Mathematics Reviewer – Final Exams Classification and Organization of Data

Collection of Data – is method of gathering data for a specific

Statistics
purpose.
Data Organization - is a process of organizing raw data, by
Methods of Data Collection
classifying them into different categories. This raw data
includes the observations of variables. Direct or Interview Method – the direct or interview data
collection use at least 2 persons.
❖ It includes classification, frequency distribution table,
graphical representation and etc. Indirect or Questionnaire Method – this is a method were
written answers are given to prepared questions.
Importance of Data Organization
Registration Method – this is a method enforced by certain
❖ Decreases the time-consuming of searching of data
laws, civil codes, and regulations of each country.
❖ Helps in reducing data loss and reduces errors.
❖ It gives you the validity of the work undertaken. Observation Method – this is a method which involves
personal observation of the behavior of individuals or
Classification of Data - is the process of arranging data into
organizations in the study.
sequences according to their common characteristics or
separating them into different related parts. Experiment Method – this is used when the objective of the
study is to determine the cause and effect of certain
Objectives of Data Classification
phenomena or event.
❖ To consolidate the volume of data
Frequency Distribution – is a table which summarizes arranged
❖ To aid comparison.
data into various classes and categories.
❖ To point out the important characteristics of the data
at a flash. Parts of Frequency Distribution Table
❖ To give importance to the prominent data collected.
❖ To allow a statistical method of the materials Table Heading – includes the table number and the title of the
gathered. table.

Variable – derived from “vary” which means to differ or
change. It refers to the quantity or attribute whose value varies
from one investigation to another.
Example : “Age” is a variable as the ages vary.
Kinds of Variable
Discrete Variables - capable of taking only an exact value
and not any fractional value are termed as discrete variables.
Body – main part that contains the information or figures.
Stubs or Classes – classification or categories describing the
data and usually found at the leftmost side of the table.
Caption – designation or identifications of the information
contained in a column, usually found at topmost of the
column.
Types of Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)

Continuous Variables - Variables that can take all the Qualitative or Categorical FDT – a table where the data are
possible values (integral as well as fractional) in a given grouped according to some qualitative characteristics, data
specified range are termed as continuous variables. are grouped into non-numerical categories.

Methods of Classification

Geographical Classification - When data are classified with

reference to geographical locations such as countries, states and
etc. Also knows as spatial classification.

Chronological Classification - data are classified either in Quantitative FDT – a table where the data are grouped
ascending or in descending order with reference to time such as according to some numerical and quantitative characteristics.
years, quarters and etc. Also known as temporal classification.

Qualitative Classification - data are classified on the basis of

some attributes or qualities like honesty, beauty, intelligence,
literacy, marital status, etc.

Quantitative Classification - made on the basis of some

measurable characteristics like height, weight, age, income,
marks of students, etc.
 Steps in Constructing Frequency Distribution Table: Graphical presentations of frequency distributions

1. Determine the Range (R) Graph – is a visual display of frequency distributions to show
R = highest value – lowest value the important feature of data and the relationships of the
2. Determine the number of class (k) numerical values in pictorial form.
k = √𝑁
Graphing quantitative variables
3. Determine the class size (C’)
𝑅
C’ = 𝑘 1. Histogram – the classes are plotted on horizontal axis and
4. Enumerate the classes or categories. the frequencies on
5. Tally the observations. the vertical axis.
6. Compute for values in other columns of the FDT as deemed
necessary.

Other Columns in FDT

Class Boundaries: 2. Frequency Polygon – it consists of line segments

Lower Class Boundary (LCB) – LL – 0.5 connecting the points
formed by the
Upper Class Boundary (UCB) – UL + 0.5 intersections of the
class midpoints and
Class Mark – midpoint of the class interval where the the class frequencies.
observations tend to cluster about.
𝐿𝐿+𝑈𝐿
CM = 2
3. Ogive – it is a graph where the point is plotted on above
Less than cumulative frequency (<cf) – total number of each class boundary at
observations whose values do not exceed the upper limit of the a height equal to the
class. cumulative frequency
corresponding to that
Greater than cumulative frequency (>cf) – total number of boundary.
observations whose values are less than the lower limit of the
class.

Example 1: (class limit is lowest to highest/ascending) 4. Stem and Leaf Plots – it gives a quick picture of the shape
of a distribution
while including
the actual
numerical values
in the graph.

Graph Qualitative Variable

1. Column and Bar Graph –

it consists of bars and
heavy lines of equal
widths, either vertical
Example 2: (class limit is highest to lowest/descending) or horizontal.

2. Pie Chart – is a circular graph that is useful in showing

how a total quantity is
distributed among a group of
categories.
Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Dispersion

Mean – commonly used measure of central tendency. When ❖ Measure of variability of a set of data that conveys the
we speak of average, we always refer to mean. idea of spread for the data set.
❖ The more similar the scores are to each other, the lower
Mean in ungrouped data: the measure of dispersion will be and vice versa.
❖ In general, the more spread out a distribution is, the larger
∑𝑥 the measure of dispersion will be
𝑥̅ =
𝑛
Range - measures the distance between the largest and the
Mean in grouped data: smallest values and, as such, gives an idea of the spread of the
data set.
∑ 𝑓𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝑛 Variance - The variance for a given data set is the square of
the standard deviation of the data.

Median – The median is the midpoint of data array.

Median in ungrouped data:

Arrange the data in ascending order or vice versa.

Standard deviation – is the measure of how spread-out
numbers are. Its symbol is sigma.

Semi-Interquartile Range (SIR) - defined as the difference of

Median in grouped data:
the first and third quartiles divided by two
∑𝑓
−< 𝑐𝑓 SIR = (Q3 – Q1)/2
𝑥̆ = 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑐 + [ 2 ]𝑖
𝑓𝑚𝑐 Skew - a measure of
symmetry in the distribution
mc = median class; is the class with smallest cumulative of scores
frequency greater to or equal than summation of f/2.
i = class interval
<cf = cf of class that comes before the mc. (note: top in
ascending class limit, bottom on descending class limit) Measure of Skew
❖If s3 < 0, then the distribution has a negative skew
Mode – value that occurs the most in the data set.
❖If s3 > 0 then the distribution has a positive skew
Mode in ungrouped data: ❖If s3 = 0 then the distribution is symmetrical
❖The more different s3 is from 0, the greater the skew in
Value with highest frequency/appears the most. the distribution

Mode in grouped data: Kurtosis - measures whether the scores are spread out more or
less than they would be in a normal (Gaussian) distribution
𝐷1
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜 + [ ]𝑖 ❖When the distribution is normally distributed, its kurtosis
𝐷1 + 𝐷2
equals 3 and it is said to be mesokurtic.
Where: ❖When the distribution is less spread out than normal, its
kurtosis is greater than 3 and it is said to be leptokurtic
lbmo = the class with the highest frequency in the group. ❖When the distribution is more spread out than normal, its
kurtosis is less than 3 and it is said to be platykurtic
D1 = fmo - frequency of the next lower class (note: top if
ascending, bottom if descending)
D2 = fmo – frequency of the next upper class (note: bottom if
ascending, top if descending)
Sample table in measure of dispersion: Linear Regression – simplest and commonly used statistical
measure for prediction studies.
❖ Finding an equation that uses known values of one or more
variables, called independent or predictor variables, to
estimate the unknown value of quantitative variable called
the dependent or criterion.
Formula for Regression Line:
y’ = a + bx
Solution and Formulas for Regression Line:
(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)
𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑦 = ∑ 𝑥𝑦 −
𝑛
2
(∑ 𝑥 )
𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 2 −
𝑛
∑𝑥
Normal Distribution 𝑥̅ =
𝑛
Properties of a Normal Distribution ∑𝑦
𝑦̅ =
❖ The distribution curve is bell-shaped 𝑛
❖ The curve is symmetrical about its center 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑦
❖ The mean, median, and mode coincide at the center 𝑏=
❖ The tails of the curve flatten out indefinitely along 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥
the horizontal axis but never touch it (the curve is 𝑎 = 𝑦̅ − 𝑏𝑥̅
asymptotic to the base line)
❖ The area under the curve is 1. thus, it represents the y’ = a + bx
probability or proportion or the percentage associated
with specific sets of measurement values. Characteristics of regression line
❖ When b>0, y increases as x increases, we have Positive
Solution for z-score: Linear Relationship
𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ❖ When b<0, y decreases as x increases, we have
𝑧𝑥 = Negative Linear Relationship
𝑠
❖ When b=0, y is constant and is equal to y-intercept a,
Correlation - Is a statistical method used to determine if there we have No Relationship
is a relationship between variables and the strength of the
relationship Math of Finance
Scatter plot - a graph of ordered pair ( x, y ) of numbers Stocks - When an investor buys a stock, part ownership in the
consisting of the independent variable x, and the dependent form of a share is bought. If the business or enterprise happens
variable y. to do well, the investor benefits by seeing an increase in the
value of the share.
❖The purpose of this graph is to determine the nature of the
relationship between variables. The relationship may be Bonds - Bonds are a type of investment designed to aid
the positive linear, negative linear, curvilinear, or no governments and
discernible relationship corporations to raise
money. It can be
Pearson Correlation Coefficient - The degree of linear viewed as a type of
association/relationship between two variables (at least of loan.
interval scale) is measured by a correlation coefficient,
denoted by r.
Simple Interest - simple interest is a quick and easy method of
calculating the interest charge on a loan.
Simple Interest Formula:
I = prt
 Basic Terms:
❖ Principal (P) – It is the original amount borrowed.
❖ Rate of Interest (r) – It is the percent that the borrower
pays for the use of the money
❖ commonly expressed as annual interest rate.
❖Time (t) – It is the length of time usually expressed in
years.
❖Maturity Date or Due Date – It is the date on which the
loan is to be repaid.
❖Maturity Value (M) – It is the total amount the borrower
would need to pay back.
Compound Interest - compound interest is calculated on the
principal amount and the accumulated interest of previous
periods, and thus can be regarded as “interest on interest.”
Compound Interest Formula:
𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + )𝑛𝑡
𝑛 or letter involved.
Where:
Linear Programming
Linear Programming – also called linear optimization, is a
method to achieve the best outcome such as maximum profit
or lowest cost in a mathematical model whose requirements
are represented by linear relationships.
Two types of equations:
❖ Constraint
❖ Objective
(Watch yt po to see how these two works ^^)
Linear Inequality – statement that one quantity or
expression is greater than or less than another quantity or
expression
Two Kinds of Linear Inequality:
1. Absolute Inequality – is for all real values of the variables
2. Conditional Inequality – is true for all particular values of
the variable involved.

Logic
Logic – either propositional logic or first-order predicate logic.
Any ‘formal system’ can be considered a logic if it has:
– a well-defined syntax.
Credit Card - is an example of an open-end consumer loan. – a well-defined semantics.
The consumer is able to make purchases on a credit card but – a well-defined proof-theory.
must pay the outstanding amount when it becomes due. If the
consumer fails to settle the outstanding amount on the credit Syntax - The syntax of a logic defines the syntactically
card, he/she would be charged interest until the amount is paid acceptable objects of the language, which are properly called
off. well-formed formulae.

Finance Charge - is an amount paid in excess of the cash
price; it is the cost of the customer for the use of credit.
Mostly credit card company issue monthly bills.
Formula : F = prt
Semantics - The semantics of a logic associate each formula
with a meaning.
Values - The proof theory is concerned with manipulating
formulae according to certain rules.

Average Daily Balance - sum of total amount owed each day Propositions - is a statement that can be either true or false; it
of the month /no. of days in the billing period. must be one or the other, and it cannot be both.

Consumer Loan - a consumer loan is a type of loan in which Prepositions - It is possible to determine whether any given
you take on a personal debt to pay for goods or services. It has statement is a proposition by prefixing it with: "It is true
a fixed date for monthly repayments where many people know that..”
how to control their finance.
- “P” is called the hypotheses or antecedent, while “Q” is
Payment Formula for APR Loan: the conclusion or consequent.
𝑟 Truth Table - A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a
𝑃𝑀𝑇 = 𝐴[ 𝑛 ] compound statement depends on the truth or falsity of the
𝑟 −𝑛𝑡 simple statements from which it's constructed
1 − (1 + )
𝑛
Where:
❖ PMT = is the payment
❖ A = is the loan amount
❖ r = is the annual interest
rate
❖ n = is the amount of payment per year
❖ t = is the number of years
Tautology - A statement that is always true, as long as there is
one true statement.
Conditional Sentence - A conditional statement is a statement
that can be written in the form “If P then Q,” where P and Q
are sentences. For this conditional statement, P is called the
hypothesis and Q is called the conclusion. Intuitively, “If P
then Q” means that Q must be true whenever P is true.
Bi-Conditional Sentence - The logical biconditional,
sometimes known as the material biconditional, is the logical
connective used to conjoin two statements P and Q to form the
statement "P if and only if Q", where P is known as the
antecedent, and Q the consequent. This is often abbreviated as
"P if Q"
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Watching YouTube tutorials for the said lessons is advisable
to better understand how those formulas work in particular
situations. Goodluck po.

– mika