Contents

The three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system

Distance between two points in space

Coordinates of a midpoint of a line segment

Equation of sphere in space

Vectors in space

Position vector in space

10

Vectors multiplication

11

Equation of a straight-line in space

17

The angle between two straight-lines in space

20
Equation of a plane in space

25

The angle between two planes

28

Equation of the line of intersection of two planes

29

Three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system

The coordinates of a point A in space are identified with respect to

3 mutually orthogonal axes intersect at a point by finding the
projection of this point on each axis. When the 3-dimensional
orthogonal coordinate system is formed, we should follow the
right-hand rule, where the curved fingers refer from the positive
direction of x-axis towards the positive direction of y-axis, your
thumb points at the direction of positive z-axis.
In Cartesian coordinates, there are three planes: xy-plane, yz-plane, and xz-
plane. Any point A

in space can be determined through three values (coordinates) which can be

written as 𝐴(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧), where |𝑥| gives the normal distance from the point to
the yz-plane, |𝑦| gives the normal distance from the point to the xz-plane, and
|𝑧| gives the normal distance from the point to the xy-plane. So that, all points
in space of coordinates (x, y, 0) are located in the xy-plane, whose equation is
𝑧 = 0, all points in space of coordinates (x, 0, z) are located in the xz-plane,
whose equation is 𝑦 = 0, and all points in space of coordinates (0, y, z) are
located in the xy-plane, whose equation is 𝑥 = 0.
All points in space of coordinates (x, 0, 0) are located on the x-axis, all
points in space of coordinates (0, y, 0) are located on the y-axis, and all points
in space of coordinates (0, 0, z) are located on the z-plane.

Distance between two points in space

 If 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are two points in space, then the
distance between A and B is given by the relation:
𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 (1)

Coordinates of a midpoint of a line segment

If 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are two points in space, then the
coordinates of point C which lies at the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 is:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
( , , ) (2)
2 2 2
Examples 1:
Find the distance between the two points A and B, and the coordinates of the
midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 where:
(𝑖)𝐴(1, 0, 3), 𝐵(−2, 2, 1) (ii)𝐴(−3, 2, 3), 𝐵(1, 2, 1)
Solution:
The distance between the two points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is:
𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 ,
and the coordinates of the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 is:
𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 𝑧2 + 𝑧1
( , , )
2 2 2
(i) The distance between the two points A and B is:
𝐴𝐵 = √(−2 − 1)2 + (2 − 0)2 + (1 − 3)2 = √17 units
and the coordinates of the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 are:
1−2 0+2 3+1 1
( , , ) = (− , 1,2)
2 2 2 2
(ii) The distance between the two points A and B is:
𝐴𝐵 = √(1 + 3)2 + (2 − 2)2 + (1 − 3)2 = √20 units
and the coordinates of the midpoint of AB are:
−3 + 1 2 + 2 3 + 1
( , , ) = (−1,2,2)
2 2 2
Exercises:
Find the distance between the two points A and B, and the coordinates of the
midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 where:
(𝑖)𝐴(5, 1, 3), 𝐵(−1, − 2, 2) (ii)𝐴(4, −
2, 1), 𝐵(−1, − 2, 0) (iii)𝐴(5, 0, 1), 𝐵(3, 2, 1)

Equation of sphere in space

The sphere is identified by a set of points in space equidistant from a fixed
point called (the center of the sphere) and the distance called (the radius
length of the sphere).

Standard form of the equation of the sphere

If the center of the sphere is (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and its radius is 𝑟, the standard form
of the equation of the sphere can be written as:
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 = 𝑟 2 (3)

General equation of the sphere

The general equation of the sphere is:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 (4)
Expanding the quadratic terms in (3) and comparing with (4) yields the
coordinates of the center of the sphere as:
1 1
𝑥0 = −𝑎 = − coefficient 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑦0 = −𝑏 = − coefficient 𝑜𝑓 𝑦,
2 2
1
𝑧0 = −𝑐 = − coefficient 𝑜𝑓 𝑧
2
The radius of the sphere is: 𝑟 = √𝑥02 + 𝑦02 + 𝑧02 − 𝑑
Examples:
a) Find the standard and general forms of the equation of the sphere whose
center is (2, -1, 4) and radius length is 5 units.
b) Find the standard and general forms of the equation of the sphere in which
𝐴(−1, 5,4), 𝐵(5, 1, −2) are the end points of its diameter.
c) Identify the center and the radius length of the sphere whose equation is:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 6𝑧 + 11 = 0
d) Find the center and radius length of the sphere whose equation is:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 4 = 0
Solution:
a) Since the standard form of the equation of a sphere of center (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )
and radius 𝑟 is given by:
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 = 𝑟 2
Then the standard form of the equation of the sphere is:
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 + (𝑧 − 4)2 = 52
from which the general form of the equation of the sphere as:
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + (𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1) + (𝑧 2 − 8𝑧 + 16) = 25.
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 8𝑧 − 4 = 0
b) The radius of the sphere is:
1 1
𝑟 = 𝐴𝐵 = √(5 + 1)2 + (1 − 5)2 + (−2 − 4)2 = √22 Units
2 2
and the center is:
−1 + 5 5 + 1 4 − 2
( , , ) = (2, 3, 1)
2 2 2
Then the standard form of the equation of the sphere is:
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 + (𝑧 − 1)2 = 22,
the general form of the equation of the sphere is:
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + (𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9) + (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 1) = 22
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 − 8 = 0.
c) The coordinates of the center of the sphere are:
1 1 1
𝑥0 = − × 4 = −2, 𝑦0 = − × (−2) = 1, 𝑧0 = − × (−6) = 3
2 2 2
and the radius length of the sphere is:
𝑟 = √𝑥02 + 𝑦02 + 𝑧02 − 𝑑 = √4 + 1 + 9 − 11 =
√3 units
d) The coordinates of the center of the sphere are:
1 1 1
𝑥0 = − × 6 = −3, 𝑦0 = − × (−8) = 4, 𝑧0 = − × 4 = −2
2 2 2
and the radius length of the sphere is:
𝑟 = √𝑥02 + 𝑦02 + 𝑧02 − 𝑑 = √9 + 16 + 4 − 4 =
5 units

Exercises:
a) Find the equation of the sphere whose center is the origin, and its radius
length is 5 units
b) Find the equation of the sphere whose diameter is 𝐴𝐵 where
𝐴(−1, 4, 2), 𝐵(3, −2,6)
c) Identify the center and the radius length of the sphere whose equation is:
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 9
d) Find the center and the radius length of the following spheres:
(𝑖)𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦
=0 (𝑖𝑖)𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 + 5 = 0