CSEB As Alternative Construction Material Adigrat University

CSEB as alternative construction material
ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
STUDYON CEMENT STABILIZED EARTH BLOCK AS AN

ALTERNATIVE CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
PROPOSED BY ID No
MEBRAHTU EMBAYE…………………………………….1029/06
HALEFOM G/MIKAEL……………………………………..0760/06
HAILU DUGUMA…………………………………………..0756/06
Section: one
SUBMITTED TO INS: KIFLOM (Msc)

SUBMISSION DATE:10/10/2010 E.C
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and for most our gratitude goes to almighty God for he allow us to be here. Second we
would like to express deepest thank to our instructor Kiflom D. for setting up this project that
we could gain practical skills and hence strengthen our theoretical skills. Our special thank is
also extended to such companies, lab assistance, and others who sacrificing their golden time
to answer our question and to equip all the steps and the procedures while we was doing our
thesis. Finally we would like to thank to all those who supported us in various way during
our project time.
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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... I
ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................... VII
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... VIII
CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives of the Research.............................................................................................. 3
1.3 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Scope of the Study .......................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Significance of the Research ........................................................................................... 4
1.6Structure of the Thesis ..................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................... 6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................... 6
2.1Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Mud House Construction in History ............................................................................... 6
2.3 Mud House Construction at Present ............................................................................... 7
2.4 Traditional Mud House Construction in Ethiopia ........................................................... 7
2.5 Types of Mud House Construction Techniques.............................................................. 8
2.5.1Adobe ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.5.2 Cob ......................................................................................................................... 10
2.5.3 Wattle and Daub .................................................................................................... 11
2.5.4 Cordwood............................................................................................................... 12
2.5.5 Rammed Earth ....................................................................................................... 13
2.5.6 Earthen Bag ............................................................................................................ 15
2.5.7 Straw-bale .............................................................................................................. 16
2.5.8Compressed Cement Earth block ............................................................................ 17
2.6 Materials Required for Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production ............................. 19
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2.6.1 Soil ......................................................................................................................... 19

2.6.2 Cement ................................................................................................................... 24
2.6.3 Water ...................................................................................................................... 25
2.7Experimental Set Up and Test Procedure ...................................................................... 25
2.7.1 Grain Size Analysis Test for the Soil ..................................................................... 25
2.7.2 Compressive Strength Tests of Cement Stabilized Earth Blocks .......................... 27
2.7.3 Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production Steps:................................................. 28
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................ 30
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 30
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................... 31
4. RESULT AND DISCUCION ............................................................................................. 31
4.1 Materials Required for Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production ............................. 31
4.1.1 Soil ............................................................................................................................. 32
4.1.2 Cement ................................................................................................................... 32
4.1.3 Water ...................................................................................................................... 33
4.2 Composition of Samples: .............................................................................................. 33
4.2The Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production Steps .................................................. 34
4.2.1 Soil Selection ......................................................................................................... 34
4.2.2 Sieving ................................................................................................................... 34
4.2.3 Mixing .................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.4 Molding .................................................................................................................. 37
4.2.5 Drying process ....................................................................................................... 37
4.3 Grain Size Analysis Test and Result for Soil................................................................ 38
4.4 Compressive Strength Test Result and Analysis .......................................................... 40
4.4.1Compressive Strength Tests Procedure .................................................................. 40
4.4.2Compressive Strength Test Results ........................................................................ 41
4.5 Challenge ...................................................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................... 43
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 43
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5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 43

5.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 44
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 45
ANNEX A ............................................................................................................................... 46
ANNEX B ............................................................................................................................... 51
Compressive strength test result of stabilized earth blocks ................................................ 51
ANNEX C ............................................................................................................................... 52
ANNEX D ............................................................................................................................... 53
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List of table
table2. 1Soil texture characteristics ........................................................................................ 22
table4. 1Grain size analysis results ......................................................................................... 38

table4. 2 Average compressive strength ................................................................................. 41
table B. 1Grain size analysis results of the soil from .............................................................. 51

table B. 2Compression strength for category 1 samples ......................................................... 51
table B. 3Compression strength category 2 samples .............................................................. 51
table B. 4 Compression strength category 3 samples ............................................................. 52
table B. 5Average compressive strength ................................................................................. 52
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List of figures
fig 2. 1Adobe housing .............................................................................................................. 9
fig 2. 2Cob housing ................................................................................................................. 11
fig 2. 3wattle and daub ............................................................................................................ 12
fig 2. 4cord wood .................................................................................................................... 13
fig 2. 5rammed earth ............................................................................................................... 15
fig 2. 6earthen bag................................................................................................................... 16
fig 2. 7straw bale ..................................................................................................................... 17
fig 2. 8CCEB ........................................................................................................................... 18
fig 2. 9cement.......................................................................................................................... 24
fig4. 1Sandy clay soil .............................................................................................................. 32

fig4. 2cement........................................................................................................................... 33
fig4. 3water ............................................................................................................................. 33
fig4. 4shaker ............................................................................................................................ 36
fig4. 5 electronic balance ........................................................................................................ 36
fig4. 6Mixing of materials ...................................................................................................... 36
fig4. 7Mold sample ................................................................................................................. 37
fig4. 8Sieve pan ...................................................................................................................... 38
fig4. 9Percentage of passed of the soil sample in sieves ........................................................ 40
fig4. 10compressive strength .................................................................................................. 42
fig C. 1 molding sample .......................................................................................................... 53

fig C. 2molded samples........................................................................................................... 53
fig D. 1sieve shaker................................................................................................................. 54
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ABBREVIATIONS
2C = 2% cement
5C = 5% cement
ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials
C=Cement
CEB = Compressed Earth Block
E = earth or soil
Fig. = figure
CSEB =cement stabilized earth block
OPC =ordinary Portland cement
CSH =calcium silicate hydrate
CAH =calcium aluminate hydrate
MPa =mega Pascal
USA =United States of America
mm = millimeter
ASTDM =American society for testing and material standards
UN = United Nation
BS =British standard
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ABSTRACT
In the world housing is still a major problem faced by low class people and adversely
suffered by harsh environmental conditions as they are homelessly residing on roads,
ordinary homes, open fields etc. Due to high and growing building material cost, construction
time, easy land and material availability etc., the eradication of the problem remains a dream.
So, in the growing concern of awareness regarding sustainable building material and
environmental issue, Cement Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEB) gives the view of energy
efficient, cost reduction and environmental friendly building materials. CSEB’s are eco-
friendly and as these blocks are un- burnt products, during production no fuel material is used
and does not produce any harmful gases during production.
In this paper, locally available earth material in Adigratbeatikebele is taken and mixed with
different percentages of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in the production of CSEB’s. The
CSEB’s samples were cured and tested for compressive strength. The strength of different
blocks were determined and compared with standards.
This research provides detailed technical information on suitable stabilized earth blocks
production. These include information on suitable soil types for stabilized earth house
construction, stabilizers and production of stabilized earth blocks. Related literatures review
show that soil types, procedures.
Using soil (from Beati area of Adigrat) and stabilizer (cement ), three different
types(three samples for each) of samples were prepared. Tests were conducted on these
samples in order to evaluate their performance such as compressive strength on which the
durability of the blocks depend. The effect of the cement content in stabilized mixture was
evaluated and comparisons were made.
The investigation has revealed that, out of all block samples, blocks which are produced from
5% cement (5C), 2% cement (2C) and earth only two samples for each have compressive
strength values above the recommended minimum values for structural work.
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Keywords: Economy, Adigratbeatikebele soil, OPC, compressive Strength, sieve analysis,

water content.CSEB
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CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Earth, undoubtedly is the oldest building material known. Even though building with earth
once fell out of popularity when the modern building materials and methods were discovered,
but then it gains its revival time following the energy crisis. Moreover, growing concern and
interest about environmental and ecological issue globally also increased the use of earth as a
building material. More than two billion people around the Globe live in buildings
constructed of earth alone. The selection of building materials should meet the local
conditions of life by improvement in existing structures or by building new structures.
In world housing is still a major problem faced by low class people and adversely suffered by
harsh environmental conditions as they are homelessly residing on roads, ordinary homes,
open fields etc. Due to high and growing building material cost, construction time, easy land
and material availability etc., the eradication of the problem remains a dream. world's
population does not have any fixed home, and 50% of the urban population lives in
slums. Indeed, 80% of urban settlements in developing countries consist of slums and
spontaneous settlements made of temporary materials[2]. So, in the growing concern of
awareness regarding sustainable building material and environmental issue, Cement
Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEB) gives the view of energy efficient, cost reduction and
environmental friendly building materials. CSEB’s are eco-friendly and as these blocks are
un- burnt products, during production no fuel material is used and does not produce any
harmful gases during production. Adequate shelter is one of the most important basic human
needs [11].
In Ethiopia, adequate shelter is a main problem in most part of the country. And, soil is
widely used in the traditional construction of mud houses. Unfortunately, the traditional
building techniques which are practiced in most part of Ethiopia for mud house
construction have serious defects. The main defects or problems are: walls can easily be
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eroded by rain and suffer from extended shrinkage cracks, the construction consumes natural
resource such as wood, its external and internal appearances is not much attractive, the
dwellers suffer from health related problems, and the mud walls require a regular repairs
(wastage of material and energy regularly).
Investigation of mud house construction techniques has led to improvements in

understanding of material behavior and construction practices. Some of these construction
techniques are very well suited to application in developing countries for several reasons.
First, they are all based on earthen materials which do not require significant industrial
processing. They allow houses to be built with much less damage on global energy (system)
and resource. Second, they all rely on materials which are locally available in a large
majority of regions around the world, and minimizing energy use for transportation (during
importing and exporting).Third, they are generally intermediate technology solutions. They
do not require sophisticated machinery or specialized expertise to construct, and can be
constructed quickly when compared to conventional housing techniques. These factors not
only make alternative construction technologies attractive for developing countries in
general, but also make them particularly well suited to solve economic, social and
environmental related problems. In general, this section outlines the motivation and
objectives for the research work, and explain the importance this research.
The Cement stabilized earth block (CSEB) is the modern descendent of the molded earth
block, more commonly known as the adobe block. The addition of OPC to soil changes
the properties of soil and this is mainly due to the formation of various compounds such
as calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH) etc. and micro
fabric changes (Pozzolanicreaction).CSH and CAH are cementitious products similar to
those formed in Portland cement. They form the matrix that contributes to the strength of
Cement stabilized soil layers.
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1.2 Objectives of the Research
General Objective
In Ethiopia, like other developing countries in the third world, shelter problem is a big issue.
Ethiopian urban population lives in substandard housing units and environmentally unfit
living conditions in slum neighborhoods [2]. Entirely, these houses are made from mud or
earth by traditional techniques. These traditional building techniques which are common in
Ethiopia for mud house construction have many problems. Therefore, this research works to
solves or minimizes these problems by introducing a cement stabilized earth block
production technique.
Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of this research are:
 To upgrade the engineering of local earth blocks by using cement as stabilizer

• To meet the economic requirements of the local situation by: reducing
dependence on outside sources and ensuring low cost alternatives.
• To minimize the environmental degradation by using renewable or recycle
materials in building construction such as stabilized soil blocks.
• To investigate local soils to identify their suitableness in stabilized earth block
production.
• To investigate present theoretical and practical methods by which soil and
stabilizers are selected.
• To create awareness in the community about cement stabilized earth block as a
tool for adequate and affordable house construction.
1.3 Problem Statement
Proper understanding of the production of stabilized earth block, soil type and structural
strength and durability of earth block construction is helpful to proper designing and
construction by avoiding or minimizing the failure and maintenance of the structure. It is the
goal of this research to provide cost efficient alternative construction material (cement
3
stabilized earth block) and strong and durable cement stabilized earth block for minimizing
housing problem in Adigrat.
1.4 Scope of the Study
This research addresses the above goal by undertaking a detailed investigations in study of
methods of production, available raw material, investigations of local soils around the
selected area (Adigrat).This research should performed during winter season; Because the
material produced mainly in winter.
1.5 Significance of the Research
The importance of this research is for the societies in Adigrat to provide cement stabilized
earth block housing construction which has low cost compared to stone, hollow concrete
block, concrete work and brick, structurally stable (durable material), fire resistance
compared to timber and steel structure and weather comfort.
1.6Structure of the Thesis
This thesis is divided in to 5 chapters and each chapter contains a number of sections and further
subsections, and the organization of the chapters is presented as follows.
i. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the whole thesis. It discusses the background to the
research and the context in which the work is based. This Chapter also summarizes the general
and specific objectives of the research, problem statement, scope of study ,significance of the
research and Chapter 1 ends by providing guidelines on the structure of the thesis as a whole
including the ordering of chapters, references and appendices.
ii. Chapter 2 provides literature review based on previous works and standards introduction on
house construction; and mud house construction in past time and at present time. It also
explains about traditional mud house construction in Ethiopia and the environmental impact of
the traditional mud house construction.
iii. Chapter 3 describes the methodology we use such as literature review, laboratory test,
interview and questionary, and observation.
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iv. Chapter 4 describes result and discussion, experimental set up and tests Procedure for grain
size analysis,and compressive strength tests. Chapter 4 presents the three categories of
stabilized earth block types (E, 2C, 5C) which are prepared for the tests.And, it discussed
production steps for stabilized earth blocks.
v. Chapter 5 is the final chapter of the thesis, integrating and summarizing the main conclusions
and recommendations. At the end of the thesis, references and appendixes are presented.
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CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1Introduction
Nowadays, the construction industry consumes for a large amount of total global
consumption of natural resource. This consumption has been estimated to be 50% of global
material use, and 40% of global energy use [5]. Growth in this consumption is tied directly to
global economic growth. Additionally, the current state of the world economy growth is in
developing nations, especially in Asia and Africa. Economic growth provides the means to
develop and implement cleaner, more efficient technologies. Unfortunately, economic
growth in these developing countries is often begin at the expense of the environment, until a
point is reached where the accumulated wealth of a nation makes the implementation of more
environmentally caring technologies feasible. Since many of the countries driving global
economic growth have not yet reached this point, it is clear that there is significant expense
of nature for improvement of industrial practices in these countries.
Currently, there are extremely wide variety of alternative construction materials and
techniques which are used around the world. Soil is one of the natural building materials,
which is absolutely different from metal, rock, and cement or metal. Mud can be formed for
our shelters and it can be reformed or recycling ease back to nature, to be simple soil on
earth. Moreover, mud can match with all environments and good for being a passive air-
conditioning system. Reusability of mud creates tremendous reduction in environmental
impact, energy use and capital expenditure. Mud house from earth or soil is one of the most
widely used traditional building materials throughout the world. Currently, one-third of
world population stills live in mud house. It can be found mostly in hot-dry and arid area
such as some parts of India, Nepal, China, African continent and even in the West Side of
North and South American continent [2].
2.2 Mud House Construction in History
Earth has been used in the construction of ancient houses for thousand years together with
others natural materials such as metal and stone. The constructional technologies
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(techniques) used for the earth houses construction vary with the geographical zone and with
the historical period
The constructive system called’’ adobe’’ is based on the use of mud bricks to make earth
buildings and it has been utilized in the Mediterranean area since the ancient era.
The origins of the stabilized earth block technique can be traced back thousands of years to
the molded sun-dried earth brick, better known by the name of "adobe". This sun-dried earth
brick marks historical stages in the evolution of the human race.
2.3 Mud House Construction at Present
Currently, around 30% of the world’s populations live in earth-made construction.

Approximately 50% of the population in developing countries, including the majority of the
rural population and at least 20% of the urban and suburban population, live in earthen
houses. Generally; low-income urban and rural populations mainly use this type of house.
The use of adobe is very common in some of the world’s most hazard regions, such as
Latin America, Africa, the Indian subcontinent and other parts of Asia, the Middle East, and
southern Europe. The recent progression towards the cement earth block is a logical
extension of the benefits of the industrial revolution which brought the significant
development of the fired brick.
The need to improve the quality of materials and the durability of buildings is linked to better
productivity. In most part of the tropics, traditional mud housing is found in rural areas. This
traditionally housing is designed by the owner in his spare time together with the assistance
of relations, friends and neighbors using local materials. In addition, traditional house reflects
cultural heritage of the dwellers.
2.4 Traditional Mud House Construction in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, based on climatic conditions and altitude, traditional house construction in

Ethiopia are divided into houses of Low Lands-“Kolla” (<1400m); houses of Highlands-
“WoinaDega”(1400-2700m) and houses of Highlands “Dega” (2700 above sea level).In
Ethiopia, soil is used extensively in the traditional mud house construction (“Chika bet”)
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in the “Kolla”, “WoinaDega” and “Dega” area, especially in the central, northeast,
northwest and in the southern eastern rift valley area of the country. “Chika” is a mixture
of Clay, fine and short straw of the Ethiopian common cereal, ‘ ‘ Teff ’ ’
(EragroetisAbyssinica) and water. The mixture, after it has thoroughly been mixed by
treading with the human feet, is either immediately used, or is left to ferment for some time
before it is used as a filling material of the opening between metal poles and finally as
plaster.
Unfortunately, the traditional building techniques adopted for mud walls in Ethiopia have
serious defects. The mud walls suffer from extended shrinkage cracks, which weaken the
walls. Mud walls can easily be eroded by rain. Sometimes, the mud walls have been covered
with protective coating consisting of animal dung. This was intended to serve as a wearing
surface. The protective surface needed continued maintenance and sometimes renewal almost
every year. These entire drawbacks lead most of the people to the misconception that
buildings with soil are of inferior quality and should be avoided.
There is a big gap between the income of the majority of the population and the cost of the
buildings. In 1986, the Building College of Adigratmade a survey among dwellers in Ambo,
a medium-sized town in the Ethiopian highlands. The aim of the investigation was to identify
the problems confronting the housing sector.
2.5 Types of Mud House Construction Techniques
For 10,000 Years, earth has been used as a building material. There are eighteen principal
wellknown methods using earth as a building material. Amongst these,the eight are
widelyemployedand their detail information ispresentedbelow.
2.5.1Adobe
For wall construction, there has always been a comparison between adobe bricks and
rammed earth. One of the major requirements for adobe bricks is climate. Some regular
periods of dry weather is essential for the could to dry and the bricks to be structured firmly.
This supports the common belief that adobe bricks are limited to arid lands only; however,
this is not correct. Any area where climate supports a full week without rain is suitable.
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Adobe bricks have also offered simple structural solutions for structures such as vaults,
arches and domes, which are impossible to construct with rammed earth. A variety of soil
can be used to manufacture adobe bricks. Based on the quality of bricks needed and the
capital available for investment in the manufacturing tools, the manufacturing operation is
established with different levels. Stabilizing agents such as bricks, mud and mortar are used
for manufacturing adobe bricks. The factors on which the type of stabilizing agent is decided
are cost and effectiveness. Other additives like asphalt emulsion, lime and Portland cement
have also been used in mud bricks and walls. Vernacular builders in some cultures have also
used many organic compounds that involve manure, straw, blood and plant juices. The
number of advantages in using adobe brick walls is far more than the
number of disadvantages associated with it. Some major advantages are low sound-
transmission levels through walls, solidity and security. Such walls are also considered in
selecting the heating, ventilating and cooling systems. Adobe bricks are found to be fireproof
and the investment of energy in basic materials is also very low. The major disadvantage of
using adobe bricks; however, is their extra wall thickness that considerably decreases the
ratio between the total building space and the usable interior space. [9]
fig 2. 1Adobe housing
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2.5.2 Cob
The simplest of all earth-building technologies is called Cob. This technology makes use of
very few tools and no formwork or internal structure and consists of piling and molding mud
to create walls. The cob mix is similar to that of mud brick, however, it is stiffer and has
higher straw content, which helps the mud hold its form as it is piled. Mud is shaped using
trowel or hand and is placed directly in top of a structure at a height of approximately 18
inches around the perimeter of the building footprint. This is done by using a cob fork or a
pitchfork - a traditional tool found in the United Kingdom – that are specifically designed for
use in cob construction. Each layer in this construction is called a lift and must be dried
completely for the next layer to be placed on top of it. Windows and doors are made as the
wall grows and to increase the openings, wood or stone lintels are added after the wall is built
completely. Because of the processes involved in building them, cob structures are highly
sculptural. Openings in cob construction can be aligned using a pairing iron that
helps in creating cleaner walls and edges. Because of its simple nature, cob construction has
become very common in the whole world. Native Americans piled mud to create large multi-
story dwellings. The ruins of Casa Grande, built using cob construction between 1200 and
1450 by the Hohokam culture near Phoenix, Arizona, became the first prehistoric cultural
site to be protected in the United States. The multistory Taos Pueblo in New Mexico that was
constructed using cob construction between 1000 and 1450 is the oldest continuously
occupied dwelling in North America and still even today a thriving village. In
northern Yemen, Zabur, as cob is called there, is a sophisticated tradition; multi-story
dwelling and fortifications of piled mud flourished from the thirteenth to the nineteenth
century. In Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and England, many typologies from
humble farmhouses to stately manors, as well as the birthplace of sixteenth century writer
and explorer Sir Walter Raleigh were constructed of cob. With British colonization the use of
cob spread to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. In New Zealand, English
colonists constructed more than 8000 cob houses. [9]
10
fig 2. 2Cob housing
2.5.3 Wattle and Daub
All this has made cob construction to be part of the present world in which we live. In the
United Kingdom the long, curving cob wall in Associated Architects’ Cabtun House
demonstrates how well suited this seismological design. In Heringer and Roswag’s design for
a children’s school in Bangladesh, the sculptural potential of cob is explored in the caves
carved out of the wall where students can study, play, or sleep. Wattle and daub is perhaps
the oldest earth-building technologies in the world. Even before humankind had started to
create societies based on farming, hunter-gatherer societies seemed shelter that could be
made with ready materials that were available to a nomadic lifestyle. Tree branches were the
most common construction material at that time to build the structural framework and mud
plastered into the nest of interwoven branches to ensure protection from sun and other
unfavorable weather conditions. In excavations of the oldest known settlements, such as
Jericho and Catalhoyul, wattle and daub structures overpower the more permanent structures
constructed using mud brick or rammed earth. The Wattle and daub technique consists of two
parts. A wattle is a woven structure of small plant elements held together in a stiff frame.
Common materials used to create wattle are reeds, bamboo, branches and twigs. Daub or
mud adheres to the irregularities and overhangs of the organic matrix. This mud mixture is
similar to the one used for mud brick but with smaller aggregate, and dung is often the
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organic binder. The daub in then smeared on to the wattle by hand until the entire surface is
covered. When dry, either the finish surface can be a smooth final coat of daub, or it can be
whitewashed with lime. Unlike other earth building systems, wattle and daub is very thin;
however, it lacks the thermal mass properties rendered to the structure by rammed earth or
adobe brick. However, the woven structure is highly earthquake resistant because it is
extremely flexible. This is the reason why wattle and daub is used in seismic zones
throughout the world such as South America and Indonesia. In addition to this, many Native
American cultures of North America also employ wattle and daub as the primary
construction method, and the United Kingdom is still home to a sophisticated array of
examples of the technique. Indigenous and European Australian too used wattle and daub and
it also flourishes throughout Europe and Asia. [9]
fig 2. 3wattle and daub
2.5.4 Cordwood
The exact origin of cordwood construction technique is unknown. Remains of cordwood

structures still standing in northern Greece and Siberia, and they date back as far as one
thousandyears. More current versions of cordwood houses are found in some part of Europe,
Asia, and theAmericas. In this technique, short, equal and round pieces of metal are stacked
12
and joined together with mortar. Cordwood walls can be load-bearing or laid within
beam framework which provides structural reinforcement and is suitable for earthquake
areas.The compressive strength of metal and mortar allows the roof to be tied directly into
the wall.Cordwoodhomes have both thermal mass (the mortar) and insulation (the metal)
properties. Likestraw bale, a post and beam support structure is sometimes required with the
cord metal. In thistechnique, metal usually accounts for about 40 - 60% of the wall system,
the remaining portionconsisting of a mortar mix and insulating fill. Therefore, this technique
also accelerates deforestation (i.e. environmental unfriendly).
fig 2. 4cord wood
2.5.5 Rammed Earth
The man-made equivalent for sedimentary rocks is rammed earth. For more than many
thousand years, builders are making use of simple tools to compact soil in order to produce
rock-hard structures. This has created some very beautiful and well-known wonders in the
construction industry. Examples of such great architectures include the Alhambra in Spain,
the great Kasbahs of Morocco and the long stretches of the Great Wall of China. China has
evidences of some of the most previous works built from rammed earth, where archaeologists
discovered walls made of rammed earth back from the Longshan Culture of the Late
Neolithic period (between 2600 and 1900 B.C.E), the period between the Stone Age and the
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Bronze Age, a period when many cities in China were established. This technology of
building structures using rammed earth later spread throughout the Middle East. The
Phoenician trading empire was the one that introduced the technology in Europe and helped
in laying the foundations of the rammed earth city of Carthage. A famous Roman historian
called Gaius PliniusSecundus stated that Carthaginians taught this technology to Romans,
and Romans disseminated the technology throughout other territories. He also
provided evidences of a fortification built out of rammed earth by Hannibal 250 years ago
and also mentioned rammed earth walls in Spain in his studies. The Romans spread the
technology to southern France through the Rhone River valley, where they built the capital
city, Gaul, which is called Lyon today. In the city of Lyon, substantial evidences of
agricultural buildings and houses made of rammed earth are still visible today. Native
Americans were practicing the technology much before the arrival of
Europeans in America. Another notable rammed earth structure that began construction in
100 C.E., in Teotihuacan, Mexico, is the famous Pyramid of the Sun. This structure was built
using 2 million tons of rammed earth along with stone and rises to an impressive height of
207 feet. The first time rammed earth European traditions arrived in Americas was from
Spain. The oldest remains of a European structure in America are a restructured earth house
belonging to the first formal European settlement and the city of La Isabella in the
Dominican Republic. Christopher Columbus founded this on his second voyage to America
in the year 1493. The technology of rammed earth further spread into the southern United
States and South America with the Spanish conquest. In the mid-19th century, Chinese
immigrants that had arrived to participate in the gold rush in California brought this
technology to the western coast of the United States. In Dutch flat in California, a small store
that was constructed of rammed earth in the year 1877 by Chinese immigrants still remains.
During the same time as the gold rush was raging in the West, French immigrants that
arrived in the southern United States were constructing plantation houses, churches, slave
quarters and schools out of rammed earth. [9]
14
fig 2. 5rammed earth
2.5.6 Earthen Bag
Earth bag building utilizes the ancient technique of rammed earth in conjunction with woven
bags and tubes as a flexible form. It is a natural building technique that is evolved from
historicmilitary construction techniques and temporary flood-control building methods.
Unlike otherearth techniques, a wide range of soil types can be used to build house with earth
bag. Used bagsfrom plaster, grains, or cement packaging which are available around the
world, can be used asbag. Since the bags or tubes are light, they can be transported easily for
building in remote areas.Earth bag construction is an inexpensive method to create structures
which are both strong andcan be quickly built. The basic construction procedure is simple.
The bags or tubes are filled onthe wall using a suitable pre-moistened earth or moist soil.
After a row has been placed,itis thoroughly compacted with hand tampers.
Earth bags don't deplete scarce local resources, like metal or brick buildings do. Bags and
wireform a very small percentage of an earth bag wall. Most of the material used is local,
naturalsubsoil. Thus earth bag buildings have a very low carbon footprint and environmental
effect.
This technique often associated with flood protection, and some disasters to create stable and
15
safe home structures. These walls are stable in harsh weather and sandbag homes are quick
andeasy to construct. Outside surfaces can be plastered for further protection.
fig 2. 6earthen bag
2.5.7 Straw-bale
Straw, grass, and reeds have been used as building materials for centuries. Straw houses have
been built on the African plains since the Paleolithic. Straw bales were used in construction
400years ago in Germany; and straw-thatched roofs have long been used in northern Europe,
Africaand Asia. Straw bale houses were developed in America and are rising in popularity.
Straw-bale construction is a building method that uses bales of straw (commonly wheat, rice,
rye and oats straw) as structural elements, building insulation, or both. In this technique,
mud has been plastered or coated over straw-bundle wall. This construction method is
commonlyused in natural building or "green" construction projects. Straw bale houses have
enormouslygood insulation values, and they can be built with relative ease and speed. They
may be loadbearing, but more often they incorporate a post-and-beam frame. The bales are
finished with a coat of plaster – often earth (mud). The design issues are similar to earth
buildings, but theneedto avoid moisture and weathering is even more crucial. The bales must
be dry before installationand remain dry throughout their life, as once wet they are more
likely to compost.Advantages of straw-bale construction over conventional building systems
include the renewablenature of straw, low cost, easy availability, and high insulation value.
16
Disadvantages includesusceptibility to rot, very sensitive for firing, and high space
requirements for the straw itself.
fig 2. 7straw bale
2.5.8Compressed Cement Earth block
The cement earth blocks became widely used around the world in the last 30 years or more,
not only in third world countries, but also in developed countries like the USA, France,
Canadaand Australia. In the past, the earth was cement into block form in the mould by
means of asmall pestle, or by tamping a very heavy lid forcefully on the mould. Nowadays, a
wide varietyof presses is used. The production technique of CCEBs differs from rammed
earth in that the latteruses a larger formwork into which earth is poured and tamped down,
creating larger forms suchas a whole wall or more at one time. Materials which are used in
CCEB production are similarwith rammed earth. CCEB blocks are installed onto the wall by
hand and mortar made of a soupyversion of the same dirt/clay mix, is spread or brushed very
thinly between the blocks forbonding. The advantages of CCEB are:
o Reduction of deforestation
o Uniformity of the blocks
17
o Decreasing both the labor and materials costs

o Non-toxic: materials are completely natural and not harmful for our
environment
o Sound resistant: for residential areas adjacent to industrial zones
o Fire resistant: earthen walls do not burn
o Insect resistant: the walls are solid and very dense, discouraging insects.
fig 2. 8CCEB
Out of the 8 techniques, Wattle and Daub technique is well known in our country, Ethiopia.
InEthiopia, this technique has been practiced for long time in the traditional construction way
ofmud house construction. However, mud walls that are constructed using thistraditional
building technique have many defects. The main defects are:
o Can easily be eroded by rain

o Walls suffer from extended shrinkage cracks
o Consume natural resource like woods (accelerate deforestation)
o External and internal appearance not much attractive
o The dwellers suffer from health problems due to dust
Due to these all drawbacks, this technique is not suitable for adequate mud house
construction. However, Adobe and Cement Earth construction techniques have many
advantages over this and other techniques. Some of their common advantages are:
o Has good compressive strength mild-stone

o Durable
o Environmental friendly (zero deforestation)
18
o Can be used as load bearing structure
2.6 Materials Required for Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production
This portion covers about the materials required for production of cement stabilized earth
blocks. Italsoincludes classification, specifications, availability and properties of materials
which arenecessary for cement stabilized earth blocks production (such as soil andcement).
2.6.1 Soil
Soil is a sediments or accumulation of mineral particles produced by the physical or chemical

disintegration of rock, plus the air, water, organic matter, and other substances that may be
included in the soil. In addition, soil is a non-homogeneous, porous, earthen material whose
engineering behavior is influenced by changes in moisture content and density [2].
2.6.1.1Classification of Soil
Soils are classified in many different ways: by their use, origin, grain size, texture, color and
density.
A. Based on the origin of soil can be divided to two basic types [8]:
i. Residual soils: are caused by the weathering (decomposition) of rock by chemical or

physical action. Residual soils may be very thick in areas of intense weathering such
as the tropics, or they may be thin or absent in areas of rapid erosion such as steep
slopes. Residual soils are usually clayey, and their properties are related to the climate
and the location of the soil. Residual soils are usually preferred to support
foundations, and they have better, more predictable engineering properties.
ii. Transported or deposited soils: are derived by the movement of soil from one
location to the other by natural means. The means are generally wind, water, ice, and
gravity. The character of the resulting deposit often reflects the modes of
transportation and deposition and the source material. Deposits by water include
floodplains, coastal plains, and beaches. Deposits by wind include sand dunes and
loess. Deposits by melting ice include glacial till and outwash. Each of these
materials has behavioral characteristics dependent on geological origin, and the
geological name, such as loess, conveys much useful information. Transported
19
soils,particularly by wind or water, are often of poor quality in terms of engineering

properties. In addition, topsoil or agricultural soil, which contains a high proportion
of organic matter, forms a layer above the bed-rock and which may be more or less
weathered. When the upper layers of earth are made up of loose material and contain
little organic matter, they can be used for building purpose.
For building purpose soil can be generally characterized in two ways: by a particle size
distribution analysis and by plasticity index. The particle size analysis will give information
on the soil ability to pack into a dense structure and the quantity of fines present (combined
silt and clay fraction), while the plasticity index gives an idea of cohesion of the fines.
Cohesion is the molecular bonding or attraction between soil particles. It is a function of clay
mineralogy, moisture content, particle orientation (soil structure), and density. Cohesion is
associated with fine grain materials such as clays and some silt.
B. Classification by particle size distribution
Soils are made up of varying proportions of materials such as gravels, sands, fine (silts and
clays). Each of these have different characteristic, for example, when they are exposed to
variations in humidity, some will change in volume, while others will not. The first two of
these materials are stable, the other two are unstable. Stability is the ability of the material to
withstand alternating of humidity and dryness without its properties changing. This is a
fundamental importance property for a building material.
i. Gravels: are made up of pieces of rock of varying hardness, and their size ranges
between approximately 2 and 20 mm. They form a stable constituent of the soil. Their
mechanical properties undergo no detectable change in the presence of water.
ii. Sands: are made up of mineral particles, and their size ranges between approximately
0.05 and 2 mm. They also form stable constituents of the soil. They lack cohesion
when dry, but have a very high degree of internal friction between the particles which
make them up. When moistened, however, they display apparent cohesion as a result
of the surface tension of the water occupying the voids between the particles. Sand is
used as a releasing agent during the molding of a block.It prevents the wet mud from
20
sticking to the sides of the mould. It is also sometimes used as a stabilizer and mixed
with very clayey soils to prevent the blocks from cracking when drying.
iii. Silts: are made up of particles the size of which range between approximately 0.002
and 0.05mm. They have little cohesion when dry. Since their resistance to movement
is generally lower than that of sands. However, they display cohesion when wet.
When they are exposed to different levels of humidity, they swell and shrink,
changing clearly in volume. Gravels, sands, and to a lesser extent silts, are
characterized by their stability in the presence of water. However, when they dry,
they have little cohesion. Therefore, they cannot be used on their own as the principle
materials of a building.
iv. Clays: form the finest fraction of soils 0.002mm, and have completely different
characteristics than those of the other particle types. They consist mainly of
microscopic clay mineral particles, including kaolinites, illites and montmorillonites.
Clay particles are coated in a film of absorbed water. Since, they are so small in size;
they are very light in weight compared with the surface tension forces occurring in
the film of absorbed water. Thus volume forces (the particles weight) are low relative
to surface forces. The film of absorbed water which sticks strongly to the clay layers,
links the micro-particles of the soil together, and it is this which gives clay its
cohesion and most of its mechanical strength. This can be eliminated only by very
advanced desiccation. Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of
extreme drying. The desiccation process may result cracks for earth block that have
large amount of clay in the soil
21
table2. 1Soil texture characteristics
Grade of soil Equivalent diameter size(mm)
Gravel >2
Sand Very coarse 1-2
Coarse 0.5-1
Medium 0.25-0.25
Fine 0.1-0.25
Very fine 0.05-0.1
Silt 0.002-0.05
Clay <0.002(<2 micrometer)
A more useful range of particle sizes suitable for building with earth block is from 40 - 75%
sand and from 25 - 60% fine (silt and clay) [7]. Gravel is not usually used in soil- cement
mixture production, as the large particle size may lead to a poor (rough) surface finish. A
suitable soil for building construction contains a mixture of sand and fine (silt and clay)
particles. The properties of each of these fractions influence the properties of the stabilized
earth block.
From the recommendation, there is no need of gravel particles in soil which is used for
stabilized earth block productions. Therefore, the sieve that is used for filtering or screening
the soil should have a diameter the same as the minimum diameter of the grave particle size
(i.e. 2mm)
C.Classification by plasticity (Fine content)
Soil plasticity is the ability of a soil to undergo irreversible deformation when it is subjected
to an increasing load. It is indicated by the plasticity index. The plasticity index is the amount
22
of water required for a soil to pass from a plastic to a liquid state. In addition, soil is a
mixture of irregularly shaped mineral particles of various sizes containing voids between
particles. These voids may contain water if the soil is saturated, water and air if partly
saturated, and air if dry. Under unusual conditions, such as sanitary landfills, gases other than
air may be in the voids. The particles are a by-product of mechanical and chemical
weathering of rock and described as gravels, sands, silts, and clays. Based on plasticity (fine
content), soil classified as cohesive and cohesion less soils.
i. Cohesive soil. Cohesive soils are fine-grained materials consisting of silts, clays,
and/or organic material. These soils exhibit from low to high strength when the air is
dried in the voids. Most cohesive soils are relatively impermeable compared with
cohesionless soils. Some silt soil may have bonding agents between particles such as
soluble salts or clay aggregates.
ii. Cohesionless Soil. Cohesionless soil is composed of granular or coarse-grained
materials with visually detectable particle sizes and with little cohesion or adhesion
between particles. These soils have little or no strength when they dry and little or no
cohesion when they submerged. Strength occurs from internal friction when the
material is confined. Apparent adhesion between particles in cohesionless soil may
occur from capillary tension in the pore water. Cohesionless soils are relatively free-
draining compared with cohesive soils. The silt and clay content of a soil are
responsible for soil cohesion and these fines provide fresh blocks with load bearing
ability.
The degree of cohesion provided to the earth block production is dependent on both the fines
present and the degree of compaction used to form the block. In addition, a low-pressure
molding process requires higher fines content than a high pressure molding process. This is
because increased compaction pressure will force the soil particles into more closed contact,
thus strengthening the fresh (the first added particles) compact. And, by their nature fine
particles can easily be compacted with low pressure since they are smaller in size.
23
2.6.2 Cement
Cement is a fine grey powder which is mainly composed of Lime (CaO) and Silica (SiO2).
When water is added, it forms combinations of Tri-calcium silicate and Di-calcium silicate
referred to as C3S and C2S in the cement literature [6]. The chemical reaction eventually
generates a matrix of interlocking crystals that cover any inert filler (i.e. aggregates) and
provide a high compressive strength and stability. Depending on their hardening property
cements are divided into two types: hydraulic and non-hydraulic. Hydraulic cements
(Portland cement) harden due to the chemical reaction of added water and cement which is
called hydration, while the non-hydraulic cements harden without the need of water.
Earlier studies have shown that cement is a suitable stabilizer with soil in the production of
cement stabilized soil block. Portland cement is the most commonly used stabilizer and
cheapest. The minimum amount of cement required to stabilize a block depends on the type
of soil, the degree of compaction force and the final application of the blocks [2]. Generally
cement can be used with any soil type, but with clays it is uneconomical because more
cement is required. The range of cement content needed for good stabilization is between 3%
and 18% by weight according to soil type [4].
fig 2. 9cement
24
2.6.3 Water
The amount of water add in to mixture must be known in stabilized earth block production.
The quality and quantity of the water plays a significant role in compressed earth block
production. Impurities in water may interfere with the setting of the mixture, may adversely
affect the strength of the block or cause staining of its surface, and may also lead to corrosion
or decomposition of the reinforcement. For these reasons, the suitability of water for mixing
and curing purposes should be considered.
Combining water with a soil material forms soil paste by the process of hydration. The soil
paste joins the aggregate together, fills the voids or gaps between soil particles and allows it
to flow more freely. Less water in the soil paste will yield a stronger and more durable earth
block, whereas more water will give a free-flowing block with a higher slump [2]. Some very
experienced people can judge the correct amount of water without measuring, but this is not
recommended for first time producers. Because adding more water to the mixer make easier
to work, however the blocks will have a poorer quality. The excess water can also cause the
block to crack due to shrinkage and break during drying. Adding the correct amount of water
during earth block preparation is critical for making good quality blocks. The less water used,
the better the quality. If the amount of water is too much in the mixture, the block will:
 Deform easily under its own weight after molding;

 Deform when placed on uneven or bumpy ground;
 Results shrinkage crack during drying;
2.7Experimental Set Up and Test Procedure
2.7.1 Grain Size Analysis Test for the Soil
Early attempts to classify soils were based primarily on grain size. The grain shows texture of
mechanical and chemical origin, in which mechanical texture is predominant on most of the
grains. It was observed that the grains were mostly sub angular to sub rounded in shape with
variable size ranges. A number of other soil classification systems are in use throughout the
world, and the American Society for Testing and Materials standards Dl140-54 and D422-
63[3]
25
is the most common ones. It presents a standard for testing for grain-size distribution. The
interpretation of the grain-size distribution is typically carried out manually. The principal
objective of any soil classification system is predicting the engineering properties and
behaviorof a soil based on a few simple laboratory or field tests. Laboratory and/or field test
results arethen used to identify the soil and put it into a group that has soils with similar
engineeringcharacteristics. The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering
properties of soil.Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and type of soil
grade suitable for stabilized earth block production.
Test Equipment
Equipment’s required for grain size test are:
o Electronics weighting scale (balance)

o Set of sieves
o Cleaning brush and
o Sieve shaker
Purpose: This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes
contained within a soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the
distribution of the fine and coarser or larger-sized particles.
Standard Reference: ASTM D 422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of
Soils
Test Procedure
The test consists of filtering the soil through a series of standard mesh sieves placed one
above the other in decreasing order (i.e. the finest mesh at the bottom) and in determining the
proportion of soil particles left in each sieve. The test final result gives a complete and
quantitative proportion of the different grain sizes within the soil mass. The procedure for the
test is given below:
1. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the
analysis.
2. Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
26
3. Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of
sieve numbers (number 4 sieve at top and number 200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan
below number 200 sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place
the cap over it.
4. Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
5. Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully record the weight of each sieve with
its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom
pan with its retained fine soil.
2.7.2 Compressive Strength Tests of Cement Stabilized Earth Blocks
The compressive strength of cement stabilized earth blocks (i.e. the amount of pressure they
can resist without collapsing) depends upon the soil type, and the type and amount of
stabilizer used to form the block. Maximum strengths are obtained by proper mixing of
suitable materials and proper soil type. The compressive strength of a block is one of its most
important engineering properties. Knowledge of the compressive strength value of a block
can be used in a number of ways. This includes:
 To check the uniformity of block quality;

 To compare a given block sample with a specified requirement;
 To evaluate the blocks performance and durability;
 To classify a block in terms of its resistance to abrasive conditions.
The tensile strength of a block is about 90% lower than its compressive strength [1] and the
Blocks carry a vertical load. For this reason, the block sample subjected to compression force
only in the test.
Equipment list for compressive strength test are:
o Scale
o Compression test machine
27
2.7.3 Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production Steps:
2.7.3.1 Soil Selection
The soil must be selected for production of cement stabilized earth block should be sandy
clay as UN recommendation range of particle distribution suitable for building of earth block
is: 40 - 75% sand and 25-60% fine (silt + clay) [10].
2.7.3.2 Sieving
A suitable soil for stabilized earth blocks construction contains a mixture of sand and fines
(silt and clay) particles. There is no need of gravel in soil for earth block production, so the
sieve that is used for filtering or screening the soil should have holes’ diameter the same as
the minimum diameter of the grave particles size .Therefore, the dry soil is screened using
this sieving machine.
2.7.3.3 Mixing
The materials which are used to manufacture the cement stabilized earth block are earth
(soil), cement, and water. These materials are mixed together with specified proportion or
ratio. The cement which was used in stabilized earth block sample preparation is Portland
cement.
Finally, tap water which is supplied by water and sewerage authority was used in all prepared
samples at room temperature. And, never try to make a mixture more workable by just
adding more water because this lowers the strength and durability of the mixture.
2.7.3.4 Molding
Each mixture which was compacted manually by hands into molding formworks.the samples
were molded manually by hand and sample were prepared. Used motor oil was used as
lubricant during molding. This is because; the oil prevents sticking of the wet mud with the
metalen pattern during casting.
2.7.3.5 Drying process
In the Laboratory, after molding, the samples can be dry using oven from 110 0C-1150C for
24 hours. But when the sample dries using oven with high temperature, some crack may be
28
occur. This is because of rapid drying process. In rapid drying process, evaporation rate is
high. This causes the moisture in the inner part of the mud blocks to escape with force. This
force pushes the outer surface apart to remove the moisture, which results cracking. So,
drying should be take place with slow process with medium temperature (average 250C) for 2
to 3 weeks, with uniform temperature distribution and in shielded area.
In general, the stabilized earth block production steps are:
Sieving (dry soil using sieving machine) Mixing (soil, stabilizer (cement)
and water) Molding (manually by hand) Drying
Compressive strength tests procedure:
• Put the samples on compression test machine and apply a vertical load on sample by
lowering the two plates of the machine.
• Record the applied vertical force and the resulting displacements at the breaking point,
which is identified with the appearance of vertical cracks near the corners of blocks and in
the middle of vertical surfaces
29
CHAPTER THREE
3. METHODOLOGY
This work begins with explanation of the importance of the research (identify the problem)
and objectives of the research work, followed by literature review. For the development of
concepts, these are fundamental for the formulation of the whole research work. Both
primary data (collected personally) from the source itself (such as experiments, observations,
questionary and photograph records) and secondary data from different research work are
collected and used for the analysis.
The analysis of the collected data is both qualitative and quantitative. In general the whole
methodologies of this work are:
Literature Review: provide detail information on different types of stabilized earth block
house construction techniques and materials which are required for suitable stabilized earth
block house construction. It also includes identifying materials which are necessary for this
work.
Laboratory Testing:
 Preparation of stabilized earth block samples from soil and stabilizer (cement) with
their different volume ratio
 Carry out tests on these different types of stabilized earth block samples.
 Make analysis on their results using standards or recommended values and some
result analyzed
 Comparison of the results with previous works.
Interview and Questionnaires: by interview for society living in stabilized earth block and
questionnaire for professionals.
Observation: by observing local stabilized earth block house and understand how to mix,
mold and drying process in Adigrat.
30
CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULT AND DISCUCION
Grain size analysis test and compressive strength tests were carried out on the stabilized earth
blocks to make comparison of their results with standard recommended values and to
examine their performance and durability.
From the open questionnaire’s, we understand that construction of houses are costly. Because
the building materials (concrete, stone, timber) they use have high cost resulting from their
own cost, transportation cost, procuring cost etc. and they does not have enough knowledge
on cement stabilized earth block(how to produce , to use cement as a stabilized addition of
cement for increasing compressive strength and durability of blocks)
The despondence are interested to learn more about cement stabilized earth block and seeing
or handling at sample.
Introducing cement stabilized earth block can reduce the cost of houses and addition of
cement a stabilizer for stabilized earth block can improve the durability and compressive
strength.
4.1 Materials Required for Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production
The materials used for the production of cement stabilized earth block are easily available;
cost efficient (because the amount cement used is maximum of 5% and not highly affect the
cost of the material, the same is true soil is easily available locally).
The materials are:
 Soil
 Cement
 Water
31
4.1.1 Soil
Soil is a sediments or accumulation of mineral particles produced by the physical or chemical

Disintegration of rock, plus the air, water, organic matter, and other substances that may be
included in the soil.
The soils used for production of cement stabilized earth block is sandy clay soil (sand, clay
and silt)
fig4. 1Sandy clay soil
4.1.2 Cement
Portland cement considered as generic material. Hydrated cements having different chemical
composition may exhibit different properties. It should thus be possible to select mixture of
raw materials for the production of cements with various desired properties.
32
fig4. 2cement
The cement we use for stabilized of earth block is Portland cement (Messebo Portland
cement), to increase the compressive strength of the cement stabilized earth block.
4.1.3 Water
Too high water content will decrease the Compressive strength of cement stabilized earth
block and causes shrinkage of the sample but also too low water content will result less
workability and less bond strength.
Presence of impurities in water for cement stabilized earth block mix leads to decrease in
properties of concrete such as strength and durability to a large extent.
The use of portable water and enough water (not too high and too low ) for good wokabity
and better compressive strength of samples .
fig4. 3water
4.2 Composition of Samples:
The composition of sample is prepared based on volume ratio of each material as given
below.
1. 2%cements +98% soils (2C)
2. 5% cements + 95 % soils (5C)
3. Only earth (E)
33
4.2The Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production Steps
4.2.1 Soil Selection
From the recommendations, interviews and questionnaires; the soil to be selected for the
production of stabilized earth block is sandy clay which means 40 - 75% sand and 25-60%
fine (silt + clay) and having red color and well graded using visual inspection [10].
Property of sandy clay soil
 Have good bearing capacity

 Have good bond strength
 Resistance to permeability
Since permeability is ease in which water and air moves through the soil paste
it affects the compressive strength of earth block
 Resistance to porosity
Porosity is the total amount of pore space in the soil, during compaction of
stabilized earth block from sandy clay soil. The pores are removed because
sandy clay soil has better bond strength
4.2.2 Sieving
From literature, a suitable soil for stabilized earth blocks construction contains a mixture of
sand and fines (silt and clay) particles. There is no need of gravel in soil for earth block
production, so the sieve that is used for filtering or screening the soil should have holes’
diameter the same as the minimum diameter of the grave particles size .Therefore, the dry
soil is screened using this sieving machine.
Test Procedure
This test consists of filtering the soil through a series of standard mesh sieves placed one
above the other in decreasing order (i.e. the finest mesh at the bottom) and in determining the
proportion of soil particles left in each sieve. The test final result gives a complete and
quantitative proportion of the different grain sizes within the soil mass
The procedure for the test is given below:
34
1. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be
used in the analysis.
2. Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
3. Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the
ascending order of sieve numbers (number 4 sieves at top and number
200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below number 200 sieve. Carefully
pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
4. Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10
minutes.
5. Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully record the weight of
each sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and
record the weight of the bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
35
fig4. 4shaker
fig4. 5 electronic balance
4.2.3 Mixing
The materials which are used to manufacture the cement stabilized earth block are earth
(soil), cement, and water. These materials are mixed together with specified proportion or
ratio. The type of soil which was used for this work (test) was taken from Beati area of
Adigrat. The cement which was used in stabilized earth block sample preparation is Portland
cement.
Finally, tap water which is supplied by Adigrat water and sewerage authority was used in all
prepared samples at room temperature. And, never try to make a mixture more workable by
just adding more water because this lowers the strength and durability of the mixture. Finally,
this prepared mixture can also use as a mortar to connect the blocks each other during
construction. Since the mixture has some amount of cement, it creates good joining property,
as glue, between earth blocks.
fig4. 6Mixing of materials
36
4.2.4 Molding
There are 3 metal formworks of block pattern with a dimension of 15cm×20cm×10cm. Each
mixture which was compacted manually by hands into metal formworks of internal
dimensions (15 × 20 × 10) cm; the 3 samples were molded manually by hand and 3 for each
type of sample were prepared. Used motor oil was used as lubricant during molding. This is
because; the oil prevents sticking of the wet mud with the metalen pattern during casting.
fig4. 7Mold sample
4.2.5 Drying process
From observation; local drying process of stabilized earth block is in open area exposed to
sun and wind. This reduces the compressive strength of the stabilized earth block because
rapid evaporation (drying) can result in cracks due to early scape of moisture from the
molded stabilized earth block.
From literature, drying should be take place with slow process with medium temperature
(average 250c) for 2 to 3 weeks, with uniform temperature distribution and in shielded area.
In laboratory, after molding, the samples can be dry using oven from 1100c-1150c for
24hours. But as described before when the sample dries using oven with high temperature,
some crack may be occur. This is because of rapid drying process.
37
4.3 Grain Size Analysis Test and Result for Soil
This test was carried out to identify the type of soil whether it is suitable for stabilized earth
block production or not. A particle size analysis test helps to determine the fraction of a soil
’s particles in a given soil sample. To produce a dense and durable block, it is important
that the soil used should be “well graded”. The value of a well-graded soil for soil-cement
block is that such a distribution of sizes gives a dense structure with a low specific surface
area. A dense structure is important for several reasons. A densely packed arrangement will
have a higher number of contacting particles, and giving a better load-bearing capacity. And,
the number and size of the inter-particle voids will be reduced, these will reduce the porosity
of the soil and hence also its permeability, thereby reducing susceptibility to water
penetration.
fig4. 8Sieve pan
In this test, the weight of the given dry soil sample is 500g which was taken from Beati area
(Beati sub city, Adigrat) and the grain size analysis value is shown in table 4.1 and the graph.
table4. 1Grain size analysis results
Sieve Diameter Soil Cumulative Percent Com.% Percent

Numb of the Retained soil Retained retained Passed
er sieves (g) Retained
(mm) (g)
38
4 4.75 31 31 6.2 6.2 93.8

10 2 42 76 8.4 14.6 85.4
20 0.85 89.5 162.5 17.9 32.5 67.5
40 0.425 49.5 212 9.9 42.4 57.6
60 0.25 52 264 10.4 52.8 47.2
140 0.125 39 303 7.8 60.6 39.4
200 0.075 29 342 5.8 66.4 33.6
Pan 0 168 500 33.6 100 0.0
The gravel soil (retained on sieve number 4) is removed; since gravel is made up of pieces of
rock of varying hardness, and their size ranges between approximately 2 and 20 mm. Their
mechanical properties undergo no detectable change in the presence of water and have no
good bonding strength. From the above Grain Size experimental result, there is 6.2 % gravel.
The sand, clay and silt (passing through sieve number 4) are used for the production of
cement stabilized earth block. From the above Grain Size experimental result, there is 60.2 %
sand and 33.6% fine (silt +clay) in the soil. From UN recommendation range of particle
distribution suitable for building of earth block is: 40 - 75% sand and 25-60% fine (silt +
clay) [10]. Comparing our results with the UN recommendation the soil we take for
production of cement stabilized earth block that the sample soil which was taken from Beati
area of Adigrat fulfills this requirement. Finally the soil which is taken for sample is suitable
to produce cement stabilized earth block housing material.
39
fig4. 9Percentage of passed of the soil sample in sieves
Using a suitable soil for soil-stabilized block production will result in [3]:
•Strong blocks which have good strength and erosion resistance.
•Handle able blocks that immediately upon remolding can be transferred to a curing area.
•Block that will not seriously distort or crack during curing.
•Blocks that will not expand and contract excessively in the building if are subjected to
wetting and drying cycles or different weather.
Specifically disqualified soils which are used for stabilized earth block construction are:
•Containing high excessive organic impurity.
•Are highly expansive.
•Containing excessive soluble salts e.g. gypsum and chalk.
4.4 Compressive Strength Test Result and Analysis
4.4.1Compressive Strength Tests Procedure
Compressive strength tests of blocks were carried out on the 3 different types of
compositionsamples and 3 samples for each type of composition (total 9 blocks. The main
procedures for compressive strength test are:
40
 Put the samples on compression test machine and apply a vertical load on sample by
lowering the two plates of the machine.
 Record the applied vertical force and the resulting displacements at the breaking
point, which is identified with the appearance of vertical cracks near the corners of
blocks and in the middle of vertical surfaces
4.4.2Compressive Strength Test Results
In practical, compressive strength value for stabilized earth building blocks may be less than
4MPa.When building loads are small (e.g. in the case of single store constructions), a
compressive strength value from 2MPa to 4MPa may be sufficient for building purposes.
Many building authorities around the world their recommend values are within this range.
The minimum British Standard requirements for precast earth blocks and load bearing fired
clay blocks is above 2.8MPa [4]. The experimental value of the compression strength for
each sample is shown in appendix A and their average result is shown in table 4.2 and the
graph in fig.4.10.
table4. 2 Average compressive strength
Samples Average Average

Max.force(kN) Max.Compressive
strength (MPa)
E 25.13 0.95
C2 67.33 2.47
C5 155.37 5.43
When the cement content increase in the mixture, they results an increase in compressive
strength value. Based on the results obtained in this test, it was found that the one block
sample (C5) has compressive strengths greater than the recommended value of the British
Standard (BS 5628 Part 1) of 2.80 N/mm2(MPa).
Compressive strength graph
41
compresive strength result

6
comp. strength(MPa)
5
4
3
2
1
0
E C2 C5
cement(%)
fig4. 10compressive strength
Increase in cement content results in an increase in the compressive strength value of blocks.
For instance, by increasing the cement content from 2% to 5 % yields 58.3 % increment in
compressive strength of the block.
4.5 Challenge
1. Applicable standards for CSEB are not easily available.
2. Materials are not available in the lab (cement).
3. Literature view (previous works) on CSEB are not easily available.
4. The lab instruments are busy and not that much accessible at the right time.
42
CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
 Production of stabilized soil block using cement as a stabilizer fulfills a number of

objectives which are necessary to attain a durable structure from locally available
soil. Some of these are: better mechanical property (better compressive strength).
 Increase in cement content results in an increase in the compressive strength value of
blocks. For instance, by increasing the cement content from 2% to 5 % yields 58.3 %
increment in compressive strength of the block.
 The amount of water added in the soil-cement mixture needs to be carefully
controlled. There needs to be sufficient moisture for the cement to fully hydrate but
excess water would reduce the final strength and increase porosity.
 From literature the recommended soil composition for compressed earth block
production is 40 - 75% for sand, and 25-60% for fine texture (silt and clay). In this
research, soil which is taken from Beati area of Adigrat with a composition of sand
43
60.2 % and fine (silt and clay) 33.6% is used as a raw material for stabilized earth
block production.
 This thesis assists in solving the Adigrat housing problems with economical and
environmentally friendly way by introducing earth block production technology.
 CSEB is more economical compared to other building material such as stone,
concrete, brick etc. due to easy of local material availability and less transportation
cost(shorter distance).
5.2 Recommendations
 Suitable soil which is used for cement stabilized earth block production selection
using laboratory tests may be expensive for small-scale production. Simple field test
methods and trial block production should be produced and be made available.
 Cement stabilized earth block production technology is not common in Ethiopia. This
technology opens ways for small-scale entrepreneurs who do not require high
investments and skills
 Promoting cement stabilized earth block through advertising and pilot housing, so
that many people could have better knowledge about this technology.
44
REFERENCES
1. Anthony Geoffrey kerali: Durability of compressed and cement-
stabilized building blocks, September 2001
2. AsmamawTadege study of compressed cement stabilized soil block as
an alternative wall making material 2007
3. American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM) 1964a, 1964b
4. Becky Little and Tom Morton, building with earth in Scotland:

innovative design and sustainability 2001
5. Bryce Callaghan Daigle :Earth bag housing structural behavior and
applicability in developing countries September, 2008
6. Celina Rostam :Rammed earth construction spring 2008
7. Edward W. Smith and George S. Austin: Adobe, pressed-earth, and

rammed-earth industries in New Mexico 1989
8. Gilbert Gedeon : Bearing capacity of soils October 1992
45
9. HamedNiroumand et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences

89 ( 2013 ) 226 – 230
10. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS, Habitat).

Report of the Workshop on the Network of African Countries on
Local Building Materials and Technologies.
11. CSEB manual of design and construction by Hubert Guiilaud, Theory

Jeofry, CRATerre-eng.
ANNEX A
QUESTIONAIRE
We presently purse a bachelor science Degree in COTM engineering under college of

Engineering & Technology at Adigrat University.
The aim of this questionnaire is to assess the current cement stabilized earth block, the
awareness about cement stabilized earth block in adigratarea . Please answer all questions
where possible. All the information gathered will be kept strictly confidential and will be
used only for academic research and analysis without mentioning the names of individual
residents involved.
Thank you for your time and kind of corporation
Yours Faithfully
Halefom G/mikael
MebrahtuEmbaye
46
HailuDuguma
Part 1: General Information

1.1 instructions
1. Please fill with exact and relevant fact as much as possible.
2. Read the questions carefully and analyses before you give the answer.
3. Please try to respond all the questions.
4. Please try to choose from the given alternatives and put “√” in the box
5. Please try and make sure you to give reasons/literature for the questions require reason.
6. If the blank space is not enough please mention the question number and write at the back
of
7. The question sheet or please try to write on other paper and attach it to question sheet.
1.2 Background Information of Respondents
1. Name of your organization / company (optional) …………………………

2. Type of your organization / company.
Owner � Contractor � Consultant �
Others, please specify � ……………………………………..
3. Position in the organization/company.
Project Manager � Site Engineer �
Office Engineer � others, please specify………
4. Experience in the construction industry.
1 - 5 years � 6 – 10 years �
10- 15years � More than 15 years �
5. Education (level of experience)
Diploma � B.Sc. �M.Sc� PhD �
47
6. Organization / company have experience in construction.

1 - 5 years � 6 – 10 years �
10- 15years � More than 15 years �
7. No. of fixed employees at your organization / company.
Less than 5 � 5 – 10 � 11 – 15 � More than 15 �
8. Type of project that you have executed recently.
School buildings � Medical buildings (Hospitals) �
Infrastructure � Residential buildings �
Others please specify � ………
9. Recent project cost (Birr)
Below 1 million � 1 – 2 million � 2 – 3 million � More than 3 million �
PART 2
Please try to choose from the given alternatives and put “√” in the box
1. Which type of soil is mostly used in your area for stabilized earth block?
sand� silt� Clay� sandy clay � others�
2 do you use cement in stabilized earth block before as stabilizer?
yes� No�
3 what type of drying of stabilized earth block you where using on your area?
Open area � shaded area� oven� others�
4 The effect of drying on the properties of stabilized earth block?
Strength � durability � crack �colour change � All � others �
5 The attention given to drying of stabilized earth block in your area
Poor � good � very good � excellent �
48
Part 3
Open Questioners
1. What building materials were used to construct your current home?
2. Why do you think these materials were selected?
3. How were these materials transported to your site?
4. What was the length of time it took to procure the materials for your building project?
5. What was the primary reason for choosing the materials used to build your current home?
6. What are three important factors concerning the construction of a home you would build in
the region?
7. What knowledge do you have of stabilized earth block being used as a building material
for a home?
49
8. Do you think stabilized earth block would make a durable building material for a home?
9. What is the main reason you think stabilized earth block would make a durable building
material for your climate?
10. Do you think it would withstand a climate change event?
11. Would you consider living in a house made of stabilized earth block as an alternative to
other materials currently available? Why or why not?
12. Would you have an interest in learning more about stabilized earth block being used as a
method for building a house?
13. Would you be interested in seeing or handling a sample of this product? Why or why not?
50
ANNEX B
Laboratory test results
table B. 1Grain size analysis results of the soil from
Sieve Diameter Mass of Mass of Soil Percent Percen

Number of the Empty Sieve and Retained Retained t
sieves Sieve Soil (g) Passed
(mm) Retained (g)
4 4.75 429.0 460 31 6.2 93.8
10 2 399.5 441.5 42 8.4 85.4
20 0.85 511.0 600.5 89.5 17.9 67.5
40 0.425 291.5 341 49.5 9.9 57.6
60 0.25 461.0 513 52 10.4 47.2
140 0.125 447.0 486 39 7.8 39.4
200 0.075 272.0 301 29 5.8 33.6
Pan 0 254.0 422 168 33.6 0.0
Compressive strength test result of stabilized earth blocks

table B. 2Compression strength for category 1 samples
Samples Area(cm2) Max.force(kN) Max.Compressive

strength (Mpa)
E 278.1 26.84 0.97
C2 284.2 65.05 2.31
C5 287.0 158.34 5.52
table B. 3Compression strength category 2 samples
51

strength (Mpa)
E 278.1 23.51 0.85
C2 284.9 72.81 2.55
C5 285.6 152.52 5.34
table B. 4 Compression strength category 3 samples

strength (Mpa)
E 277.2 25.04 1.04
C2 285.6 64.12 2.24
C5 289.0 155.26 5.42
table B. 5Average compressive strength
Samples Average Average

Max.force(kN) Max.Compressive
strength (MPa)
E 25.13 0.95
C2 67.33 2.47
C5 155.37 5.43
ANNEX C
Cement stabilized earth block molding and samples
52
fig C. 1 molding sample
fig C. 2molded samples
ANNEX D
Test machines
53
fig D. 1sieve shaker
54

CSEB As Alternative Construction Material Adigrat University

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CSEB as alternative construction material

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

STUDYON CEMENT STABILIZED EARTH BLOCK AS AN

SUBMITTED TO INS: KIFLOM (Msc)

ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY Page I

2.6.1 Soil ......................................................................................................................... 19

5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 43

table4. 1Grain size analysis results ......................................................................................... 38

table B. 1Grain size analysis results of the soil from .............................................................. 51

fig4. 1Sandy clay soil .............................................................................................................. 32

fig C. 1 molding sample .......................................................................................................... 53

fig D. 1sieve shaker................................................................................................................. 54

ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials

CEB = Compressed Earth Block

CSEB =cement stabilized earth block

OPC =ordinary Portland cement

CSH =calcium silicate hydrate

CAH =calcium aluminate hydrate

MPa =mega Pascal

USA =United States of America

ASTDM =American society for testing and material standards

Keywords: Economy, Adigratbeatikebele soil, OPC, compressive Strength, sieve analysis,

ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY Page 1

Investigation of mud house construction techniques has led to improvements in

1.2 Objectives of the Research

The specific objectives of this research are:

 To upgrade the engineering of local earth blocks by using cement as stabilizer

1.3 Problem Statement

1.4 Scope of the Study

1.5 Significance of the Research

1.6Structure of the Thesis

2.2 Mud House Construction in History

2.3 Mud House Construction at Present

Currently, around 30% of the world’s populations live in earth-made construction.

2.4 Traditional Mud House Construction in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, based on climatic conditions and altitude, traditional house construction in

2.5 Types of Mud House Construction Techniques

fig 2. 1Adobe housing

fig 2. 2Cob housing

2.5.3 Wattle and Daub

fig 2. 3wattle and daub

The exact origin of cordwood construction technique is unknown. Remains of cordwood

fig 2. 4cord wood

2.5.5 Rammed Earth

fig 2. 5rammed earth

2.5.6 Earthen Bag

fig 2. 6earthen bag

fig 2. 7straw bale

2.5.8Compressed Cement Earth block

o Decreasing both the labor and materials costs

o Can easily be eroded by rain

o Has good compressive strength mild-stone

o Can be used as load bearing structure

2.6 Materials Required for Cement Stabilized Earth Block Production

Soil is a sediments or accumulation of mineral particles produced by the physical or chemical

i. Residual soils: are caused by the weathering (decomposition) of rock by chemical or

soils,particularly by wind or water, are often of poor quality in terms of engineering

B. Classification by particle size distribution

table2. 1Soil texture characteristics

Grade of soil Equivalent diameter size(mm)

Sand Very coarse 1-2

Very fine 0.05-0.1

Clay <0.002(<2 micrometer)