NNPS PDF

Near Net Shape Process
Ujjwal Kumar Kashyap

Assistant Professor
Department of Foundry & Forge Technology
National Institute of Advance Manufacturing Technology
Hatia, Ranchi Jharkhand-834003
Introduction
Near Net Shape (NNS) is a generic term
given to manufacturing processes that aim to
produce products which are close to the final
shape and material of the component.
Department of Foundry Technology, NIAMT Ranchi
e.g. Centrifugal Casting

Often the judgement is qualitative rather than
quantitative.
For assessing the technological and economic
feasibility of product several studies are done.
e.g. Differential Cost and Feasibility Analysis
Near Net Shape Process
Near Net Shape (NNS) is a generic term given to
manufacturing processes that aim to produce
products which are close to the final shape of the
component.
e.g. Centrifugal Casting, Investment Casting.. etc

Advantages
• Material saving: Reduced material usage (saving
on procurement costs) & Reduced waste
material (saving on recycle and waste disposal
costs)
• Energy efficient: Optimum utilization of Energy

• Reduced finishing steps (saving on production
time and costs, and reducing ‘wear and tear’ on
machining equipment)
Limitations
• Cost effectiveness for some products
• Properties requirement.
Can be better defined seperately for each

process
Application
• Turbine blades with complex shapes.
• Pressure Relief Valve Manufacturers In The Oil
And Gas Industry, Aerospace, Power
Generation, Firearm, Automotive, Military.

• Cylinder Head, Connecting Rod, Engine Blocks.
Choosing a NNSP…
NNS is often a relative rather than an absolute
property.
Differential Cost and Feasibility Analysis (DCFA)
is done to assess the potential benefit of NNS

manufacturing process replacing a conventional
process.
Objective
Using the a NNS principles, a reduction of
machining (less material waste) and an
increasing of raw material usage, economically
are the desired results of a new primary process
application that maintains at least the current

product quality as requirements (i.e. quality
improvement and collateral advantages can be
achieved, but they are not the main objective).
Technological & Economic feasibility
Technological feasibility (including its post-
process operation such as thermal treatments)
can initially be done analytically or numerically
and then experimentally validated.
Economic feasibility has its main target is to

compare the cost differences between the old
and NNS manufacturing process from a holistic
view.
Case Study
Valve Cage
The high percentage of material costs in the final

component together with extensive machining required
for the bigger sizes made this component ideal for a NNS
study.
The Comparative Analysis
The Comparative Analysis
Expendable/Collapsible Mould System
Shell process
Investment casting
Ceramic moulding
Plaster moulding
Vacuum process
Permanent Mould Casting Processes
Squeeze casting
Rheo casting
Die Casting
Centrifugal Casting
Mould System
Expendable/Collapsible
Shell Process/Moulding
or Croning Process
• Discovered by Johannes Croning in Germany
In this process Silica, Zircon sand is mixed
with Phenolic Resin with a Curing Agent.
Johannes Croning, in 1929 performed

extensive tests on the application of high
frequency melting equipments to produce all
three parts of the casting process melting,
pouring and solidification, in a permanent
mould.
Process
Sand Mixture Preparation
In this process the mould & core are prepared by
mixing the dry free flowing sand with
thermosetting resins & heating.
The mixture of fine sand (100-150 mesh) &
thermosetting resin is called aggregate.

The Sand need to be:
Free of Clay
100-150 mesh size & can be varied
according to need.
Resin & Catalyst
Phenol Formaldehyde; most commonly used
resin, are thermosetting in nature and provide high
strength & resistance to heat when cured with
sand, as coating to sand. Catalyst used is hexa
methylene tetramine i.e. Hexa.

Resin 4-6% of sand by weight and Catalyst like
coal dust, manganese dioxide, calcium carbonate,
lignin, iron oxide is 14-16% of sand by weight.
Curing temperature of resin with catalyst is
around 150o C and curing time 50-65 seconds
Resins available
 Water borne
 Flake type
 Granular type
The specifications of Liquid, Flake Or Powder type
resin can be obtained from IS8246-1976 IS11266-

1985 & IS10979-1981 respectively.
The Resin Sand mixture agregate can be prepared
by:
1. Warm Coating Process
In this process different sand formulation which is
liquid solvent solution is used and Curing takes
place at around 80o C. The process is simple but
quantity of Resin consumed is more.

2. Hot Coating Process: here the Curing of Resin
takes place due to combined effect of Heat &
Chemical action of the resin with catalyst.
After Curing completes sand mixture is cooled to
40-50oC to prevent lumps & improve Flowability.
3. Cold Coating Process:
In this process the Sand is first mixed with Catalyst
then the Resin mixed with Alcohol is mixed to form
the aggregate. Here the amount of Resin required is
highest in all processes.
Phenol Formaldehyde Resins:
Used as a binder in Shell Moulding Process. It can

be used in form of Flakes or Liquid form. Liquid
resin is resin dissolved in alcohol.
Liquid Resin is used for Warm Coating process
whereas Soild/Flake Resin is used for Hot Coating
Process.
The following properties of Resin are checked for
acceptance criteria:
Solid Resins Liquid Resins
1.Softening point 1.Clarity
2. Flow rate 2. Viscosity
3. Specific Gravity
3. Particle size
4. Solid content
5. PH Value
Hexamethylene tetra amine Catalyst
The Phenol Formaldehyde resin are thermoplastic
in nature & require a formaldehyde donor to cure
at a certain temperature. After blending of resin &
Catalyst as it is thermoset in nature and thus
formation of Shell mould & Cores are accomplished.

The Catalyst used is a blend of Hexamethylene
tetra amine & a Lubricant.
Lubricant helps in improving Flowability.
Steps to prepare Shell Mould
Step I
A Match plate metal pattern comprising Cope &
Drag is heated to the required temperature and
fitted over a box containing the sand mixture.
Step II
The box is inverted such that the sand mix falls
over the hot pattern, this cures a layer of sand
mix to form a hard shell.
Step III
Once the desired thickness of shell is achieved the
box is rotated to the actual position. The shell
thickness depends upon time of contact i.e. curing
time. The required shell thickness (2-8mm)
depends upon the pouring temperature
& complexity of
product being casted.
Step IV
In order to complete the curing process the sand
shell along with the metal plate is heated in an
oven for a calculated time. The heat from the
pattern helps in melting of the resin & formation
of the bond with the sand thereby forming the
obtained shell.
Step V
The obtained shell mould from
this process is removed from the
pattern. Now the two portion
Cope & Drag of the mould, which
are manufactured by the same
method are assembled to form

the mould with gating system.
The Gating system is an integral
part of shell. Riser is generally not
required for this process and
pouring basin, runner, themselves
acts as riser.
Some sand particles are used in a box as backing
sand for support purpose. After cooling the
finished casting along with sprue is sent for the
finishing operation.
Parameters affecting the quality of Process
Ishikawa cause effect diagram is constructed in

order to illustrate affect of process parameters on
quality of casting.
Process Variables Affecting Product
Quality & Characteristics
Pouring temperature
Calculated Pouring time
Type of Alloy
These are the deciding factors for

Additives used
Shell thickness and other variables.
Advantages
The Shell Moulding process has several unique
properties
1. Excellent Surface Finish even with fine details.
2. Longer Shelf Life: shell sand has Indefinite Shelf
Life if stored properly.

3. Hollow Cores: Hollow Cores & Even Thin Profile
Mould is possible, hollow cores improves
permeability so even fine sand can be used.
4. Ease of Handling: have exceptional resistance to
damage and humidity.
5. Resistance to Moisture: higher resistance and
can be stored even in humid conditions. Resin
used is very stable & Moisture resistant.
6. Excellent Flowability: Dry coating on sand
gives better flowability & blowing ability,
which helps in producing intricate cores and
mould which can be blown to a greater

density.
7. Less Inclusion & High Thermal Stability: less
prone to erosion by molten metal due to
higher thermal stability of phenolic resin,
reducing casting defects.
8. Lesser Pattern wear: Metallic pattern used
9. Draft allowance zero, as mould broken to
obtain the product, reducing cost.
10. Relatively smooth mould wall, which offer
low resistance and can produce casting with
sharp corners & thinner sections.
11. Versatile as can be used for Ferrous & Non

Ferros.
12. Flexible for Automation.
Limitations
1. High Cost of Process: phenolic resin (used in
higher percent ) used is costly.
2. Separation of resin from sand in the end of
process.
3. Thicker shell thickness needed for bulky casting,

but chances of breaking of shell increases with
increase in weight of casting.
4. Slow curing rate, heterogeneous mixture of sand
& resin (phenolic resin dissolved in alcohol used
for improvement)
6. High Tooling Cost: Thermoset in nature, require
higher curing temperature.
7. Higher Cycle Time
8. Limited Casting Weight: best suited for small,
intricate & light weight casting upto 80 kg.
Application
Widely accepted for products where accuracy &
surface finish are of prime importance.
Automobile sectors
Hydraulic application
Gear housing
Connecting rods
The main application is in mass production of:
Near to net shape castings particularly in small
to medium scale range.
Investment casting
Why?
Investment Casting is capable to produce very
thin (0.75mm) or extremely complex features.
Excellent surface finish (no or minimum

machining required)
Excellent dimensional accuracy
Available for all metals & alloys
Flexibility of Material & Processes
History
It is believed, Investment Casting to have its
roots back to 5000 BC to produce earler tools.
Later used for making art Castings for decades.

Development in India
Introduced in India around 2500 BC in Mohenjo-
Daro of Indus valley civilization.
Later in 1897 for making Dental Crowns.
During WWII in USA widely used for precision
components with complex geometry like turbine
blades for aircraft engines etc.

Development in the 20th Century
Solid Mould Investment Casting
Plaster Mould Investment Casting
Mercast process
Ceramic shell Investment Casting
Solid Mould Investment Casting
Using wax model as a pattern & compacted
moulding sand around wax model & heated to
obtain the mould cavity.
Advantage
Strong mould
Simple process
Limitation
Poor Permeability
Large consumption of ceramic slurry
Longer setting time
Plaster Mould Investment Casting
The Wax pattern is placed inside a flask &
Plaster of Paris is poured over pattern, to obtain the
mould cavity.
Advantages
Very fine surface finish.

Good geometrical accuracy
Limitations
PoP can be used once only
Longer cooling time so difficult for larger castings
For materials & alloys with lower MP only
Mercast process
Solid Mercury used as pattern material &
Ceramics slurry to obtain mould cavity.
Solid Hg
pattern Ceramic Shell
made shell made hardened Molten Product
Hg Drained metal obtained
pouring after
finishing
Limitations
Hg patterns are very heavy
Pattern production below -39oC which becomes
difficult & expensive (Hg costly)
NO MORE IN USE
Developed in recent year, which is quite similar
to Mercast Process where Wax is used for pattern
material, dipped in Ceramic Slurry/Stucco to
obtain the mould cavity for metal pattern.
e.g. Turbine charger rotor

First 3 in fine ceramic slurry
After three coarse ceramic slurry
Stucco for sprinkling is also coarse for good
permeability.
Advantages
Size (few grams to tons)
Excellent surface finish (1.5-3.2 microns (Ra))
Close Diamentional tolerance (0.08-0.13mm per
25 mm)
Typical minimum wall thickness of 1.5mm with

thinner section of 1mm possible.
Very fine details can be produced, like jewellery
Complex shapes possible
No or negligible finishing operation needed
Any alloy can be casted that are immpossible
to forge of difficult to machine.
Casting are free from usual defects
Limitations
Expensive due to wax pattern used

Slow process, time consuming (even 2-3 days)
Incorporating Cores is difficult
Limitation of size
Application
1. Art, Jewellery casting

2. Levers & Ratchets to Impeller wheels for
turbochargers, precision components.
3. Surgical implants(Titanium), dental crowns
4. Turbine blades
5. Pump & Valve components

1. Wax
2. Pattern
Injection 3. Shell
Assembly
building 4. Dewaxing
5. Casting
6. knockout
Steps
7. Cut off
Involved 8. Finishing
Wax Injection
Pattern is prepared by injecting molten wax
along with resin filler & resin in mettalic die,
dies which are similar as dies in die casting,
detachable.
Types of Waxes available

Paraffin, Candelilla,
Microcrystalline,
Carnauba, Beeswax,
Fischer-Tropsch,
Ozokerite
A pattern wax is normally modified & blended
with other waxes and materials such as plastics,
resins, fillers, dyes in order to improve its
properties.
Components of Wax blends
Waxes: 30-70%
Resins: 20-60%
Fillers: 0-20%
Other additives: 0-5%
As no single wax possess all the properties
e.g. Paraffin wax: Soft but High Fluidity
Core for Investment Casing
Core is a part used to design any complex
geometry in final casting.
Casting core: which is present in the mould cavity
until molten metal is poured. (sand/Ceramic)
Soluble core: is used for preparation of wax /

polystyrene / plastic pattern & removed after
pattern is prepared.
Soluble Core: Water / Aqueous solution soluble
cores
Water : Urea based, NaCl polyethlene glycol mica
powder based etc
Common Fillers
Spehrical polystyrene
Hollow Carbon microspheres
Sperical particles of thermosetting plaastics
Fillers have higher MP & are insoluble in base wax
They contribute to reduce solidification

shrinkage of the mixture
Pattern Assembly
A number of such patterns are produced & are
joined through a central tree to cast final product.
Wax Patterns Tree Assembly Slurry chamber

Ceramic Slurry Ingredients
Refractory powder: 60-80%
Ziconium Silicate, Fused Silica, Fused Al oxide
Liquid Binder: 15-30%
Ethyl silicate, Colloidal Silica
Solid Binder: 5-10%
The 1st Ceramic slurry is very fine, with fine

ingredients to easily get in details of diamension.
Next slurry coating is coarser than 1st which forms
thick shell
Stucco sprinkled & dried out & furthue coating of
slurry done till required mould thickness is achieved.
Dewaxing
Prior to pouring of molten metal into ceramic
mould wax inside the shell has to be drained out
completely.
An Autoclave Oven
is used for the
dewaxing. High
pressure steamat
about 8kg/cm2 is
injected raising the
temperature,
melting & removal
of wax.
Casting
The ceramic mould must be heated before the
molten metal is poured into them, left to cooled
after pouring of molten metal.
Knockout
Breaking the shell mould & removing the casting
out.
Manual or motorized chisel can be used to break
the shell.
Sand/Shot blasting can be done for further

finishing.
Cut Off
The Casting are cut at the gates which leaves
the excess material on the gate areas & polished,
using a grinding wheel.
Finishing & Secondary operations
The casting are cleaned and heat treated to
normalize the workpiece & polished if required.
Cosmetic paints are used in secondary operation
Polishing Cleaning for
Polishing
Heat treatment
Polishing
Product
Alloys
Almost all the alloys can be casted by Investment
Casting Process.
Ferrous alloys
Non Ferrous alloys
Cu-based alloys
Co-based alloys
Ductile or Sprheoidal Graphites
Al Mg super alloys
Ti alloys etc… for different applications.
Plaster Moulding
History
Primitive plastering was used carried out using
mud.
Plaster moulding is being used since ancient
Greek periods for architectural purposes.

Plaster is also used for fire resistance after
London Bridge fire of 1212.
Since 17th century decorative plaster moulding
were used.
After 1800 AD Gypsum & PoP became more
common.
Gypsum (Calcium Sulphate), a common
sedimentary rock, used to make Plaster of Paris
(PoP) by heating to 1500C & grinding to powder.
PoP is called plaster of paris as there were because
around paris there were large deposits to make

this plaster.
Mould material
Plaster of Paris (Gypsum/Calcium Sulphate)
Pattern material
Al alloy, Brass or Zinc alloys
Plastic
Wood (rarely used)
Types of Plaster Moulding process

1.Conventional 2. Foamed 3. Antioch
PM PM PM
Conventional Plaster Moulding
Step 1 Choose the Pattern
Step 2 Prepare the slurry by mixing PoP &
Water(5:8)
Step 3 Sprinkle talcum powder over the pattern
(To avoid sticking)

Step 4 Apply parting agent (Tincture of mould
soap, to avoid sticking)
Step 5 Place pattern in mould
Step 6 Pour PoP slurry on pattern in Cope & Drag
separately.
Step 7 Once PoP sets in few minutes separate
the boxes & withdraw pattern
Step 8 Bake the moulds in oven at 120oC for 20
hrs
Step 9 Assemble & Clamp the moulds
Step 10 Pour molten metal

Step 11 Ejection of solidified casting using high
pressure water jet to obtain the final product after
minor finishing operations, if needed.
Advantages
Complex shapes can be casted
Excellent surface finish
Minimum machining required
Fine details can be obtained
Thin section can be casted (0.6mm)

Good dimensional tolerance
Setting of mould takes less time (less than 15
minutes)
Limitations
Not suitable for ferrous casting (S in Gypsum
reacts with Fe)
Expensive than sand casting
Not suitable for large casting (30g to 7 Kg)
Plaster not reusable

Extra baking cost
Thermal conductivity of PoP poor, so slow
solidification
Low permeability (Gas defects possibility)
The Foamed Plaster Process
Step 1 Prepare slurry
Step 2 Blow air in slurry (half of its volume with
air bubble)
Step 3 Pour the slurry with the bubble over
pattern
Step 4 Bake at 120O C for 20 hrs
Step 5 Assemble Clamp the Mould & pour
molten metal for obtaining the final product after
finishing operation, if needed.
The Antioch Process
Step 1 Prepare slurry
Ingredient: Fine Silica sand: 50%
Gypsum: 40%
Talc: 8%
Portland Cement, Sodium Silicate:

2%
Water: 50% of above
ingredients
Step 2 Pour slurry on pattern
Step 3 After PoP sets (about 7 minutes)
withdraw patterns.
Step 4 Dry for 6 hrs, Bake in oven for 15 hrs
Step 5 Assemble, Clamp & pour the molten
metal, to obtain the final product after minor
finishing operation if required.
Advantages
Improved strength of mould(Larger casting
possible, due to fine silica sand)
Incorporation of chills easy
Conductivity improved, so faster solidification
(due to sand present)

Better permeability, lesser gas defects(due to
silica sand)
Improved mechanical property
Limitations
Poor sand recovery
Expensive process
Application of Plaster Moulding Process
For Brass, Bronze, Al, Mg, Mn & other alloys
Air Craft parts
Cams
Mould for plastic & rubber industry
Art casting
NOT for Fe Casting
Ceramic Moulding
Ceramic moulding is like the process of plaster
mould casting but can cast materials at much
higher temperatures even for ferrous & other
materials like aluminum, copper, magnesium,
Department of Foundry & Forge Technology, NIAMT Ranchi
titanium, and zinc alloys. Instead of using plaster

to create the mold for the metal casting, ceramic
casting uses refractory ceramics for a mould
material. In industry, parts such as machining
cutters, dies for metal working, metal moulds,
and impellers is being manufactured by this
process for producing parts from 100 grams to
tons.
Process
In first step in manufacture by ceramic mould
casting is to combine the material for the mould.
Ingredients:
Fine grain zircon (ZrSiO4)
Aluminum Oxide
Fused Silica
Bonding Agents & Water creates a ceramic slurry.
This slurry is poured over the
casting pattern and let set. The
pattern is then removed and the
mold is left to dry. The mold is
then fired.
The firing burns off any unwanted material
and makes the mould hard and rigid.
The mould may also need to be baked in a
furnace as well. The firing of the mould produces a

network of microscopic cracks in the mould
material. These cracks give the ceramic mould
both good permeability and collapsibility for the
metal casting process.
Once prepared, the two halves of the mould are
assembled for the pouring of the molten metal.
The two halves,(cope & drag section), may be
backed up with fireclay material for additional
mould strength. Often in manufacturing industry,
the ceramic mould will be preheated prior to

pouring the molten metal.
The molten metal is poured, and
left to solidify. In ceramic mould
casting, as in other expendable
mould processes, the ceramic
mould is destroyed for the
removal of the metal casting.
True Ceramic Molding
Here, the refractory grain is first bonded with
calcium or ammonium phosphates. The ceramic
moulds are generally made by the dry pressing
method. Where molds are made by pressing clay

mixture with some percentage of moisture in dies
under a pressure of 1-10 ton/sq inch. The mould is
finally ready after they are stripped from the dies
and baked in a furnace at temperatures that range
between 899°C-1316°C, to obtain the final mould
for molten metal pouring after assembly.
Shaw Process
In Shaw process a consistent slurry is made by
blending together a mixture of graded refractory
filler, hydrolyzed ethyl silicate, and a liquid
catalyst. It is then poured in the pattern and

allowed to jell (set or become more solid). After
this, the mold is stripped and heated using a high
pressure gas torch. It is then cooled, assembled
and fired before pouring is done.
Features of Ceramic Mold Casting
 Tolerances: More precise tolerance obtained
 Surface finish: 2 - 4 µm (.075 - .15 µin)
 Wall thickness: may be as small as 1.25 mm

 Weights: Range from 60 g (2oz) to a 1000 kg &
even more.
 Draft allowance: 1° recommended.
 Patterns: Reusable and economical
Advantages
1. High precision and very good surface finish.
2. The process does not require any risering,
venting or chilling because the rate of cooling is
very slow.
3. The process can be used for all types of
metals including highly reactive titanium or
uranium.
4. Any patterns made of wood, metal or plastic
can be used.
Limitations
It is only cost effective for small- to medium-
sized production
Applications
Used for stainless steel, bronze, aluminum,
copper, magnesium, titanium, and zinc & it’s
alloys.
Ceramic mold casting is best suited for casting a

wide variety of products ranging from house hold
goods to industrial tools.
Some of casted products are kitchenwares like
kettles, industrial products like impellers, complex
cutting tools, plastic mold tooling etc.
V-Process
Developed in 1971 in Japan.
Vacuum moulding process is a special casting
process in which, free flowing, dry, unbounded
sand without any chemical or binder is used. For

generating the binding property in sand for
creating the mould cavity, for the purpose of
pouring molten metal, Vacuum is used.
Vacuum is created between sand particles for
obtaining the mould cavity with the help of
specially designed strong Ethyl Vinyl Acetate
Plastic film.
Steps of Vacuum Process
1. The pattern with the Vent Holes is placed on
hollow carrier plate.
2. A heater softened Ethyl vinyl acetate plastic
film (0.07-0.2mm) is draped over the pattern with

0.03-0.05 MPa vaccum pressure. Acting through
the pattern vents draws the film tightly around the
pattern to form a conforming polymer film on
pattern.
3. A flask is placed over the film coated pattern
& is filled with very fine, dry, unbounded sand.
Slight vibration is made to maximum bulk density.
4. A sprue cup is formed & mould surface levelled
and back of mould is covered with unheated film.
5. Vacuum is applied to the flask which hardens
the sand into a vacuum tight sealed mould
separating pattern to obtain vacuum constrained

mould.
6. Cope & Drag assembly form a plastic lined
cavity. During pouring mould are kept under
vacuum.
7. After cooling the vacuum is released and the
free flowing unbonded sand drops away leaving a
clean casting, with no sand lumps.
Advantages:
1. No binders are used and hence sand is readily
recovered in vacuum molding & no toxic fumes.
2. Mechanical ramming is not required as no binder,
additive or moisture used.
3. Since no water is mixed with the sand, moisture

related defects are absent from the product
4. Cost reduction by 20%
5. Clean casting with zero draft & 125-150 RMS
surface finish obtained.
6. No sand reclamation needed
7. No sand mixing required
8. Inexpensive pattern
9. Better environmental control.
10. Reduced cleaning cost
11. No shakeout
12. Less energy consumption
13. Reduced pattern maintenance.

Limitations:
1.Relatively slow
2.Not readily adaptable to mechanization
3.Skilled workforce required
4.Vacuum requirement
5.Expensive polymer film
6.Lower rate of heat transfer with respect to
green sand moulding
Application
Process parameters
Moulding sand based: Type, Shape, Size & Its
Distribution
Plastic film based: Type & Thickness
Vibration based: Frequency, Amplitude & Time

Of Vibration.
Vacuum based: Degree Of Vacuum used
Pouring metal based: Pouring Time &
Temperature
Ishikawa
diagram
Differential Cost
and Feasibility
Analysis
Process parameters
Process Parameters Range
Sand Size 5-150 AFS Mesh

Vibrating Frequency 10-36 Hz
Vibrating Time 10-50 Sec

Degree Of Vacuum 250-350 Mm Hg
Processes
Permanent Mould Casting
Die Casting
Why?
Drawbacks of Sand Moulding process
For each product, a Mould needd to be prepared.
Specialty for Die Casting

A metallic mould is used in place of sand
mould, known as “Die” with which a large
numbers of casting can be produced.
Classification
Gravity Die Casting Pressure Die Casting

Or
Permanent Moulding
Hot Chamber
Cold Chamber
Pressure Die Casting Pressure Die Casting
Gravity Die Casting
History: around 2000BC using stones
After the discovery of Iron & the ability to forge
Cast Iron lead, to permanent mould made from
iron, mostly used to cast bronze.
Die Material: Today range of materials like iron,

steel & graphite are being used to make
permanent mould, for casting a range of
materials.
In Gravity Die Casting, the molten metal is
poured into the in the mould cavity, obtained by
assembly of me permanent moulds & allowed to
solidify to obtain the final product.
Lubrication: To avoid any
Lubrication sticking at point of contact
(1)
Ejector pins: For easier &

Faster removal of product
Al pistons
Application
Advantages
1. Better mechanical properties, due to faster
cooling rate of metalic mould
2. Homogeneous grain structure & chemical
composition, due to pressure applied.
3. Low shrinkage due to applied pressure &

lesser porosity due to absence of moisture &
pressure applied.
4. Good surface finish due to smooth metallic
mould
5. Low diamensional tolerance due to
absence/low of machining allowance
Limitations
1. Costly, due to special mould & costly
material, operation involved.
2. Only for products with simple shape.

Cold Chamber Pressure Die Casting
History: about middle of 19th Century
Struges patented the first manually operated
pressure die casting in 1849.
Various compositions of Pb & Sn were first

casted.
In a cold chamber process, the molten metal is
poured into the cold chamber; Shot Chamber in
each cycle, pressurised & allowed to solidify to
obtain the final product.
In cold chamber pressure die casting process, the
molten metal is fed with the help of a separate
laddle to the shot chamber, from where the
molten metal is forced to the metallic mould by
the ram.
Pressure
20-70 MPa,
upto 150
MPa
Useful for:
High-melting-point alloys of Al (A380 A383
A384 etc), Mg(AZ91D AM60A), Zn (ZA12 ZA27 (Al
in large proportion)) and Cu & even Ferrous
alloys.
Rating:
According to the clamping force & from 25 T to
3000 T
Selection criteria:
Piston Stroke which limits the volume of fluid
injected into die cavity.
Advantages
Simple design, so cost of equipment is not too
high.
Limitations
Slow process, due to separate metal feeding
thus lower production rate.
Application
 Automotive components
 Electrical motor frame & housing
 Complex shapes with thin wall
Hot Chamber Pressure Die Casting
(Furnace is an integral part of machine)
Gooseneck Air Submerged

Injection Type Plunger Type

In this method the molten metal In this a Plunger is used for
is fed to the mould cavity feeding the molten metal to
through a furnace attached to the die cavity, which
the system, ignited by coke or ensures absence of any
oil to melt the metal fed to the metallurgical defects in
die cavity through a gooseneck
product being casted.
aided by air pressure, at a faster
rate for producing the product.
Gooseneck Air Injection Type
In this method the molten metal is fed to the mould cavity
is aided by cooling system to help higher heat transfer
from the molten metal to achieve faster rate of
solidification and producing products at a faster rate.
Integrated cooling system for faster cooling
Coke/Oil
Plunger Type
In Gooseneck type system, there is a possibility that O2 is
present with the molten metal, which may react with the
molten metal resulting metallurgical defects in the product,
for which plunger type system is developed.
The plunger
forces the
Cooling system
molten metal
to the die
cavity, where
the integrated
cooling system
ensures faster
cooling rate for
faster
Refractory
solicitation.
lining
990-18000 shots per hour possible
800 tons hot chamber die casting machine,
DAM 8005, largest in world, costs $1.25 million
Clamping points
A die used for hot chamber pressure die casting

Sn
Pb
Mg
Zn #3, #5, #7, ZA8 alloys
Alloys casted
Applications
Carburetor bodies
Hydraulic brake cylinder
Connecting rods & automotive pistons
Oil pump bodies

Aircraft components
Sports goods
House hold utensils
Plumbing components
Trimmed brake drum
Zn Die Casting
Advantages of Hot Chamber Die Casting
 Close dimensional tolerance (0.002mm)
 Excellent surface finish (1-1.25micron)
 Very thin sections possible (0.75mm)
 Components of different sizes (30gms-7Kg)
 Useful for mass production (one set of dies can

produce about 10000 castings)
 Cycle time low
 Shrinkage & Gas defects can be avoided
 Semi skilled operator can do the work
 Lesser defects than sand casting
 Casting surface free from sand
 Less floor space required.
Limitations of Hot Chamber Die Casting
 Costly equipments
 Die cost high
 Not suitable for heavy casting
 Suitable only for Non Ferrous casting (Al, Zn,

Mg, Cu, Pb)
 Not suitable for small scale production
 Possibility of oxidation of metal in air
injection machine
 Diffusion of Fe & hard elements into cast melt
in plunger type machine
Alloy selection chart
ZA8 alloys: 8.4% Al 1% Cu


 


 
 


Die Casting characteristic of Al alloy
Squeeze Casting
A method with combined concepts of Foundry &
Forging techniques.
Also known as Liquid Metal Forging process.

Steps Involved
1. An accurately measured quantity of molten
metal is poured into a heated metallic mould.
2. The mould is closed to produce an internal
cavity in the shape of required component.

3.The molten metal is forced into the available
space of the die cavity.
4. The mould is given a coating, usually graphite
coating, the thermal conductivity of graphite is
greater than that of air, the heat transfer effect
will be enhanced
5. Pressure continues to be applied till the
molten metal solidifies & forms the required
component.
6. The press is then withdrawn & the component

ejected.
Classification Squeeze Casting
Direct Indirect
With Without Vertical Vertical Horizontal

Metal Metal Injection Die closing Die closing
Movement Movement
& & &
Vertical Horizontal Vertical
Die closing Injection Injection
Horizontal Injection
&
Horizontal Die closing
In Direct squeeze casting the pressure is applied
directly on the material being solidified.
In Indirect SC the pressure is applied through an
intermediate feeding system.
Department of Foundry & Forge Technology, NIAMT Ranchi Direct Squeeze Casting
Direct Squeeze Casting without metal movement
is suitable for Ingot Type Components.
Direct Squeeze Casting with metal movement,
also known as Squeeze Forming, is suitable for
wide range of Shaped Products.

Ejectors
pins
Indirect Squeeze Casting
Vertical Injection & Vertical Die closing
Department of Foundry & Forge Technology, NIAMT Ranchi Horizontal Injection & Horizontal Die closing
Department of Foundry & Forge Technology, NIAMT Ranchi Vertical Injection & Horizontal Die closing
Process Parameters
Casting Temperature: Depends upon the part
geometry, 5-55oC above the liquidus temp.
Tooling Temperature: 190-350oC
Time Delay: it is the duration between actual

pouring of molten metal & the instant the punch
contacts the molten pool and starts pressurizing.
Pressure Level: 50-140 Mpa
Pressure duration: 30-120 Sec for casting up to 9 Kg
Lubrication: For Al Mg & Cu alloys, a good grade
coolidal graphite lubricant has been proved
satisfactory, when sprayed between Warm Dies.
Development phases
Direct SC
2
With
Metal
Movement
e.g. parts with metal Indirect SC
3
movement Vertical
Injection
Direct SC
1
Die closing Indirect SC
Without Vertical &
Metal e.g. parts with metal
movement Horizontal
Movement
4
&
e.g. Ingots, blocks
Low Pressure Die
Casting
Advantages
1. Parts with fine details can be produced
2. Very less shrinkage defects
3. Very high production rate with respect to Die
Casting
4. No gating system & riser so higher casting yield.
5. High quality surface finish obtained.
6. Rapid solidification results fine grain size
resulting improve in mechanical properties.
7. Pressure applied significantly less than Forging,
lower capacity machine required.
Limitations
1.Cost are very high due to complex tooling
2. No/Less flexibility as tooling are dedicated to
specific products.
3. Process need to be accurately controlled which

slows the process & increases process cost.
4. High production volume necessary to justify
equipment investment.
Knuckle
Application
Commonly used for Al & Mg alloys
A Comparative Analysis
Comparison of cost & Properties
Department of Foundry & Forge Technology, NIAMT Ranchi Comparison with other processes
Introduction
The new trends in automotive sector, to develop
more fuel efficient vehicles have resulted in the
increased used of Al, Mg alloys.
Several methods like Die Casting, Centrifugal

casting are being widely used.
However the increased demand on quality
improvement & weight reduction have resulted in
development of processes like Semi Solid
Casting/Forming Processes.
Semi Solid Metal working Processes
Some metal forming obtained with applied pressure with
solidification of molten metal & is used to avoid dendritic
structure & obtain equiaxed globular structure.
Rheocasting Thixocasting Thixomolding

Liqidus Temperature
Semi Soild state
Working temperature range
Solidus Temperature
A Comparison of SSM & conventional
Forming with Fe-C diagram
Thixocasting
Thixocasting is a two step process in which, the
property of Thixotropic property of fluid is used.
Thixotropic fluids shear when the material
flows, but thicken when standing.

In the two steps
Step 1 Stirring to produce solidified metal with
a non dendritic structure.
Step 2 Solidified workpiece then heated to
desired shape in high pressure die casting
machine
Thixo moulding
Thixo moulding involves feeding of pellets
or chips of material into a heated screw
driven injection moulding machine to obtain
the final product.

Further development of SSM Processes
 Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) can be
implemented in the continuous casting process of
metals to suppress instabilities and control the
flow.
 Strain induced melt activation (SIMA) process

is used to enhance the mechanical properties of Al
alloy by extrusion or cold rolling in half hard/ semi
solidified temperature state.
 Spray Casting is a method of near net shape
casting of metal components with homogeneous
microstructures via the deposition of semi-solid
sprayed droplets onto a shaped substrate.
Rheo Casting
Developed by Spenser Mehrabian and Flemings at MIT in
1972
Rheocasting is technique for producing a

partially solid but flowable alloy by careful
cooling of the liquid alloy into the liquid + solid
range while mechanically stirring to ensure
that dendrites are broken up, forming
compact, near-spherical forms, equiaxed
globular structure.
Rheo Casting
Rheo Casting is a NNSP variant of Die Casting process.
The process is used for non-ferrous metals, such as Al, Cu,
& Mg and it’s alloys. The melt agitation is done by
Impellars
Multi paddle agitators

The process combines the advantages of casting and
forging.
Electric stirring is also being used in this process recently.
The molten metal cooled & stirred to semi solid stage
becoming a slurry with globular shape of solid phase
particles are further injected into Die to obtain the final
product under pressurised solidification.
Recycle
Rheo casting can be used by two methods:

Using a cooling slope.
Using a low superheat casting.
Rheo Casting
Cooling Slope Process
In the process using the cooling slope, the metal
is in the form of semisolid slurry, when it flows
into the die, after being poured on the cooling

slope.
The molten metal was poured into the lower die
half via the cooling slope. The molten metal became
semisolid slurry on the cooling slope. The cooling
slope, which is very compact and simple, is made
from mild steel & is water-cooled.

The primary crystal size in the product becomes
smaller as the fraction solid is reduced. Casting was
done immediately after pouring without holding
the slurry in order not to increase the solidification
rate.
Rheo Casting
Low Superheat Casting Process
In the low superheat casting process, the superheat
of the molten metal as 10 0C. The seed of the
crystals (a small piece of single crystal or
polycrystal material) are generated at the lower die

surface, and the upper die is inserted into the lower
die before the metal solidifies
The crystal seeds do not melt and if sufficient
crystal seeds remain & can grow into spheroidal
primary crystals. The casting is carried out before
the crystal seeds could be re-melted.
The low superheat casting is simpler than the

cooling slope process.
Process Variables
Shear Rate
Cooling Rate
Stirring Time
Volume Fraction of Solid
Advantages
 Porosity free
 Reduced shrinkage
 Excellent mechanical properties
 Tight tolerance
 Thin sections possible
 Heat treatable
Limitations
 Since the working temperture range is very small,
between liquidus & solidus temperature, so
enviornmental variation of T is also considered.
 High level of technology required with skilled

operators.
Application
Centrifugal Casting
History: Developed by A G Eckhardt during 1809
Principle: uses Centrifugal force caused by

rotation to distribute the molten metal in the
mould cavity.
Classification
True Semi Centrifuging

Centrifugal Centrifugal
Casting Casting
Vertical
Horizontal
Depending upon the axis of

rotation & number of products
True Centrifugal Casting
Principle: The mould is rotated in
horizontal/vertical axis & molten metal is
held against the walls of mould by
centrifugal force until solidified.

Used for products
like hollow
cylindrical parts.
If for a particular kind of product the diameter is
more important than the length we can go for
vertical centrifugal casting.
Steps Involved
1. Applying ceramic slurry to the mould wall,
drying & baking, to avoid sticking of molten
metal to wall.
2. Rotating the mould at predefined speed 300-
3000 rpm
3. Pouring the molten metal into the mould
cavity (no gating system).
4. After solidification, extraction of casting
5. Finishing: Removal of impurities by machining
grinding or sand/shot blasting, to remove any
impurities collected to inner suface due to lower
centrifugal forces.
Advantages
Flexibility of casting composition (exception:
0.4-0.85% C due to segregation)
Wide range of available products/ metallurgical
characteristic.
No central core required for holes
Employment of gates & riser not required; 100%
Casting Yield
Lighter impurities more inward towards centre,
can be removed easily.
Fettling cost reduced, very less scrap, overall
cost low
Limitations
Suitable for components with axial symmetry only
More segregation of alloy component during
pouring under the forces of rotation, due to
difference in their densities, if high
Secondary machining often required for inner

diameter
Requires very high initial investment
Skilled labour
Inaccurate internal diameter if not machined after
casting obtained
Longer lead time (total time required to
manufacture an item) possible
Applications
Pipes, bushings, nozzles, bearings, liner for IC
engines, bi-metallic steel bronze bearings etc
Material: Alloy steel, C Steel, Cast Iron, Stainless
steel, Al, Cu, Ni etc
Size: Diameter 0.25-3 m

Length: upto 15 m
Weight: upto 5 tons
Balls for ball valves
Gear blanks
Short bushings
Flanges
Sprockets
Semi Centrifugal Casting
It is a variation of the true centrifugal casting
process
In this process the mould is filled completely with
molten metal which is supplied to the casting

through a central sprue, producing products which
need not be hollow as earlier, with more uniformity
in products, due to centrifugal force effect.
The Centrifugal forces generated by the rotation
of the mould ensure the distribution of molten
material to the mould cavity, filling even minor
details.
Advantages
Number of moulds can be staked together.
High purity
Limitations
Limitation of size
Application
Flywheels, Pulleys etc
Centrifuging
In Centrifuge casting process, moulds employed
to produce the desired casting are arranged
around a central sprue.
These moulds contain all the necessary

geometry for the cast part as well as the gating
system. Runners travel from the central sprue to
mould entrances.
Centrifugal Force provides a means of increasing
the filling pressure within each mould and allows
for reproduction of even multiple products with
intricate shapes.
Centrifuging is often used in conjuction with
investment casting process, where molten metal is
forced into the tiny mould cavity through
centrifugal force.
It is also used with moulds made of silicone

rubber with sufficient higher temperature
resistance for repeated use in casting without
mould deterioration (Spin Casting). Cast material
for Spin casting include zinc base alloys, Pb based
alloys, Sn based alloys, Al & Plastics.
Different components being casted

Advantages
Better Quality
Economical on mass production
High Yield
Reduced fettling cost

Denser casting with improved mechanical
properties obtained.
Low rejection
Easier to achieve directional solidification.
Centrifugal force
= MV2/R
Where M mass (kg),V peripheral velocity (m/s), R radius (m)
Gravitational force = Mg
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

G Factor = Centrifugal force/Gravitational force
V2/Rg where V = πDN/60
GF = (πDN/60)2/Rg
N = 42.3 √G/D rpm
Common mould material
Refractory lined metal mould
Metallic permanent moulds
Sand lined metal moulds
Graphite
The metallic permanent moulds are most widely
used because of their reusability, accurate casting
geometry and high productivity.
Defects
Segregation bandings (Settling apart)
Bands are annular segregated zones of low melting
constituents such as eutectic phases, oxide or sulfide
inclusions.
It occurs in true centrifugal casting generally if the
casting wall thickness exceeds 50-75 mm.
Banding is more prevalent in alloys with a wide
solidification range.
Minor adjustment to casting operation variables
such a rotational speed, pouring rate and
metal/mould temperature will usually reduce or
eliminate banding.
Raining
Is a phenomena that occurs in horizontal
centrifugal casting.
If the mould is rotated at too low speed or if the
metal is poured into the mould too fast the metal

actually rains or falls from the top of the mould to
the bottom.
Proper process control can eliminate raining.
Vibration defect
Vibration can cause a laminated casting
It can be reduced to a minimum by proper
mounting, careful balancing of the moulds, and

frequent inspection of rollers, bearings and other
equipments.
Recent trends
Combustion synthesis
It is used to fabricate inter metallic compounds
(Metal-Ceramic layered components).
Reactor Reactant Mixture
Sample container Igniter

Combustion synthesis using induction heating
All the best for your future

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Near Net Shape Process

Ujjwal Kumar Kashyap

e.g. Centrifugal Casting

e.g. Centrifugal Casting, Investment Casting.. etc

• Energy efficient: Optimum utilization of Energy

Can be better defined seperately for each

Generation, Firearm, Automotive, Military.

is done to assess the potential benefit of NNS

application that maintains at least the current

Economic feasibility has its main target is to

The high percentage of material costs in the final

Johannes Croning, in 1929 performed

thermosetting resin is called aggregate.

methylene tetramine i.e. Hexa.

resin can be obtained from IS8246-1976 IS11266-

quantity of Resin consumed is more.

Used as a binder in Shell Moulding Process. It can

formation of Shell mould & Cores are accomplished.

method are assembled to form

Ishikawa cause effect diagram is constructed in

These are the deciding factors for

Life if stored properly.

mould which can be blown to a greater

11. Versatile as can be used for Ferrous & Non

3. Thicker shell thickness needed for bulky casting,

Excellent surface finish (no or minimum

Later used for making art Castings for decades.

blades for aircraft engines etc.

Very fine surface finish.

e.g. Turbine charger rotor

Typical minimum wall thickness of 1.5mm with

Expensive due to wax pattern used

1. Art, Jewellery casting

3. Surgical implants(Titanium), dental crowns

5. Pump & Valve components

Types of Waxes available

Soluble core: is used for preparation of wax /

Fillers have higher MP & are insoluble in base wax

They contribute to reduce solidification

Wax Patterns Tree Assembly Slurry chamber

The 1st Ceramic slurry is very fine, with fine

Sand/Shot blasting can be done for further

Greek periods for architectural purposes.

around paris there were large deposits to make

Types of Plaster Moulding process

(To avoid sticking)

Step 10 Pour molten metal

Thin section can be casted (0.6mm)

Plaster not reusable

Portland Cement, Sodium Silicate:

(due to sand present)

titanium, and zinc alloys. Instead of using plaster

furnace as well. The firing of the mould produces a

the ceramic mould will be preheated prior to

method. Where molds are made by pressing clay

catalyst. It is then poured in the pattern and

 Wall thickness: may be as small as 1.25 mm

Ceramic mold casting is best suited for casting a

sand without any chemical or binder is used. For

film (0.07-0.2mm) is draped over the pattern with

separating pattern to obtain vacuum constrained

3. Since no water is mixed with the sand, moisture

13. Reduced pattern maintenance.