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Bio-Mechanics
By
Dr. Waleed M. AL-Talabi

Sana’a Community College

Biomedical Engineering 4th Level
2021-2022

Musculoskeletal
Statics
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Agenda
• Basic Statics
• Anatomical Position and Planes
• The Musculoskeletal System
– Skeletal System
– Skeletal Muscles
• Movement
• Skeletal Joints
– Mechanics of the Elbow
– Mechanics of the Shoulder
– Mechanics of the Spinal Column
– Mechanics of the Hip
– Mechanics of the Knee
– Mechanics of the Ankel
• Levers

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Basic Statics
Statics is an area within the field of applied
mechanics, which is
– Concerned with the analysis of rigid bodies in
equilibrium.

– In mechanics, the term equilibrium implies

that the body of concern is either at rest or
moving with a constant velocity.

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Basic Statics
• A rigid body is one that is assumed to
undergo no deformation under the effect of
externally applied forces.

• In reality, there is no rigid material and the

concept is an approximation.

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Anatomical Position and Planes

Anatomical Position
– Arms at side with palms facing
forward.
– Legs straight and together with
feet flat on the ground.
– Movements of the body are
described in relation to this
position.

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Anatomical Position and Planes

Sagittal Plane Coronal Plane
Anatomical Planes
– Coronal (front / back)

– Sagittal (left / right)

– Transverse (top / bottom) Transvers Plane

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Musculo-Skeletal System
(Locomotor System)
Bones + Muscles = Locomotion

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The Musculoskeletal System

Skeletal System Muscular System
Provides support, Provides movement
structure, and
protection

Made up of: Made up of:

• Bones • Muscles
• Joints • Tendons
• Ligaments
• Cartilage

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The Musculoskeletal System

• The musculoskeletal system is made up of
the body’s bones (the skeleton), muscles,
cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and
other connective tissue that support and
bind tissues and organs together.

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Musculoskeletal System
1- Skeletal System
• There are 206 bones in the adult skeleton.
• Male and female skeletons are almost the
same, but the female skeleton has a
broader pelvis to accommodate childbirth.
• The male skeleton is typically taller with
greater bone density.

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Musculoskeletal System
1- Skeletal System
• The skeleton serves as the main storage
system for calcium and phosphorus.

• The skeleton also contains critical

components of the hematopoietic (blood
production) system and fat storage.

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Musculoskeletal System
1- Skeletal System
• To allow motion, different bones are
connected by articulating joints.
• Cartilage prevents the bone ends from
rubbing directly on to each other while the
muscles contract to move the bones
associated with the joint.

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Musculoskeletal System
2- Skeletal Muscles:
• In general, there are over 600 muscles in
the human body, accounting for about
45% of the total body weight.

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Musculoskeletal System
2- Skeletal Muscles:
• is connected to the bones of the body and
when contracted, causes body segments
to move.

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Musculoskeletal System
• The structural unit of skeletal muscle is the
muscle fiber, which is composed of myofibrils.
• Myofibrils are made up of actin (thin) and
myosin (thick) filaments.

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Musculoskeletal System
• Muscles are elastic in the sense that when a
muscle is stretched and released it will
resume its original (unstretched) size and
shape.
• Muscles are viscous in the sense that there is
an internal resistance to motion (That is, they
have both solid and fluid-like material
properties).

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Musculoskeletal System
• The skeletal muscles can be functionally
classified as:
Agonist muscles are the primary muscles
responsible for generating a specific movement.
An antagonist muscle opposes the action of
another muscle.
Synergic muscle is that which assists the agonist
muscle in performing the same joint motion.

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Musculoskeletal System
• The longest muscle in the body is Sartorius.
• The biggest muscle in the body is Gluteus
Maximus. It is located in the buttock. It pulls
the leg backwards powerfully for walking and
running.
• The smallest muscle in the body is Stapedius.
It is located deep in the ear. It is only 5mm
long and thinner than cotton thread. It is
involved in hearing.
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Movement
• Movement of human body segments is
achieved as a result of forces generated
by skeletal muscles that convert chemical
energy into mechanical work.

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Movement
• Flexion: decreases angle of a joint.
• Extension: increases angle of a joint.
• Abduction: movement away from midline.
• Adduction: movement toward midline.
• Rotation: turning around an axis.

Musculoskeletal System
Skeletal Joints:
The human body is rigid in the sense that it
can maintain a posture, and flexible in the
sense that it can change its posture and move.
The flexibility of the human body is due
primarily to the joints, or articulations, of the
skeletal system.
The primary function of joints is to provide
mobility to the musculoskeletal system.

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Musculoskeletal System
• The joints of the human skeletal system
may be classified based on their structure
and/or function to:
Synarthrodial joints, such as those in the
skull, are formed by two tightly fitting bones
and do not allow any relative motion of the
bones forming them.

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Musculoskeletal System
Amphiarthrodial joints, such as those between
the vertebrae, allow slight relative motions,
and feature an intervening substance (a
cartilaginous or ligamentous tissue) whose
presence eliminates direct bone-to-bone
contact.
Diarthrodial joints, which permit varying
degrees of relative motion and have articular
cavities, ligamentous capsules, synovial
membranes, and synovial fluid.
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Mechanics of the Elbow

humerus
• The elbow joint is composed
of three separate articulations: trochlea
The humeroulnar joint (uniaxial
rotations) is a hinge (ginglymus)
joint formed by the articulation
between the spool-shaped ulna

trochlea of the distal humerus

and the concave trochlear fossa
of the proximal ulna.

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Mechanics of the Elbow

humerus
The humeroradial joint is also
a hinge joint formed between
trochlea
the capitulum of the distal capitulum
humerus and the head of the
radius.
The proximal radioulnar joint is radius ulna
a pivot joint formed by the
head of the radius and the
radial notch of the proximal
ulna.
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Mechanics of the Elbow

• The muscles coordinating and controlling
the movement of the elbow joint are:

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Mechanics of the Elbow

The biceps brachii muscle is
a powerful flexor of the elbow
joint, particularly when the biceps brachii

elbow joint is in a supinated

position. It is the most
triceps
powerful supinator of the brachii

forearm.

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Mechanics of the Elbow

The triceps brachii muscle is
the important muscle
controlling the extension biceps brachii

movement of the elbow.

triceps
brachii

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Mechanics of the Elbow

The brachialis muscle which,
regardless of forearm
orientation, has the ability to
produce elbow flexion.

brachialis
muscle
supinator
muscle

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Mechanics of the Elbow

The supinator muscle has
attachments at the outer
condyloid ridge of the
humerus, the neighboring
part of the ulna, and the
outer surface of the upper
third of the radius.
brachialis
muscle
supinator
muscle

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Mechanics of the Shoulder

• The complex structure of the shoulder can
be divided into two:

The shoulder joint

(Glenohumeral articulation).

The shoulder girdle.

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Mechanics of the Shoulder

• The major muscles of the shoulder joint
are:
– Deltoideus,
– Supraspinatus,
– Latissimus dorsi,
– Teres major,
– Teres minor,
– Infraspinatus,
– Subscapularis.
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Mechanics of the Shoulder

– Pectoralis major, and

– Coracobrachialis,

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Mechanics of the Shoulder

• The movements allowed are:
In the sagittal plane, flexion (movement of the
humerus to the front—a forward upward
movement) and extension (return from flexion);

In the coronal plane, abduction (horizontal

upward movement of the humerus to the side)
and adduction (return from abduction);

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Mechanics of the Shoulder

• The movements allowed are:
In the transverse plane, outward rotation
(movement of the humerus around its long axis
to the lateral side) and inward rotation (return
from outward rotation).

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

• The human spinal column is the most complex
part of the human musculoskeletal system.

• The principal functions of the spinal column are:

protect the spinal cord;
support the head, neck, and upper extremities;
transfer loads from the head and trunk to the pelvis;
permit a variety of movements.

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

• The spinal column consists of:
Cervical C1:C8 (neck),
Thoracic T1:T12 (chest),
Lumbar L1:L5 (lower back),
Sacral S1:S5, and
Coccygeal.

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

• The thoracic and lumbar sections of the
spinal column make up the trunk.

• The sacral and coccygeal regions are

united with the pelvis and can be
considered parts of the pelvic girdle.

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

The muscle groups providing, controlling,
and coordinating the movement of the head
and the neck are:
prevertebrals (anterior),
hyoids (anterior),
sternocleidomastoid (anterior-lateral),
scalene (lateral),

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

The muscle groups providing, controlling,
and coordinating the movement of the head
and the neck are:
levator scapulae (lateral),
suboccipitals (posterior), and
spleni (posterior).

The muscles of the spine exist in pairs.

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

• The structure of the spine allows a wide
variety of movements including:
– flexion–extension,
– lateral flexion, and
– rotation.

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

The anterior portion of the spine contains
the abdominal muscles:
rectus abdominis,
transverse abdominis,
external obliques, and
internal obliques.
These muscles provide the necessary force
for trunk flexion and maintain the internal
organs in proper position.
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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

• There are 3 layers of posterior trunk muscles:
erector spinae,
semispinalis, and
the deep posterior spinal muscle groups.

• These muscles provide trunk extension and

support the spine against the effects of
gravity.

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Mechanics of the Spinal Column

• The quadratus lumborum muscle is important in
lateral trunk flexion. It also stabilizes the pelvis
and lumbar spine.
• The lateral flexion of the trunk results from the
actions of the abdominal and posterior muscles.
• The rotational movement of the trunk is
controlled by the simultaneous action of anterior
and posterior muscles.

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Bio-Mechanics
Break

Mechanics of the Hip

• The articulation Pelvis Bone

between the head

of the Femur and
the Acetabulum of Acetabulum

the Pelvis forms a Femur

diarthrodial joint.

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Mechanics of the Hip

• The stability of the hip joint is provided by
its relatively rigid balland- socket type of
configuration, its ligaments, and by the
large and strong muscles crossing it.
• Movements of the femur about the hip joint
include flexion and extension, abduction
and adduction, and inward and outward
rotation.
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Mechanics of the Hip

• There are no muscles whose primary
purpose is to move the pelvis.

• Movements of the pelvis are caused by

the muscles of the trunk and the hip.

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Mechanics of the Hip

Based on their primary actions, the muscles of
the hip joint can be divided into several
groups:
psoas, iliacus, pectineus,
rectus femoris, and tensor
fascia latae are the primary
hip flexors and used to carry
out activities such as running
or kicking.

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Mechanics of the Hip

The gluteus maximus and the
hamstring muscles (the biceps
femoris, semitendinosus, and
semimembranosus) are hip
extensors.

The hamstring muscles also

function as knee flexors.

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Mechanics of the Hip

The gluteus medius and
gluteus minimus are hip
abductor muscles
providing for the inward
rotation of the femur.
The gluteus medius is
also the primary muscle
group stabilizing the
pelvis in the frontal
plane.

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Mechanics of the Hip

The adductor longus,
adductor brevis, adductor
magnus, and gracilis
muscles are the hip
adductors.

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Mechanics of the Hip

There are also small, deeply placed muscles

(outward rotators) which provide for the
outward rotation of the femur.

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Mechanics of the Hip

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Mechanics of the Knee

• The largest and one of the most complex joint.
• It is a two-joint structure composed of the
tibiofemoral joint and the patellofemoral joint.
• The tibiofemoral joint has two distinct
articulations between the medial and lateral
condyles of the femur and the tibia.
• These articulations are separated by layers of
cartilage, called menisci.

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Mechanics of the Knee

• The knee is a mechanism of the joints and
the bones:
– Femur,
– Tibia, Femur
– Patella Patella
– Fibula.
Fibula Tibia

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Mechanics of the Knee

• The muscles crossing the knee:
– protect it,
– provide internal forces for movement, and/or
– control its movement.

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Mechanics of the Knee

Hamstring
Quadriceps
• The muscular
control of the knee
is produced
primarily by:
– Quadriceps muscles
– Hamstring muscle
group.

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Mechanics of the Knee

• The quadriceps muscle
group is composed of the:
– rectus femoris,
– vastus intermedius,
– vastus lateralis, and
– vastus medialis.

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Mechanics of the Knee

• The hamstring muscle
group consist of:
– The biceps femoris,
– semitendinosus, and
– semimembranosus muscles.
• which help control the extension of the hip,
flexion of the knee, and some inward–
outward rotation of the tibia.

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Mechanics of the Knee

• Popliteus muscle that has
attachments on the femur and
tibia.
Popliteus
• The primary function of this
muscle is knee flexion.

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Mechanics of the Knee

• The other muscles of the knee are:
– Sartorius,
– Gracilis,
– Gastrocnemius
– Plantaris.

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Mechanics of the Knee

• The knee joint permits some automatic
inward and outward rotation, in addition to
flexion and extension action of the leg in
the sagittal plane.

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Mechanics of the Ankle

• The ankle is the union of three bones:
– Tibia,
Tibia
– Fibula, and Fibula
– Talus. Talus

• The ankle is responsible for load-bearing

and kinematic functions.

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Mechanics of the Ankle

• The ankle permits only flexion–extension
(dorsiflexion–plantar flexion) movement of
the foot in the sagittal plane.

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Mechanics of the Ankle

• The most important ankle plantar
flexors are: Gastrocnemius

– Gastrocnemius and Soleus

– Soleus muscles.

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Mechanics of the Ankle

• The other muscles are:
Gastrocnemius
– Tibialis anterior,
Soleus
– Extensor digitorum
longus,
– Extensor hallucis
longus,
– Peroneus tertius.

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Bio-Mechanics
Break
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Levers
• Musculoskeletal system arrangement
provides for 3 types of machines in
producing movement
– Levers (most common)
– Wheel-axles
– Pulleys

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Levers
• A lever is a simple machine that magnifies
the force, speed, or both of movements
and consists of a rigid rod that is rotated
about a fixed point or axis called the
fulcrum.
• In the body
– bones represent the bars
– joints are the axes
– muscles contract to apply force
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Levers
• A lever may be evaluated for its mechanical
effectiveness by computing its Mechanical
Advantage (MA).

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝑀𝐴 =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚

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Levers
• There are three cases of mechanical
advantage.
– Case 1:
MA = 1, (effort arm = resistance arm)
In this case, the function of the lever is
to change the direction of motion or balance
the lever but not to magnify either the effort
or resistance force.

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Levers
– Case 2:
MA > 1, (effort arm > resistance arm)
In this case, the lever is said to magnify
the effort force.

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Levers
– Case 3:
MA < 1, (effort arm < resistance arm)
In this case, a much greater effort force
is required to overcome the resistance force.
Therefore, velocity or speed of movement is
said to be magnified.

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Classes of Levers
• There are three classes of levers.

Class I

Class III

Class II

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Classes of Levers
First-class: the effort force and the resistance
force are on opposite sides of the fulcrum.
This lever in the human body acts with (MA~1).
That is, the lever acts to balance or change the
direction of the effort force.
| Force Arm || Resistance Arm |
• FAR
1st F R

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Classes of Levers
• First-class levers exist in the musculoskeletal
system of the human body.
• The agonist and antagonist muscles
simultaneously acting on opposite sides of a
joint create a first-class lever.

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Classes of Levers
• An example of the former
is the action of the
splenius muscles acting to
balance the head on the
atlanto-occipital joint.

• This type of first-class

lever is a pulley.

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Classes of Levers
Second-Class Lever: the resistance force
acts between the fulcrum and the effort
force. That is, the resistance force arm is
less than the effort arm (MA > 1).
• ARF | Resistance Arm |
| Force Arm |
2nd R F

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Classes of Levers
• Because there are so few examples of
second-class levers in the human body, it
is safe to say that humans are not
designed to apply great forces via lever
systems.
• The act of rising onto the toes is one such.
This action is used in weight training and
is known as a calf raise.

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Classes of Levers
Third-Class Lever: the effort force acts
between the fulcrum and the resistance
force. As a result, the effort force arm is less
than the resistance force arm (MA < 1).
| Force Arm |
• AFR | Resistance Arm |
3rd F R

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Classes of Levers
• This is the most
prominent type of lever
arrangement in the
human body, with nearly
all joints of the
extremities acting as
third class levers.

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Bio-Mechanics
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