MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF UKRAINE

LVIV POLYTECHNIC NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER SCIENCES AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

Department of Applied Linguistics

COURSE PAPER IN THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION

LINGUAL PECULIARITIES OF TRANSLATING ENGLISH AUTHOR'S
TRANSFORMATIONS INTO UKRAINIAN
(based on the "Me Before You" by Jojo Moyes)

Presented by:

Supervised by:

Lviv-2022
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Table of contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3
CHAPTER I. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE NOTION OF
TRANSLATION……………………………………………………………………...6
1.1. Translation as a means of cross-cultural communication……………………...6
1.2. Translation strategies: a review and comparison of theories………………....10
1.2.1. The notion of translation strategy………………………………………10
1.2.2. Translation strategies' typologies………………………………………12
1.3. Translation transformations and their types…………………………………..14
CHAPTER II. PECULIARITIES OF TRANSLATING THE NOVEL OF JOJO
MOYES ‘ME BEFORE YOU’………………………………………………………22
2.1. Specifics of translation the novels of Jojo Moyes………………………………22
2.2. Analysis of transformations in the translation of ‘Me before you’ by Jojo Moyes
into Ukrainian………………………………………………………………………..24
Conclusions………………………………………………………………………….30
References…………………………………………………………………………...32
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Introduction

At the beginning of the XXI century, the problem of literary translation is

increasingly becoming the subject of research in modern domestic translation studies.
Important issues of recent scientific research include literary aspects of literary
translation (Lanovyk, 2006), current theoretical concepts and models of poetic
translation (Kolomiets, 2004), as well as cross-cultural and general translation
problems, namely the theory of interpretation (Demetska, 2006 ). Works where
literary translation is considered as an important factor in nation-building (Strikha,
2006, Zorivchak, 2007) and as a cultural phenomenon (Bevz, 2010) become relevant.
Ukrainian researcher T. Andrienko (2016) explores strategies and tactics of
translating a literary text in a cognitive-discursive aspect. It should be noted that the
object of recent research is not only some problems of literary translation, but also the
figure of the translator as a multifunctional, cultural mediator, whose activities are
considered in a broad socio-cultural and personal context (Ivanytska, 2015), as well
as creativity is a significant component of translation activity, which characterizes
both its procedural and productive aspects (Rebriy, 2012).
One of the important problems of literary translation is the problem of
accuracy, correctness and adequacy. It is known that the systems of the original
language and translation can differ significantly, which leads to the impossibility of
reproducing the lexical, grammatical, stylistic, and sometimes semantic features of
the original. It should be emphasized that for a translator of a work of art, the most
important task is to approach the intensity and quality of the effect felt by the reader
of the original text. Ukrainian researcher O. Cherednychenko notes in this context
that "for adequate reproduction of the artistic whole the translator must compare, at
least imaginary, possible aesthetic reactions to it and readers of the original and
readers of the translation, and do everything possible to ensure that these reactions
are at least approximately the same." (Cherednichenko, 2008, p. 21).
Thus, the translator must understand the internal system of the original
language and the structure of the text in this language and build a textual space that
will affect the reader of the translated text in the same way, in all aspects, semantic,
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structural and functional. source text. In this regard, it is important to thoroughly

analyze the techniques of translation transformations that contribute to the
achievement of the appropriate degree of adequacy and equivalence of literary
translation, which should aesthetically affect the reader.
The topicality of the research paper is related to the state of modern
domestic research in the field of translation studies, which indicates a significant
interest in the problem of literary translation as a special type of translation activity,
namely, to study methods and techniques of adequate reproduction of the original
text. Thus, there is an important problem of studying the basic translation techniques,
which are carried out at the morphological level in the process of reproducing the
original text in Ukrainian.
The object of the paper is the linguistic features of the novel by Jojo Moyes
in the Ukrainian translation of the novel ‘Me before you’.
The subject of the paper: definition of the main linguistic features of Jojo
Moyes’ novel ‘Me before you’ and the nature of their interaction in the original and
translation in qualitative and quantitative aspects.
The aim of the research paper is to study the peculiarities of the use of
grammatical methods of substituting parts of speech during the translation of ‘Me
before you’ into Ukrainian.
The goal requires the implementation of the following tasks:
• determine the types of translation of texts;
• identify the problem of equivalence in relation to the type of text;
• identify and study the nature and types of transformations in the translation
of various texts;
• identify the main features and characteristics of the novels of Jojo Moyes;
• prove the genre syncretism of the novel ‘Me before you’;
• identify the main lexical, semantic and syntactic features of the idiolect in
the translation of the novel ‘Me before you’;
• explore the main features of translation transformations in Jojo Moyes’
novel ‘Me before you’;
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• highlight the statistical profile of Jojo Moyes’ novel ‘Me before you’.
Research methods. In the process of research, the transformation method
was applied in order to identify all possible methods of transformation during
translation; comparative – to compare the structures of both languages and establish
their common and distinctive features; the method of content analysis is used to
highlight the characteristics of the author's idiolect through a comprehensive
analysis of its lexical, syntactic and stylistic aspects. The quantitative method is
used to confirm the typicality of certain features in the artistic speech of the writer
in the novel.
The scientific novelty of the work lies in the attempt to study the idiolect of
Jojo Moyes in the novel ‘Me before you’ as a synthesis of basic lexical, syntactic
and stylistic elements, which allows linguistic and stylistic analysis of speech at
different levels of the text.
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CHAPTER I. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE NOTION OF

TRANSLATION
1.1. Translation as a means of cross-cultural communication
The modern world is set up to exchange information through language.
Communication in which information is exchanged between an object and a subject
in different languages is called bilingual or interlingual. Usually such
communication is carried out with the participation of an intermediary - a translator.
Translation is a complex process of reproducing the unity of content and form
of an authentic text by qualitatively combining at different levels of the relevant
language structures to ensure interlingual communication, and, accordingly, the
transition from one culture to another.
Translation is "a unique sphere of speech activity, where not only different
languages but also different cultures and sometimes different civilizations are
important" [3, p. 4].
Determine the place of translation in a situation of bilingual communication
by analyzing its main functions.
Since speech activity is aimed at fulfilling a person's need for communication,
translation provides practical implementation of the language of its communicative
function "… by switching thinking from one language base to the base of another
language" [1, p. 151]. Communication involves the transfer of semantic content
from one person to another.
Through the phenomenon of translation, the cultural distance between
communicators is overcome, the interlingual and intercultural barrier is broken and
their understanding is ensured through the transmission of thoughts, ideas and
essence through sentences or texts of another language, respectively. This ensures
the interconnectedness of different socio-ethnic groups and the exchange of
necessary information. Therefore, the primary function of translation is
communicative. I.A. Winter and VI Yermolovich defines translation as "a
continuous process of comprehension (formation and formulation) of perceived
thought - understanding the meaning of the message in one language and"
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transformation "of this meaning into a plan, formation and formulation of utterances
in another language" [8, 14].
The dominant function of translation is cognitive-educational - through
translation knowledge is obtained in various fields, especially in the field of science
and education, which encourages the spiritual growth of society as a whole.
This, in turn, raises the cultural level of each person, forms an understanding
not only of the cultural and historical processes of the past, but also affects future
generations by synthesizing different cultures and creating new trends.
Culture in the context of intercultural communication is a set of spiritual,
historical, social and psychological features of an ethnos, all aspects of its life and
consciousness, including language. From these interpretations logically follows the
essence of translation, which is a complex and diverse activity, in which - when
replacing one language with another - there is an interaction of different cultures, ie
different mentalities, traditions and lifestyles. The dialogue of two or more cultures
contributes to overcoming ethnocentrism and cultural distance, involves the
interaction of cultures, leads to a clearer organization in the human mind.
Accordingly, translation has an evaluative and educational function, as it has a
formative influence on ideology, values, morals and ethics. Translation spiritually
integrates and consolidates humanity, creates a world community, making common
achievements of individual achievements of peoples in various spheres of world
development. At the same time, translation protects its language, protects the
identity of its culture, is the bearer of the spirit and needs of its time, its locality and
the tradition of the community and its culture. [3]
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At the present stage, translation acts as an interlingual mediator in the process

of intercultural communication - communication between people of different
nations. However, the process of interaction of two or more interlocutors within
different linguistic cultures is complicated by physiological, linguistic, behavioral,
psychological and cultural barriers. They are due to differences in mentalities and
national characters; differences in linguistic pictures of the world; communicative
asymmetry; actions of cultural stereotypes; differences in value orientations;
discrepancy of cultural and linguistic norms; differences in presupposition and
background knowledge; unequal perception of humor; differences in communication
strategies; specific forms and means of nonverbal communication used in different
cultures.
That is why intercultural communication can be interpreted as a specific
process of interaction between partners who are aware of each other's "foreignness"
and - to achieve a successful end communicative effect - seek to overcome
intercultural differences by using such speech options and discursive strategies that
differ from their typical communication standards. within their own cultural
environment.
In the conditions of bilingualism, communication is practically realized
through mediation. First, the sender sends the message (1), encoding it with one
language (2). The translator decodes this message into another language (2) and
transmits it to the recipient of the information (3). Therefore, between the source of
information (communicator) and its recipient is a translator, which simultaneously
receives and transmits information.
Since the communication process involves exchange, then after receiving
certain information, by analogy, the recipient becomes the author, and the sender -
the recipient of the message.
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At the same time, the position of the translator remains unchanged - he creates
the appropriate language code for both parties. Note that at the coding stage, the text
of the original is first analyzed to fully understand and distinguish its semantic
depth, and then the process of synthesis - the creation of the original text. In this
case, the text of the translation is always secondary to the original, as the translator's
work is limited to finding the most appropriate linguistic equivalents.
The process of bilingual communication involves intercultural
communication, and therefore translators are constantly faced with the problem of
interpreting the cultural aspects that are inherent in the original text, as well as how
to successfully reflect them in the language of translation.
Native speakers of different languages may perceive the world somewhat
differently, due to the peculiarities of each language [5, p. 38-39]. Therefore, it is
critical in the process of translation to get acquainted with the cognitive base of the
linguistic and cultural community, in the language of which communication is
carried out.
Many scholars believe that the reproduction of cultural realities in the target
language is the primary task of the translator in intercultural communication,
because each language group has its own cultural and specific features [78, p. 94].
They can predict discrepancies in perceptions of the world or traditions, and thus
generate conflict situations.
Conventionally, all cultural barriers to translation can be divided into three
major groups:
• barriers caused by different "language pictures" of the world.
• obstacles due to differences in the way of life (translation of realities);
• obstacles due to differences in civilizations and their inherent value systems.
The first obstacle is related to the difference in "linguistic pictures of the
world" or ways of reflecting objective reality in different languages. It is believed that
each language creates its own picture of the world, forcing to see the world through
the conceptual prism of a particular language. The difference between these concepts
should be taken into account when translating.
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The second group involves taking into account when translating the specifics
of life and lifestyle of a certain people. This also includes gaps - a nationally specific
element of culture, which is reflected in the language of its speakers, but is not clear
to the speakers of another linguistic culture and therefore impossible to translate. In
the narrow sense, a gap is the absence of a word in the lexical system of a language to
denote a certain concept. For example, "Huge" is a typical Scandinavian
phenomenon, which means a mood of coziness and comfortable communication with
a sense of well-being and satisfaction. This also includes the signs and rules of folk
ethics: in Eastern cultures it is uncultured to enter the house in shoes, in Slavic
culture it is indecent to be indoors in outerwear, and so on. Accordingly, such non-
verbal components affect both the subject situation and, therefore, must be taken into
account by the translator.
The third obstacle is due to the difference of civilization. The perception of the
text directly depends on the ideas, traditions, ideals formed in a particular culture or
civilization. For example, suicide is considered one of the most terrible acts in Slavic
culture, and is therefore perceived as something negative. In contrast, in Japanese
culture, more than half of all art is characterized by the suicide of a noble heroine or
hero as the main plot technique and is considered the best completion of a work of
art. Therefore, the perception of a work of art by Europeans, Asians and Slavs will be
different. It is important for the translator to take into account the essence, mood and
connotations of the original text for their qualitative expression in the translation.
Thus, translation is one of the possibilities of direct international
communication, and its task is to create such foreign language texts, which in
structural, substantive and functional terms could become a full-fledged replacement
for the original text.

1.2. Translation strategies: a review and comparison of theories

1.2.1. The notion of translation strategy
Based on the analysis of scientific works of many foreign and domestic
researchers A.D. Schweizer [16], W.W. Sdobnikov [15], V.N .Komissarov [9], I.S.
 11

Alekseeva [1], V.V. Demetskaya [6], T.P. Andrienko [3], which studies the term
"translation strategy", we can conclude that there is no unambiguous interpretation of
this term, in addition, different scholars, and sometimes even in the works of one
scientist can be found variations of this term, namely: “strategy", "translator's
strategy", "translator's behavior strategy during translation", "methods of depicting
the translation process", "cognitive regulation of translation discourse".
American translator, historian and translation theorist L. Venutti [7, p. 240]
notes that the term "strategy" is used in translation studies to denote a wide range of
translator's actions – from the choice of text to the choice of method of reproduction
of language units. Thus, the strategy is usually aimed at solving many translation
problems.
German linguist H. Krings believes that translation strategy is a conscious plan
of action of a translator to solve a specific translation problem within a specific
translation task [18]. According to V.V. Sdobnikov, "translation strategy is a program
of translation activities, formed on the basis of the general approach of the translator
to the translation in a certain communicative situation of bilingual communication,
which is determined by the specific features of this situation and the purpose of
translation, and, in a way, determines the nature of professional behavior translator
within a certain communicative situation "[15, p. 172].
Russian researcher I.V. Voinich considers the translation strategy as a "joint
plan of action of the translator", due to a set of its basic settings aimed at achieving
the goals that consciously or unconsciously sets the translator [5, p. 8].
Interesting in the context of the proposed study is the opinion of Ukrainian
researcher T.P. Andrienko, who considers strategy as a "cognitive regulation of
translation discourse" [3, p. 58] and believes that the strategy guides the translator in
solving translation problems and explores the cognitive-discursive mechanisms and
conditions of strategies, as well as their subordinate tactics and techniques of
translation, it aims to transform the concept of source text for integration into
conceptual and linguistic picture the world of the target language; the strategy is
interactive and guides the organization of the translator interaction between the
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author and the addressee of the message, combines procedural and effective aspects
of translation; the strategy is included in the context of the activity, subordinated to
its goals and rules, and manages lower-order translation activities, which consist in
defining tactics and choosing translation techniques.
Thus, based on the analyzed definitions, we define "translation strategy" as an
algorithm of translator's activity, which assumes the presence of certain translation
tactics and techniques in order to transform the concept of the source text for
integration into the conceptual and linguistic picture of the world of translation.

1.2.2. Translation strategies' typologies

T.P. Andrienko [3, p. 56] divides translation strategies into global (integral text
megaconcept) and local (they require a strategic translation solution). Local strategies
can be applied at different stages, as well as to different units of translation, such as
historical reality words.
L. Venutti [17] identifies two radically different local translation strategies –
domestication and alienation. Each of these strategies has its supporters. Moreover,
some scholars argue that mixing these strategies within a single text should be
avoided, while others argue that an appropriate symbiosis of these strategies in a
single translation is important for adequate translation. Therefore, at the present stage
there is a third strategy – universalization (creolization).
A supporter of the strategy of domestication can be considered A. Titler [19],
who in his work "Essay on the principles of translation" (Essay on the principles of
translation) puts the translator on a par with the author of the work. L. Venutti in his
study "The Scandals of Translation" (The Scandals of Translation) generally gives
the translator complete autonomy in the translation process, allowing him to level the
realities, which in turn makes the original text invisible.
The strategy of domestication (domestication) – is the representation of
information through the known recipient. This approach facilitates perception and
requires minimal cognitive effort. When choosing a domestication strategy, the
translator focuses on the stylistic norms and idioms of the language of translation. As
 13

noted by T.P. Andrienko [3, p. 152], the strategy of domestication (domestication) is

an orientation to the linguistic picture of the world of the language of translation. As
tactics used by the translator in choosing this strategy, the researcher considers the
following: reproduction of denotative content, emotionality of pragmatic features, the
introduction of culturally specific connotations.
To ensure these tactics, the translator can use certain techniques: analogue
replacement, semantic translation, descriptive translation, adding explication of
meaning, post-text footnote. T.P. Andrienko [3, p. 152–153] believes that in the case
of choosing an alienation strategy that focuses on the linguistic picture of the world
of the original language, the translator adds to the translation what is new to the host
culture, adding it to the culture of the original language.
The tactics used by the translator in choosing this strategy include:
reproduction of formal characteristics, literal meaning, connotations of exoticism.
Choosing the above tactics, the translator can use the following techniques:
untranslated borrowing, transcription, transliteration, tracing, translation of
exoticisms, literal translation.
A. Popovych's opinion that two strategies can be used simultaneously within
one text is interesting. To denote this phenomenon, which can be considered as an
intermediate situation between domestication and alienation, the researcher
introduces the term "creolization" (universalization) [3, p. 130–143]. In the process of
applying such a strategy, it is possible to level culturally specific meanings in
translation, to reproduce the meaning of the original in reliance on the common,
international knowledge of native speakers of the original language and the language
of translation. According to T.P. Andrienko [3, p. 180], the main tactic in the case of
choosing this strategy - the reproduction of denotative content. The techniques that
provide this tactic include: generalization, descriptive translation, inclusion of world
cultural heritage texts.
It should be noted that the choice of translation strategy is influenced by certain
factors, among which T.P. Andrienko defines the following:
• belonging of the text to artistic or non-artistic (informative) discourse;
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• communicative factors (audience character, spatial, temporal and social

distance);
• the nature of the text itself;
• vertical context;
• macro context;
• intertextuality;
• place in the target literature (presence of previously executed translations of
the same text, marginalization / canonization of separate translations);
• the status of the original language and the language of translation in the
world.
Another Ukrainian researcher O.A. Mikhailenko [10, p. 150] believes that the
choice of translation strategy is influenced by the following factors: the purpose of
translation, the type of text being translated (there are two main functional types of
translation: artistic (literary) translation and informative (non-literary) translation)
and the nature of the intended translation receptor. In some cases, the translation does
not have an exact addressee, and the translator focuses on the so-called "averaged
receptor").

1.3. Translation transformations and their types

Finding the most successful equivalent in the language of translation is
practically embodied through translation transformations - certain types of
transformations, the features and expediency of which require constant research in
order to further improve the level of translation competence.
According to RK Minyar-Beloruchev, the transformation is the basis of most
translation techniques, which consists in changing the formal (lexical or grammatical
transformations) or semantic (semantic transformations) components of the source
text while preserving the information intended for transmission [5, 201]. Ya.I.
Retsker defines transformations as techniques of logical thinking, by means of which
we reveal the meaning of the word of the source language in the context and find its
correspondence in the language of translation [6, 216]. A.D. Schweizer calls
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translational transformations interlingual operations of overexpression of meaning [7,

118]. A.F. Arkhipov understands translation transformations as technical techniques
of translation, which consist in replacing constant equivalents with non-constant
ones, as well as the linguistic expressions themselves, which arise as a result of the
application of such techniques [9, 52].
He believes that the application of transformations is due to the desire to
achieve a higher degree of equivalence:
- the desire to avoid literalism in translation;
- the desire to use expressions and constructions that are most commonly used
in the language of translation;
- the need to overcome interlingual differences in the design of homogeneous
members of the sentence;
- the desire to avoid unnaturalness, cumbersomeness, ambiguity and illogical
expressions;
- the desire for a more compact version of the translation;
- the desire to convey important background information or remove excess;
- the desire to reproduce the imagery, which is difficult to convey in the
language of translation [7, p. 86].
Translation transformations are considered as techniques that contribute to the
equivalence of translation and provide a transformation procedure in order to move
from units of the original text to units of translation. The term "transformation" is
borrowed from Harris's transformational grammar and used by J. Retsker, L.
Barkhudarov, O. Schweizer, and others.
The nature of transformations is due to the fact that the accuracy of the
translation is determined by the formal identity. "Only such a translation can be
considered accurate, which ensures the identity of the function of the translated text
and the original text" [7, p. 88].
When translating, there is not only contact between two languages, but also
cultures. Translation transformations are changes that are made to the text to convert
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units of source text into units of translation text. L.K. Latishev identifies 3 main
reasons for the use of translation transformations:
1. Differences in the systems of the original language and the language of
translation.
2. Discrepancies between the norms of the original language and the language
of translation.
3. Discrepancy of usage (rules of situational use of language), operating in the
environment of native speakers of the source language and the language of translation
[7, p. 76].
E.V. Breus motivates the need to use translation transformations by the fact
that the original text is transmitted through translation correspondences that have not
only a different linguistic expression in the target language, but also a different set of
seven from the original, and this creates the need for various translation
transformations [6, p. 13].
Therefore, we can generalize that all the reasons for the use of translation
transformations are reduced to two main ones: objective and subjective. For objective
reasons, there are transformations associated with cultural differences between the
two languages, with differences in grammatical structures of languages.
Transformations in this case are a means of maximizing the embodiment of the
original in translation. Subjective reasons include: lack of time for interpretation, the
translator's own style, the level of his competence and the fact whether the translator
is a native speaker of the original language or the language of translation. Subjective
reasons lead to a kind of distortion of the original text.
Thus, the main reason for the application of translation transformations is the
uniqueness of the language and its structure. Each language is divided into functional
levels as phonetic, morphological, lexical, word-formation, syntactic, within which
there are its own features, which are precisely the causes of inconsistencies
encountered in translation. After analyzing the original, the translator tries to change
the text so that the perception of the translation corresponds to the effect in the source
language. However, this is often realized through structural and semantic changes,
 17

which are due, in turn, to lexical and grammatical differences between languages (in
a broad sense - the difference between the respective cultures).
Translation transformations involve certain interlingual changes in order to
find the most accurate translation equivalent. Throughout the development of
translation theory, scholars have formulated various types of classification of
translation transformations.
Recent studies show that various researchers have dealt with the classification
of translation transformations: L.K. Latyshev, Y.Y. Retsker, L.S. Barkhudarov, O.D.
Schweizer, J. Darbelne and J.-P. Vine, A. M. Fitterman, T.R. Levitska and others.
However, even today there is no single classification of translation transformations.
As L.K. Latyshev notes, it is also useful for a translator to know the basic types
of translation transformations and to be able to use them. In his opinion, possession
of these tools is as valuable for a language mediator as for a chess player possession
of a repertoire of standard solutions in typical situations [7, 27].
It is worth briefly considering what are the main types of transformations
identified by some of the above researchers. L.K. Latyshev [7, 78] identifies the
following types of transformations, taking into account the nature of deviations from
interlingual correspondences:
• morphological - replacement of one categorical form by another or several;
• syntactic - change the syntactic function of words and phrases;
• stylistic - change the stylistic color of a piece of text;
• semantic - a change not only in the form of expression of content, but also the
content itself, ie, by which the situation is described;
• mixed - lexical-semantic and syntactic-morphological.
J.J. Retsker distinguishes only two types of transformation: grammatical and
lexical. In this case, grammar involves changes in parts of speech or members of a
sentence. J.J. Retsker refers to the lexical concretization, generalization,
differentiation of meanings, compensation for losses that occur in the translation
process [6, 87].
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One of the classifications of translation transformations proposed by L.S.

Barkhudarov. He distinguishes the following types of transformations:
Permutation is a change in the location of language elements in the translated
text compared to the original text.
The second type of translation transformations is substitutions. This is the most
common and diverse type of translation transformation. In the process of translation,
word forms, parts of speech, members of a sentence can be replaced.
That is, there are grammatical and lexical substitutions. L.S. Barkhudarov
distinguishes lexical substitutions (concretization, generalization). [8]
Concretization is the replacement of a word or phrase of the original language
with a broader meaning with a word or phrase of the translation language with a
narrower meaning.
Generalization - a phenomenon inverse to concretization - the replacement of a
unit of the original language, which has a narrower meaning, a unit of language
translation with a broader meaning.
The next type of translation transformation is addition. The reason for the need
to add in the text of the translation is the "formal vagueness" of the semantic
components of the phrase in the original language.
Another type of translation transformations, which distinguishes L.S.
Barkhudarov – omission. When translating, words that are semantically redundant, ie
those that express meanings that can be removed from the text, are often omitted.
The classification of scientists A.M. Fitterman and T.R. Levitskaya is
somewhat similar to the classification proposed by LS Barkhudarov, but it is broader.
A.M. Fitterman and T.R. Levitska distinguish three types of translation
transformations [9, 56]:
1) grammatical transformations, which include permutations, omissions and
additions, rearrangements and substitutions of sentences;
2) stylistic transformations, which include such techniques as synonymous
substitutions and descriptive translation, compensation and other types of
substitutions.
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3) lexical transformations, which include the replacement and addition,

concretization and generalization of concepts.
We can generalize that grammatical transformations consist in transforming
the structure of a sentence in the process of translation in accordance with the norms
of the language of translation. One of the basic rules that a translator must follow
concerns grammatical literalism, ie the preservation of grammatical structures or
forms of the original in the text of the translation [7, 156]. Thus, when establishing
grammatical equivalents it is necessary to take into account the lexical content and
stylistic function of the construction.
V.I. Karaban, a Ukrainian translator, divides transformations into grammatical
ones, which he divides into five main types:
1) permutation (permutation);
2) substitution (replacement);
3) addition;
4) withdrawal;
5) complex transformation [4, 10].
Stylistic transformations are those ways of translation by which the translator
mixes stylistic accents, neutralizing or actualizing the connotative shades of meaning,
or adapting the language of translation to the stylistic norms adopted in the language
of translation. Sometimes, the translator has to denote the meaning of one
construction to reinforce another. Therefore, among the numerous methods of
implementing stylistic transformations in translation, logic and expression should be
excluded.
Logization is a method of translation by replacing an emotionally expressive or
ethnomarked language unit with its stylistically neutral counterpart in the language of
translation, which eliminates or weakens the aesthetic function of the original [7, p.
32].
Expression is a method of translation by replacing the neutral unit with its
stylistically marked counterpart in the language of translation, which gives the
translation an emotionally expressive color [7, p. 33].
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Lexical translation transformations include transcription and transliteration,

tracing, concretization, generalization, modulation or semantic development [7, p.
78].
Translation transcription is a formal phonemic reproduction of the original
lexical unit with the help of phonemes of the translation language, phonetic imitation
of the source word [2, p. 163].
Transliteration - formal polymer reproduction of the original lexical unit with
the help of the alphabet MP, with the help of letters imitation of the form of the
original word.
Calque is the reproduction not of a sound, but of a combinatorial syllable of a
word or phrase, when the constituent parts of a word (morpheme) or phrase (token)
are translated by the corresponding elements of the language of translation [7, p.
167].
Concretization is a method of translation in which a word or phrase of a
foreign language with a broader subject-logical meaning is replaced by a word in a
translation with a narrower meaning [7, p. 168].
Generalization involves the replacement of a unit of the original language,
which has a narrower meaning, a unit in the language of translation with a broader
meaning, ie transformation, inverse concretization [7, p. 170].
Modulation, or semantic development – is the replacement of a word or phrase
in the language of translation with a word or phrase in the language of translation, the
meaning of which can be deduced logically from the original meaning [7, p. 177]
J. Darbelne and J.-P. Vine put forward the idea of two groups of techniques
used in translation [2, 157-167]:
1) methods of direct translation:
• literal translation;
•calque;
•loan;
2) methods of indirect translation:
 21

• equivalence (transfer of the content of warning inscriptions, proverbs,

aphorisms in other words);
• transposition (replacement of one part of speech by another);
• adaptation (replacement of details of the reported history with others);
• modulation (change of point of view).
So, as we can see, there are a large number of different classifications. Some of
them have significant differences, some are quite similar. This is due to the fact that
the transformations can be combined with each other, taking the form of complex
complex transformations. There is no blank wall between different types of
transformations, the same transformations can sometimes be a controversial case,
they can be attributed to different types.
To cover the practical side of the issue of translation transformations, we have
chosen Jojo Moyes' novel ‘Me Before You’.
 22

CHAPTER II. PECULIARITIES OF TRANSLATING THE NOVEL OF JOJO

MOYES ‘ME BEFORE YOU’

2.1. Specifics of translation the novels of Jojo Moyes

Jojo Moyes is a representative of the modern love novel, whose works
successfully combine sentimental plots, mostly with unexpected solutions, with
current problems and issues, and an easily recognizable manner of presentation of the
material. The author herself describes her writing style as «…emotional, heartfelt,
and I’d really hope for intelligent. I try to write characters who are properly complex
and I trust the readers to work out some things for themselves.».
Interest in the events of the past and true stories are reflected in the entire work
of Moyes.
The study of the lexical features of Jojo Moyes' idiolect through the prism of
translation transformations required a clear definition of two main terms that differ in
their analysis and study, namely: "idiostyle" and "idiolect". Idiostyle is a kind of
author's language of fiction, which contains all the works of the author for a certain
period of creativity or in general.
In turn, the idiolect is a complex of deep, text-generating dominants,
characteristic lexical, semantic, grammatical and syntactic means of the author's
language in his specific work. The translation approach to highlighting the features of
the idiolect requires significant attention to literary translation, as literary translation
is a means of special communication between the author of the original and the
foreign language of the reader. But this requires the preservation of the idiolect of the
original, the linguistic picture of the writer's world, the aesthetic influence that the
writer's idea is to make the original on the recipient in any language.
The key task of the translator in literary translation is to reproduce the semantic
integrity of the original in the translated text, because it cannot interfere with the
linguistic picture of the world of the work of art formed by the author or change the
ideological and artistic system. The translator must preserve the communicative
function of the text, remember the reader and select such means and methods that will
 23

ensure the adequacy of the translation of the original. Each translator uses convenient
and specific techniques, which ultimately should not affect the quality of translation.
The language of Jojo Moyes' characters reflects the state of modern spoken
language of British and Americans of different ages and social groups, which allowed
us to study the characteristics of the functioning of Americanisms in the language of
individual members of these language communities. Americanisms included not only
certain lexical items that appeared in the United States and differed from the British
versions, but also words and phrases that differed in spelling and grammar. As for the
translation of the phenomena considered by us, the bulk of them have functional
analogues in the Ukrainian language, so their transmission is not difficult. To
translate means to express correctly and completely by means of one language what
has already been expressed earlier by means of another language [1, p. 395].
Artistic translation is a kind of art, as a result of which a work in the original
language is reproduced in another language. Speaking about the peculiarities of the
translation of literary texts, it should be noted that there are a number of requirements
that the translator must meet to create the most complete representation of the
original in a foreign language.
The fact is that the translator of a literary text can also be called a writer. B.
Chukovsky said that a translator is most likely a talent. He does not photograph the
original, he reproduces it creatively [2, p. 134]. The work must be translated so that
the style of the author and the plot of the literary text are preserved in full. The
difficulty of such a translation is to convey the original charm of the work, while
maintaining the interest of the reader. Translators need to have a stock of background
knowledge and, like writers, need a multifaceted life experience that continually
replenishes their stock of impressions. The main task of translating any work of art is
to achieve adequacy. To do this, the translator needs to perform a number of
transformations to fully convey the information of the source text.
I would like to note that one of the main literary techniques used by the author
is the antithesis. The novel presents two completely different people, and, therefore,
Jojo Moyes uses different lexical and expressive means of constructing images of his
 24

characters. Modern text includes a set of language signs, which the author skillfully
uses in the novel, which does not cause the reader difficulty in understanding the text.
Thus, the reader's interpretations of the text in the process of its perception, ie the
relevance of its semantic space, are adequate, clear, close to the life of the modern
reader.
It is safe to say that the question of the study of Americanism remains open, as
any language is constantly evolving and changing. It should be noted that there are
many classifications of lexical transformations. Every translator has the right to use
any of them, without forgetting the main task of the translator. And the main purpose
of translation of any work of art is adequate translation. In order to achieve adequacy,
the translator must be able to make appropriate transformations (transformations) for
the correct transmission of information contained in the original text to the reader.

2.2. Analysis of transformations in the translation of ‘Me before you’ by Jojo

Moyes into Ukrainian
For the linguistic analysis of the novel, we determine the frequency of use of
lexicosemantic and syntactic transformations in the Ukrainian translation of «Me
before you» by Jojo Moyes by N. Hayetska. Highlighting the most commonly used
stylistic devices of Jojo Moyes, we highlight the leading means of their embodiment
in translation using examples from the novel.
J. Retsker defined translation transformations as logical tricks: the meaning of
the foreign word should be uncovered in the context and a TL correspondence should
be found, which do not correspond with the dictionary and that is called lexical
transformations. He defines seven types of lexical transformations: differentiation of
meanings, concretization of meanings, generalization of meanings, sense
development, antonymic translation, complete transformation, the compensation of
losses in the process of translation [8]
Concretization of meanings involves a kind of change in the semantics of the
word from broad (in the original language) to narrower (in the language of
translation) «You’re no help». [26, p. 221] It is clear that this method of translation is
 25

more often used when translating words with a very broad meaning such as thing,
fine, good, to be, to do,to have, to get, to feel, to come etc. In our case, a literal
translation «ти не допомагаєш» reproduced by a colloquial phrase «І ти туди
ж!» [11, p.179], which is much more appropriate in the context of the situation and
really conveys the message of the hero.
In contrast, the method of generalization is used, which provides for the
expansion of meaning in the language of translation:
The reception of semantic development provides a clearer translation in
comparison with the original «Excellent» [26, p. 221] translated in the novel as
«Чудова думка».[11, p. 180] Since the word situationally depends on its use, such
clarification is actually necessary to reproduce the content of the novel.
Antonymous translation involves the transformation of the affirmative
construction into a negative or vice versa: «Для нас варте, мамо» – «It wasn’t
nothing to us, Mum» [11, p.183; 26, p.225]
A complete transformation allows you to more accurately express the opinion
of the author, especially when the literal translation does not provide the correct
semantic load: «So I just want to make the most of things» [26, p. 222]. Because «to
make the most of things» in English is an idiom, which in Ukrainian translates as
«використовувати повною мірою (на повну міру, цілком, ущерть)», that is, the
detonative meaning is preserved, but it is logical to adapt the translation for the
correct connotation – «Я просто хочу брати якомога більше від життя» [11,
p.180]
When transferring repetitions in the Ukrainian language, there are very
frequent cases of their partial or complete absence at the lexical level in the
translation text (reduction technique), they are mainly reflected through synonyms,
because the Ukrainian language tends to avoid lexical uniformity.
The term «grammatical transformation» as the transformation of an English
sentence in the process of translation must be understood conditionally. We highlight
the method of transposition, replacement, addition and omission.
 26

Due to the differences in the word order of the English and Ukrainian
languages, the dominant type among translation transformations is the transposition
(of constructions or phrases): «Тріна закотила очі, не підводячи їх від книжки, яку
читала за обіднім столом» – «Treena, studying at the dining-table, rolled her
eyes.» [11, p. 178; 26, p. 219]. We see that the inversion in the English version is
immediately after the subject, while in the Ukrainian translation the inversion is
placed after the appendix. In addition, the method of concretization is used:
«studying» used in the sense «читати книжку».
Also, the transposition can be at the word level:«Ти завжди маєш бути
безгрішною, милосердною, усе знати та вміти владнати будь-яку ситуацію.» –
«You’re meant to be this serene, all-knowing, gracious person who can handle every
situation.» [11, p. 177; 26, p. 218].
Another technique is a replacement, and in the process of translation, both
grammatical units - word forms, parts of speech, sentence members, types of
syntactic connections, etc., can be subjected to it, as well as lexical, in connection
with which we can talk about grammatical and lexical replacements.
«Тату, не драматизуй» – «You’re being dramatic, Dad.» [11, p.179; 26, p.
220].
In this example, the adjective becomes a verb.
Grammatical structures are also replaced: «Обід? – Тато склав руки на
животі та невдоволено виставив щелепу» [11, p.178]. In the Ukrainian version of
the two-part sentence, passivity is conveyed in the English original: «Lunch?’ said
Dad, his arms crossed across his stomach, his jaw set in indignation» [26, p. 219].
Sometimes the context requires the addition of certain semantic components in
order to better understand the content and thought. Therefore, the method of addition
is used «Одне заняття на тиждень. Дві години» – «One two-hour class». [11, p.
179; 26, p. 220] In this example, differentiation is used at the same time - one
sentence in the original language is divided into two in the target language. In
addition, such clarification performs an amplifying function in the context. To
confirm, give another example «Я чекала продовження» – «I waited.» [11, p.147;
 27

26, p. 224] Since the literal translation changes the situational connotation, it is
advisable to specify that the heroine expects to continue to express his opinion to
another character.
The needs of the context sometimes determine the use of the omission
technique: «Я затрималась у батьків набагато довше, ніж планувала» – «I
stayed much later into the evening than I had intended, said goodbye to my family,
climbed into my car and drove home» [11, p.183; 26, p. 226]. The omitted part of this
sentence is that Louise says goodbye, gets in the car and goes home, because the
emphasis is on the conversation between her mother's sister and Louise. And the fact
that Louise is going is mentioned below «Моя сестра розреготалась. Я зачинила
двері машини та завела двигун» – «My sister laughed, and closed the door of the
car as I started it» [11, p.184; 26, p. 227]. This avoids tautology in translation. Or:
«The smell of weed hit me first, so strong I almost reflexively held my breath rather
than inhale» In the Ukrainian version there is no comparative share: «Мене окутало
запахом трави. Запах був таким сильним, що я інстинктивно затамувала
подих» [26, p.184; 11, p. 227], however, the content was not affected.
From the point of view of lexical transformation, these are techniques of
semantic development – techniques used to facilitate the perception of the text by
native speakers of the Ukrainian language.
Among the lexical-semantic transformations we find in the novel narrowing,
expansion, emphatization, neutralization.
Note that almost all lexical and semantic techniques are combined with lexical
and grammatical ones, so it can be difficult to unambiguously determine the
technique that is used to translate one sentence.
Rarely, but still the narrowing technique is used in the novel: «Work had
reached a misery point». [26, p. 219] English phrase «misery point» is transformed
into Ukrainian «апогей»: «Муки на роботі сягали апогею» [11, p.177]. In addition,
the translation uses the technique of emphatization – increasing emotionality in the
language of translation: «муки на роботі» reproduce the English word – «work». At
the same time the method of semantic development is used.
 28

Neutralization is often used at the lexical-semantic level. «Я не можу навіть

подивитися спокійно телевізор – обов’язково вона називатиме
«сексистськими» реклами йогуртів» – «I can’t watch the television without her
muttering, “Sexist,” at the yoghurt ads» [11, p.179; 26, p. 220], English word
«muttering» has a Ukrainian equivalent «бурмотіння», however, in the above
sentence it is replaced by a neutral one «називатиме», which is used to change the
emotional background. Therefore, in the Ukrainian version, with the help of indirect
translation, it is emphasized that «…навіть подивитися телевізор» difficult - and
this in turn allows the reader to understand that such behavior of the heroine extends
to various spheres of life, while in the English version it is achieved through the use
of emotionally-colored vocabulary.
It is worth noting that the text is characterized by the active use of literal
translation, so the separation of the leading transformations inherent in the work is an
important step in the study of linguistic features of the novel.
In addition to the general analysis of translation transformations on the
examples of the studied material, we made a percentage calculation of the frequency
of use of transformations. 27 sections of the novel in a free sample were used for the
study. Thus, the linguistic features of the translation of the novel are characterized by
the presence of the following transformations in percentage: the main transformation
at the lexical-semantic level is syntactic narrowing (45.5%), neutralization technique
is used (22%), the same number of expansion and emphatization techniques are used
(16.2%).
At the grammatical level, we find the techniques of transposition (42%),
omission (29%), addition (16%) and replacement (14%).
Among linguistic transformations we distinguish: complete transformation
(33.5%), concretization (30.5%), generalization (17%), antonymous translation
(14.3%).
According to this calculation, we obtained the following results: syntactic
transformations are used most often – 50%; lexical transformations had to be resorted
 29

to in 33% of cases; lexical and semantic transformations were used the least – 17%.
According to these results, the following visual diagram was obtained:
60%
50%
50%

40%
33%
30%

20% 17%

10%

0%
lexical grammatical lexical and
transformation transformation semantic
transformation

Fig. 1 Percentage of translation transformations

Thus, we see that at the level of language the characteristic features of Jojo
Moyes are the use of lexical-semantic and syntactic constructions, less often,
phonetic means of language expression, which do not always find their counterparts
in Ukrainian translation, due to translation transformations.
 30

Conclusions
Today in linguistics there is a growing interest in the text, which is studied in
various aspects and interpreted in various fields of humanities. The text is considered
by researchers as a structural-semantic formation, a kind of complex unity,
characterized by communicative integrity, semantic completeness, logical,
grammatical, semantic connections.
The following researchers studied the semantic space of the text: Alefirenko
N.F., Arnold I.V., Babenko L.G., Halperin I.R., Kukharen V.A., Lukin V.A.,
Nikolina N.A., Brekle N.E., Dressier W., Eco U..
Also, the author in the literary text used the omission of auxiliary verbs in
interrogative sentences, truncated constructions, interruption of the story, expressed
in three points. It should be noted that the frequent use of such graphics means the
cessation of speech and non-communication.
The author deliberately uses these techniques to create and convey a difficult
tense situation in the situation. In conclusion, I would like to note that one of the
main literary techniques used by the author is the antithesis. The novel presents two
completely different people, and, therefore, Jojo Moyes uses different lexical and
expressive means of constructing images of his characters. Modern text includes a set
of language signs, which the author skillfully uses in the novel, which does not cause
the reader difficulty in understanding the text.
Thus, the reader's interpretations of the text in the process of its perception, ie
the relevance of its semantic space, are adequate, clear, close to the life of the modern
reader. It is safe to say that the question of the study of Americanism remains open,
as any language is constantly evolving and changing.
It should be noted that there are many classifications of lexical transformations.
Every translator has the right to use any of them, without forgetting the main task of
the translator.
And the main purpose of translation of any work of art is adequate translation.
In order to achieve adequacy, the translator must be able to make appropriate
 31

transformations (transformations) for the correct transmission of information

contained in the original text to the reader.
 32

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