
samples. The results are plotted in Figure 14. Figure 14a illustrates the relationship curves between the
the corrected output pressures of our SiNW pressure sensor through the genetic algorithm-wavelet
corrected output pressures of our SiNW pressure sensor through the genetic algorithm-wavelet neural
neural network (GA-WNN) data fusion and the calibration pressures at different temperatures,
network (GA-WNN) data fusion and the calibration pressures at different temperatures, which coincide
which coincide together and are highly linear over the 0–100 kPa range. This result indicates that
together and are highly linear over the 0–100 kPa range. This result indicates that the influence of the
the influence of the temperature can be neglected once the PSO–BP algorithm is applied. Figure 14b
temperature can be neglected once the PSO–BP algorithm is applied. Figure 14b gives the absolute error
gives the absolute error between the output pressure that is compensated by the PSO–BP data
between the output pressure that is compensated by the PSO–BP data fusion algorithm and standard
fusion algorithm and standard calibration pressure obtained by CTS-150 constant temperature and
calibration pressure obtained by CTS-150 constant temperature and pressure chamber. The maximal
pressure chamber. The maximal prediction error after compensation of the PSO–BP algorithm is
prediction error after compensation of the PSO–BP algorithm is only 0.13 kPa, which demonstrates
only 0.13 kPa, which demonstrates that the PSO–BP algorithm can study and predict the internal
that the PSO–BP algorithm can study and predict the internal rule between piezoresistive coefficient
rule between piezoresistive coefficient and temperature based on experimental sample data and
and temperature based on experimental sample data and this compensation method is accurate and
this compensation method is accurate and effective to deal with temperature drift. Thus, the digital
SiNW pressure sensor is able to achieve high measurement accuracy.
Micromachines 2016, 7, 187; doi:10.3390/mi7100187 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

effective to deal with temperature drift. Thus, the digital SiNW pressure sensor is able to achieve high
measurement accuracy.
Figure 14.
Figure 14. (a)
(a)The
Therelationships
relationships between
between the actual
the actual measurement
measurement pressures
pressures of theSiNW
of the digital digital SiNW
pressure
pressure
sensor sensor in
designed designed in and
the paper the paper and the calibration
the calibration pressure at pressure
different at different temperature;
temperature; and (b)
and (b) the absolute
the absolute
error between error betweenpressures
the corrected the corrected
and thepressures
calibrationand the calibration
pressures at differentpressures at different
temperature.
temperature.
6. Conclusions and Future Work
6. Conclusions and Future Work
In this paper, the SOI piezoresistive pressure sensor employing the high piezoresisitive effect
In thisSiNW
of double paper, the SOI piezoresistive
is proposed and optimized pressure
by ANSYS sensor employing
finite the high The
element method. piezoresisitive effect
use of the SiNW
of double
enables SiNW
the is proposed
designed pressure andsensor
optimized
to haveby ANSYS
the highfinite elementand
sensitivity method.
reduced Thesensor
use of size.
the SiNWOur
enables the designed pressure sensor to have the high sensitivity and reduced
studies firstly present a comprehensive analysis of sensor size optimization and doping concentration sensor size. Our
studies firstly
optimization presenttoathecomprehensive
according demands of high analysis of sensor
sensitivity. We also size optimization
explore and ofdoping
the relationship SiNW
concentration optimization according to the demands of high sensitivity.
size and doping concentration with noise voltage and SNR. Considering the stress simulation We also explore andthe
relationship of SiNW size and doping concentration with noise voltage and
safety limitations of fabrication process, the proposed high performance piezoresistive pressure sensor SNR. Considering the
stress
is simulation
designed to own andthesafety
nanowirelimitations of fabrication
size under 1400 nm ×process,100 nm,the theproposed
nanowirehigh performance
length of 10 µm,
the membrane top-layer thickness of 100 nm, the middle silicon dioxide layer thickness100
piezoresistive pressure sensor is designed to own the nanowire size under 1400 nm × nm, nm,
of 200 the
nanowire length of 10 µm, the membrane top-layer thickness of 100
the diaphragm size of 200 µm × 200 µm, and the remaining silicon thickness of 6 µm. Then, nm, the middle silicon dioxide
layer thicknessprocess
manufacturing of 200 isnm,giventheanddiaphragm size of
the optimized 200 µm
double SiNW × 200 µm, sensor
pressure and theis remaining silicon
fabricated, and its
thickness of 6 µm. Then, manufacturing process is given and the optimized
sensitivity can be increased to more than four times as compared to that of SiNW pizoresisitve pressuredouble SiNW pressure
sensor without
sensor is fabricated, and piezoresistive
the giant its sensitivity effect,
can bewhich
increased
can beto attributed
more thantofour the times
obviousas compared to that
enhanced surface
of SiNW pizoresisitve pressure sensor without the giant piezoresistive
effect and corresponding giant piezoresistive effect of SiNW. However, the experimental results also effect, which can be
attributed to the obvious enhanced surface effect and corresponding giant
show that the output signal of SOI piezoresistive pressure sensor and its zero point and sensitivity piezoresistive effect of
SiNW.
will driftHowever, the experimental
with temperature change. results alsowe
Therefore, show
offerthat the output
a versatile signal of SOI
compensation piezoresistive
method based on
pressure sensor and its zero point and sensitivity will drift with temperature
data fusion by using the PSO–BP algorithm for compensating and correcting the outputs of the sensor. change. Therefore, we
offer a versatile compensation method based on data fusion by using
The results of comparative experiments confirm that the compensation method is effective and can the PSO–BP algorithm for
compensating
greatly improveand the correcting
measuring the outputs of the sensor. The results of comparative experiments
accuracy.
confirm that the compensation method is effective and can greatly improve the measuring
accuracy.
Acknowledgments: This Project is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 61306138
and 61307061), the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (No. BK2012460), the Priority Academic
Program Development
Acknowledgments: of Jiangsu
This ProjectHigher Education
is supported by Institutions
the National(PAPD), the Science
Natural Joint Fund of Jiangsu of
Foundation KeyChina
Laboratory
(Nos.
of Meteorological Observation and Information Processing and Jiangsu Technology and Engineering Center of
61306138 and 61307061), the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (No. BK2012460),
Meteorological Sensor Network (Nos. KDXS1407 and KDXS1504), Universities Natural Science Research Project the Priority
Academic
of Program (15KJB140009)
Jiangsu Province Development of andJiangsu Higher
the Open FundEducation Institutions
of CMA Research (PAPD),
Centre the Joint Fund
on Meteorological of Jiangsu
Observation
Engineering
Key LaboratoryTechnology. All authors Observation
of Meteorological gratefully acknowledge their support.
and Information Processing and Jiangsu Technology and
Engineering
Author Center of Meteorological
Contributions: All works withSensor Network
relation to this (Nos.
paperKDXS1407
have beenand KDXS1504),byUniversities
accomplished all authors’Natural
efforts.
Science
Yang Research
Zhao Project
performed of Jiangsu
most Province (15KJB140009)
of the experiments and the Open
and the fabrication. Fund design
The idea, of CMA Research
and Centre on
compensation of
Meteorological Observation Engineering Technology. All authors gratefully acknowledge their support.
Author Contributions: All works with relation to this paper have been accomplished by all authors’ efforts.
Yang Zhao performed most of the experiments and the fabrication. The idea, design and compensation of SOI
pressure sensor using double SiNW based on finite element simulation and PSO–BP neural network were
proposed by Jiahong Zhang and Yixian Ge. The experiments of the pressure sensor were completed with the
SOI pressure sensor using double SiNW based on finite element simulation and PSO–BP neural network were
proposed by Jiahong Zhang and Yixian Ge. The experiments of the pressure sensor were completed with the
help from Lijuan Yang and Xiaoli Mao. Min Li prepared the figures and organized the paper. Jiahong Zhang and
Yang Zhao wrote the manuscript. Finally, every segment related to this paper is accomplished under guidance
from Jiahong Zhang. All authors reviewed the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Design Optimization and Fabrication of High-Sensitivity SOI Pressure Sensors With High Signal-to-Noise Ratios Based On Silicon Nanowire Piezoresistors

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Design Optimization and Fabrication of High-Sensitivity SOI Pressure Sensors With High Signal-to-Noise Ratios Based On Silicon Nanowire Piezoresistors

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micromachines

Academic Editor: Ha Duong Ngo

Micromachines 2016, 7, 187; doi:10.3390/mi7100187 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

2. Configuration of the SiNW Pressure Sensor and Basic Theory

2.2. The Sensitivity of the SiNW Pressure Sensor

2.3. The SNR of the SiNW Pressure Sensor

3.1. Design Optimization Based on Finite Element Simulation

Micromachines 2016, 7, 187 7 of 19

5. Experimental Section and Discussion

Micromachines 2016, 7, 187 12 of 19

Figure 12. Flowchart

5.3.2. Temperature Compensation by PSO–BP Data Fusion Algorithm

5.3.2. Temperature Compensation by PSO–BP Data Fusion Algorithm

(ymax − ymin ) × ( x − xmin )

Micromachines 2016, 7, 187; doi:10.3390/mi7100187 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

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