Akanksha

Student ,Department of
mathematics ,GNDU

TITLE : TIMES WHEN MATHEMATICIANS WERE WRONG Akankshamehra2002@gmail.com

Mathematics is a subject that is based on pure logic as well as reliable imaginations of the
masters. You must be wondering are there any times , widely accepted proves of famous
theorems went wrong and eventually got disproved . These events can mold the history and the
future of the subject . let’s throw some light on such events :

1) THEOREM :
A convergent series of a continuous functions converges to a continuous function.

A theorem by one of the great mathematicians named as Cauchy . Now known as

Cauchy’s famous wrong theorem .

ESSENCE OF THE THEOREM FOR BEGINNERS:

BASICS:
Q1: What is a convergent series ?
A: A series is convergent (or converges) if the sequence of its partial sums tends to a 
limit that means that, when adding one term after the other in the order given by the
indices, one gets partial sums that become closer and closer to a given number.

Q2: What is a continuous function?

A: A function f(x) is said to be a continuous function in calculus at a point x = a if the
curve of the function does NOT break at the point x = a. The mathematical definition of
the continuity of a function is as follows. A function f(x) is continuous at a point x = a if

 f(a) exists;
 limₓ → ₐ f(x) exists; [i.e., limₓ → ₐ₋ f(x) = limₓ → ₐ₊ f(x)]
 Both of the above values are equal. i.e., limₓ → ₐ f(x) = f(a).

i.e considering a series of continuous functions which is convergent , then according to

the theorem it should converge to again a continuous function .

ABELS’S COUNTER EXAMPLE:

Few years later Abel gave a counter example ,
sinx − 1 2 sin 2x + 1 3 sin 3x −···
All terms of the series is continuous function –YES
Is the series convergent –YES
Is the series converging to continuous function – NO ITS NOT .
2) THEOREM :
Any continuous function (on a real interval, with real values) is differentiable except at
some isolated points.

Ampere gave a proof (1806) and the claim was repeated in lots of 19th century books.

ESSENCE OF THE THEOREM FOR BEGINNERS:

BASICS:
Q1: What is a continuous function?
A: A function f(x) is said to be a continuous function in calculus at a point x = a if the
curve of the function does NOT break at the point x = a. The mathematical definition of
the continuity of a function is as follows. A function f(x) is continuous at a point x = a if

 f(a) exists;
 limₓ → ₐ f(x) exists; [i.e., limₓ → ₐ₋ f(x) = limₓ → ₐ₊ f(x)]
 Both of the above values are equal. i.e., limₓ → ₐ f(x) = f(a).

Q2: When a function is differentiable ?

A: A differentiable function of one real variable is a function whose derivative exists at
each point in its domain.

Q3: What are isolated points?

A: A point x is called an isolated point of a subset S ,if x is an element of S and there
exists a neighborhood of x which does not contain any other points of S.

i.e considering any continuous function , then according to the theorem it will be
differentiable at all points except some isolated points.

WEIERSTASS IDEA OF CONTINOUS , NO WHERE DIFFRENTIABLE

FUNCTIONS :
Weierstrass killed the whole idea with his continuous , nowhere differentiable function,
which was one of the first fractal curves in mathematics

Let b be a real number such that 0 < b < 1 and let a be a positive odd integer. If ab > 1
and 2/ 3 > π /(ab−1 ),
then W ( x )=Σ bn cos ( a n xπ ) where n is from 0 to ∞ is continuous on R and is not
differentiable at any point in R.
3) THEOREM:
Any function could be expanded into a power series except at some isolated points

Lagrange, in the late 18th century, believed any function could be expanded into a
power series except at some isolated points and wrote an entire book on analysis based
on this assumption. (This was a time when there wasn't a modern definition of function;
it was just a "formula".) His goal was to develop analysis without using infinitesmals or
limits. 

ESSENCE OF THE THEOREM FOR BEGINNERS:

BASICS:
Q1: What is a power series?
A: a power serier is an infinite series of the form

Q2: What are isolated points?

A: A point x is called an isolated point of a subset S ,if x is an element of S and there
exists a neighborhood of x which does not contain any other points of S.

i.e considering any function we can expand it in form of power series except for some
isolated points.

But,Dirichlet's better definition of function, blew the whole work of Lagrange

apart.

CONCLUSION :
Even the mistaken work of such geniuses forms the mathematics into what it is today ,
and all we can learn is to be observant enough and not to study what’s in book without
asking a WHY?