AL2 IM - Up To Finals

UNIT 1
AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT IN THE CLASSROOM
A. Learning Plan/Outcomes
At the end of the unit, the students can:
a. Discuss the nature and characteristics of authentic assessment and
related terms;
b. Differentiate authentic and traditional assessment;
c. Reflect on the importance and applications of authentic assessment,
and
d. Make connections between the principles of high quality assessment
and the development and use of authentic assessment techniques and
tools within and across teaching areas.
B. Time Frame – 4 weeks (12 hours)
C. Content
Lesson 1 – High Quality Assessment in Retrospect
Five Keys to High-Quality Classroom Assessment

The book, Classroom Assessment for Student Learning: Doing It Right—Using It
Well has been designed to help teachers develop and refine their classroom assessment
practices so that they serve to improve, not just measure, student learning. With content
drawn from the measurement field and adapted to the needs of the classroom teacher,
the book presents a framework of five keys to assessment quality, represented in the
graphic below.
The following chart reflects the competencies needed to implement each of the
keys effectively. Keys to Quality Competencies How Relates to Equity?
1. Clear Purpose - Assessment processes and results serve clear and

appropriate purposes.
a. Identify the key users of classroom assessment information and know what
their information needs are.
b. Understand formative and summative assessment uses and know when to use
each.
2. Clear Targets - Assessments reflect clear student learning targets.

a. Know how to identify the five kinds of learning targets.
b. Know how to turn broad statements of content standards into classroom-level
learning targets.
c. Begin instructional planning with clear learning targets.
d. Translate learning targets into student-friendly language.
3. Sound Design - Learning targets are translated into assessments that yield
accurate results.
a. Design assessments to serve intended formative and summative purposes.
b. Select assessment methods to match intended learning targets.
c. Understand and apply principles of sampling learning appropriately. d. Write
and/or select assessment items, tasks, scoring guides, and rubrics that meet standards
of quality.
e. Know and avoid sources of bias that distort results.
4. Effective Communication - Assessment results function to increase student

achievement. Results are managed well, combined appropriately, and communicated
effectively.
a. Use assessment information to plan instruction.
b. Offer effective feedback to students during the learning.
c. Record formative and summative assessment information accurately.
1 Assessment of Learning 2
d. Combine and summarize information appropriately to accurately reflect current
level of student learning.
5. Student Involvement - Students are active participants in the assessment

process.
a. Identify students as important users of assessment information.
b. Share learning targets and standards of quality with students.
c. Design assessments so students can offer peer feedback, self-assess, and set
goals for further learning on the basis of the results.
d. Involve students in tracking, reflecting on, and sharing their own learning
progress.
Lesson 2 – What is Authentic Assessment?

1. Nature - Authentic Assessment (How You Assess)
Authentic assessment is "a form of assessment in which students are asked

to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential
knowledge and skills" (J. Mueller). While we understand that environmental
constraints make authentic assessments significantly more challenging to
develop and implement than other forms of assessment, authentic assessment is
key to student engagement, and we will focus on how to make your assessments
as "authentic" as possible. When students' work benefits real people or
organizations, for instance, it often stimulates students to hold themselves more
accountable, produce higher quality work, and make connections between
course content and the real-world.
Authentic assessments:
∙ are direct measures.
∙ capture the constructive nature of learning.
∙ integrate teaching, learning and assessment.
∙ provide multiple paths to demonstration.
Jon Mueller developed a comprehensive website, the Authentic Assessment

Toolbox, that guides educators in developing authentic assessments. The
following are highlights from the toolbox, but we recommend that you review the
full website prior to developing your assessment strategy.
Traditional Assessments Authentic Assessments
Curriculum drives the assessment Assessment drives the curriculum

Selecting a response Performing a task
Contrived Real-life
Recall / recognition Construction / application
Teacher-structured Student-structured
Indirect evidence Direct evidence
Discourage teaching to the test Encourage teaching to the test
2. Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of authentic assessments as described in
Bean (1993) and Svinicki (2004).
Resemble real-world tasks and activities

Can be structured as written or oral assessments completed individually, in
pairs, or in groups
Often presented as ill-structured problems with no right answers Ask students
to communicate their knowledge orally or in writing to a specific audience and for
specific purpose
Usually ask students to address professional or lay audiences
27 Characteristics Of Authentic Assessment
Authentic assessments –
A. Structure & Logistics

1. Are more appropriately public; involve an audience, panel,
etc. 2. Do not rely on unrealistic and arbitrary time constraints
3. Offer known, not secret, questions or tasks.
4. Are not one-shot – more like portfolios or a season of
games 5. Involve some collaboration with others
6. Recur – and are worth retaking
7. Make feedback to students so central that school structures and policies
are modified to support them
B. Intellectual Design Features

1. Are ―essential‖ – not contrived or arbitrary just to shake out a grade 2.
Are enabling, pointing the student toward more sophisticated and important use
of skills and knowledge
3. Are contextualized and complex, not atomized into isolated
objectives 4. Involve the students‘ own research
5. Assess student habits and repertories, not mere recall or
plug-in. 6. Are representative challenges of a field or subject
7. Are engaging and educational
8. Involve somewhat ambiguous (ill-structures) tasks or problems
C. Grading and Scoring

1. Involve criteria that assess essentials, not merely what is easily scores
2. Are not graded on a curve, but in reference to legitimate performance
standards or benchmarks
3. Involve transparent, de-mystified expectations
4. Make self-assessment part of the assessment
5. Use a multi-faceted analytic trait scoring system instead of one holistic
or aggregate grade
6. Reflect coherent and stable school standards
D. Fairness
1. identify (perhaps hidden) strengths [not just reveal deficits]
2. Strike a balance between honoring achievement while mindful of
fortunate prior experience or training [that can make the assessment invalid] 3.
Minimize needless, unfair, and demoralizing comparisons of students to one
another
4. Allow appropriate room for student styles and interests [ – some
element of choice]
5. Can be attempted by all students via available scaffolding or prompting
as needed [with such prompting reflected in the ultimate scoring] 6. Have
perceived value to the students being assessed.
3. Related terms - Mueller's* Glossary of Authentic Assessment Terms

Analytic Rubric: An analytic rubric articulates levels of performance for each
criterion so the teacher can assess student performance on each criterion.
Authentic Assessment: A form of assessment in which students are asked
to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential
knowledge and skills. Student performance on a task is typically scored on a
rubric to determine how successfully the student has met specific standards.
Some educators choose to distinguish between authentic assessment and

performance assessment. For these educators, performance assessment meets
the above definition except that the tasks do not reflect real-world (authentic)
challenges. If we are going to ask students to construct knowledge on
assessments, then virtually all such tasks should be authentic in nature or they
lose some relevance to the students.
Authentic Task: An assignment given to students designed to assess their

ability to apply standards-driven knowledge and skills to real-world challenges. A
task is considered authentic when 1) students are asked to construct their own
responses rather than to select from ones presented; and 2) the task replicates
challenges faced in the real world. Good performance on the task should
demonstrate, or partly demonstrate, successful completion of one or more
standards. The term task is often used synonymously with the term assessment
in the field of authentic assessment.
Content Standards: Statements that describe what students should know or

be able to do within the content of a specific discipline or at the intersection of
two or more disciplines (e.g., students will describe effects of physical activity on
the body). Contrast with Process Standards and Value Standards.
Criteria: Characteristics of good performance on a particular task. For

example, criteria for a persuasive essay might include well organized, clearly
stated, and sufficient support for arguments. (The singular of criteria is criterion.)
Descriptors: Statements of expected performance at each level of

performance for a particular criterion in a rubric - typically found in analytic
rubrics. See example and further discussion of descriptors.
Distractors: The incorrect alternatives or choices in a selected response

item. (For more see terminology for multiple-choice items.)
Goal: In the field of student assessment, a goal is a very broad statement of

what students should know or be able to do. Unlike a standard or an objective, a
goal is often not written in language that is amenable to assessment. Rather, the
purpose for crafting a set of goals typically is to give a brief and broad picture of
what a school, district, state, etc. expects its students will know and be able to do
upon graduation.
Holistic Rubric: In contrast to an analytic rubric, a holistic rubric does not list
separate levels of performance for each criterion. Instead, a holistic rubric
assigns a level of performance by assessing performance across multiple criteria
as a whole.
Objective: Much like a goal or standard, an objective is a statement of what

students should know and be able to do. Typically, an objective is the most
narrow of these statements, usually describing what a student should know or be
able to do at the end of a specific lesson plan. Like a standard, an objective is
amenable to assessment, that is, it is observable and measurable.
Outcome: See Standard. Preceding the current standards-based movement
was a drive for outcome-based education. The term standard has replaced the
term outcome with much the same meaning.
Performance Assessment: See Authentic Assessment above. I use these

terms synonymously.
Portfolio: A collection of a student's work specifically selected to tell a

particular story about the student. See Portfolios for more details.
Process Standards: Statements that describe skills students should develop
to enhance the process of learning. Process standards are not specific to a
particular discipline, but are generic skills that are applicable to any discipline
(e.g., students will find and evaluate relevant information). Contrast with Content
Standards and Value Standards.
Reliability: The degree to which a measure yields consistent results.
Rubric: A scoring scale used to evaluate student work. A rubric is composed

of at least two criteria by which student work is to be judged on a particular task
and at least two levels of performance for each criterion.
Standard: Much like a goal or objective, a standard is a statement of what

students should know or be able to do. I distinguish between a standard and
these other goal statements by indicating that a standard is broader than an
objective, but more narrow than a goal. Like an objective and unlike a goal, a
standard is amenable to assessment, that is, it is observable and measurable.
Stem: A question or statement followed by a number of choices or

alternatives that answer or complete the question or statement. (Stems are most
commonly found in multiple-choice questions. See terminology for multiple choice
items.)
Validity: "The degree to which a certain inference from a test is appropriate

and meaningful" (AERA, APA, & NCME, 1985). For example, if I measure the
circumference of your head to determine your level of intelligence, my
measurement might be accurate. However, it would be inappropriate for me to
draw a conclusion about your level of intelligence. Such an inference would be
invalid.
Value Standards: Statements that describe attitudes teachers would like

students to develop towards learning (e.g., students will value diversity of
opinions or perspectives). Contrast with Content Standards and Process
Standards.
Lesson 3 – Why use authentic assessment?

1. Principles - Authentic Assessment Explained - Written by Erin Howard
"Can you think of professions which require some direct demonstration of
relevant skills before someone can be employed in that field? Doctors,
electricians, teachers, actors, and others must all provide direct evidence of
competence to be hired. Completing a written or oral test or interview is usually
not sufficient. Shouldn't we ask the same of our students before we say they are
ready to graduate? Or pass a course? or move on to the next grade? (Jon
Meuller, Authentic Assessment Toolbox, 2014)
Striving to make assessments "authentic" has become a best practice in
recent years. The definition of authentic assessment can vary depending on
which research literature is consulted. The term "authentic assessment" seemed
to arise as a reaction against using multiple choice exams as the primary way to
assess student performance (Terwilliger, 1997).
When defining authentic assessment, some believe that the only way to
authentically assess a skill or concept would be to directly replicate what a
student may expect to find in industry or the real-world. An example of this may
be a nursing student who performs a role play with a simulation robot and
performs the same procedures they would perform on a patient in the hospital.
Others may define authentic assessment not by the literal physical replication
of the learned concept, but instead by the cognitive thought processes that the
student used to arrive at the same conclusion. Perhaps this same student had to
give a presentation of the step by step procedures they would go through with
the patient. They are still going through the same thinking process, but the
product to prove their learning is different. Some may argue that multiple choice
exams could be considered a form of authentic assessment, depending on the
thought process that the student is using to arrive at the answer. Is it simple
recall of a fact? Or does it lead the student to visualize themselves in a situation,
perhaps drawing from knowledge in the course and applying it to answer the
question. Even though some multiple choice questions do require higher order
cognitive processes which may be considered authentic, it may not be
considered a best practice to use multiple choice exams as the only form of
assessment. Students learn and demonstrate learning in many ways and a
variance of assessment tools will give the best overall feedback.
Although definitions of authentic assessment do vary there seems to be

common themes that are present across the research. These are some broad
principles which apply to authentic assessments.
Authentic Assessment Principles
Use a range of tools to access learning

Involve multiple roles and perspectives
Are reflective
Lead students to create collaborative knowledge
May use relevant real world examples or stimulate tasks from
industry May require an application of learned concepts or skills
Why is it important to assess authentically?
It is important that we strive to create authentic assessment experiences

for our students. Here are four important reasons to strive to assess students
authentically in your class (adapted from the Authentic Assessment Toolbox by
Jon Mueller, 2014).
1.Authentic Assessments are Direct Measures: Authentic assessments
give students the chance to not only know the content, but to actually apply the
knowledge in a meaningful way. It allows for more direct evidence of learning the
skill through demonstration or application.
2.Authentic Assessments Capture the Constructive Nature of Learning:
Research in education and learning has concluded that students need to
construct their own meaning and knowledge, not simply be fed knowledge to be
received passively. Students need to create their own meaning and construct
knowledge based on their own experience of the world combined with the new
information they receive.
3. Authentic Assessments Integrate Teaching, Learning, and
Assessment: When authentic assessments are integrated throughout the
course, it allows students to work with the instructor and build their own learning
while completing the assessment. An example of this would be a scenario that
allows students to construct their own knowledge while moving through the
experience, picking up pieces of knowledge as they go. This integrated teaching,
learning, and assessment experience is in contrast to traditional assessment
where the teaching and learning come first and the assessment happens after –
independent of the teaching and learning.
4.Authentic Assessments Provide Multiple Paths to Demonstration:
Research shows that multiple and varied assessments give the best indication of
student learning (Wiggins, 1998). We all have different learning styles and also
best demonstrate what we have learned in different ways. Using only one method
to assess students may not show the big picture as some students may express
themselves better using different mediums.
2. Traditional assessment vis-à-vis authentic assessment
Traditional assessments refer to conventional methods of testing, usually

standardized and use pen and paper with multiple-choice, true or false or
matching type test items.
Authentic assessments refer to assessments wherein students are asked to
perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of what they
have learned.
To better compare traditional vs. alternative assessments, here‘s a table:

Traditional Assessment Authentic Assessment
correct answers; usually
∙ Purpose: to evaluate if the
tests students‘ proficiency
students have learned the
through paper and pencil
content; to determine
tests
whether or not the students
∙ Students are asked to choose
are successful in acquiring
an answer from a set of
knowledge; to ascribe a
questions (True or False;
grade for them; to rank and
multiple choice) to test
compare them against
knowledge of what has been
standards or other learners
taught.
∙ Provides indirect evidence of

∙ Provides teachers a snapshot
learning
of what the students know
∙ Purpose: to measure students‘
proficiency by asking them to
∙ Measures students‘ knowledge perform real life-tasks; to provide
of the content students many avenues to learn
and demonstrate best what they
have learned; to guide
instruction; to provide feedback
and help students manage their
∙ Requires students to own learning; to also evaluate
demonstrate knowledge by students‘ competency
selecting a response/giving
∙ Provides teachers a more complete
picture of what the students learned
know and what they can do with
what they know
∙ Measures students‘ ability to apply

knowledge of the content in real
life situations; ability to use/apply
what they have learned in
meaningful ways
∙ Requires students to demonstrate ∙ Provides direct evidence of

proficiency by performing learning/competency; direct
relevant tasks showing demonstration of knowledge and
application of what has been
tapped.
skills by performing relevant
tasks
∙ Requires students to practice
cognitive ability to ∙ Provides opportunities for students
recall/recognize/reconstruct to construct meaning/new
body of knowledge that has knowledge out of what has been
been taught taught
∙ Tests and strengthens the

students‘ ability to ∙ Tests and strengthens the students‘
recall/recognize and ability to reason and analyze,
comprehend content, but synthesize, and apply knowledge
does not reveal the students‘ acquired; Students‘ higher level
true progress of what they of cognitive skills (from
can do with the knowledge knowledge and comprehension
they acquired. Only the to analysis, synthesis,
students‘ lower level of application, and evaluation) are
thinking skills, (knowledge tapped in multiple ways.
and comprehension), are
∙ Hides the test ∙ Teaches the test

what they have learned
∙ Teachers serve as evaluators ∙ Involves and engages the students
and students as the in the teaching, learning and
evaluatees: teacher assessment process: student
structured structured
∙ Assessment is separated from ∙ Assessment is integrated with

teaching and learning. Test instruction. Assessment activities
usually comes after happen all throughout instruction
instruction to evaluate if the to help students improve their
students have successfully learning and help teachers
learned the content. improve their teaching.
∙ Provides limited ways for ∙ Provides multiple avenues for

students to demonstrate students to demonstrate best
what they have learned
∙ Rigidand fixed ∙ Flexible and provides multiple acceptable ways of

constructing
products or performance as
evidence of learning
and standards to achieve
∙ Standardized; valid and reliable reliability and validity
∙ Assessment drives curriculum and

∙ Curriculum drives assessment. instruction.
Examples: Examples:
∙ True or False; multiple ∙ demonstrations
∙ Needs well defined criteria/rubrics
choice tests ∙ multi-media presentations ∙ role
∙ standardized tests ∙ achievement plays
tests ∙ intelligence tests ∙ aptitude ∙ recitals
tests ∙ stage plays
∙ hands-on experiments ∙ ∙ exhibits
computer simulations ∙ portfolios
∙ projects
Advantages of Traditional Assessment Over Authentic Assessment:

Traditional assessments do have advantages over authentic
assessments:
Advantages: Disadvantages:
∙ Easyto score; Teachers can evaluate

students more quickly and easily.
∙ Lesstime and easier to prepare; easy ∙ Time consuming; labor intensive ∙

to administer Sometimes, time and effort spent
∙ Harder to evaluate exceed the benefits.
∙ Objective, reliable and valid ∙ Susceptible to unfairness, subjectivity,

lacking
objectivity, reliability, and
validity if not properly guided
by well-defined/clear criteria
or rubrics/standards
∙ Economical ∙ Less economical
Advantages of Authentic Assessment Over Traditional Assessment On

the other hand, here are the advantages of authentic assessment over the
traditional assessment:
Disadvantages: Advantages:
∙ Providesteachers with just a snapshot their learning; gives more information
of what the students have truly learned about their students‘ strengths,
weaknesses, needs and preferences
that aid them in adjusting instruction
towards enhanced teaching and
learning
∙ Provides students many

∙ Provides students limited options to alternatives/ways to demonstrate best
demonstrate what they have learned, what they have learned; offers a wide
usually limited to pencil and paper array of interesting and challenging
tests assessment activities
∙ Assessment is separate from ∙ Assessment is integrated with

instruction. instruction.
∙ Reveals and strengthens only the ∙ Reveals and enriches the students‘
students‘ low level cognitive skills: high level cognitive skills: from
knowledge and comprehension knowledge and comprehension to
analysis, synthesis, application and
evaluation
∙ Assesses only the lower level
thinking/cognitive skills: focuses only on ∙ Enhances students‘ ability to apply
the students‘ ability to memorize and skills and knowledge to real lie
recall information situations; taps high order cognitive and
∙ Provides teachers with the true picture problem solving skills
of how and where their students are in
∙ Hides the test ∙ Teaches the test
∙ Teacher-structured:teachers direct ∙ Invokes feelings of anxiety detrimental

and act as evaluators; students merely to learning
answer the assessment tool.
∙ Timeis fixed and limited; students are

∙ Involves
students working alone; time-pressured to finish the test.
promotes competitiveness
∙ Focuses on one form of intelligence
∙ Student-structured: students are more
engaged in their learning; assessment ∙ Time is flexible.
results guide instruction
∙ Focuses on the growth of the learner; ∙

∙ Oftentimes involves students working Learners express their understanding of
in groups hence promotes team work, the learning content using their
collaborative and interpersonal skills preferred multiple forms of
intelligences.
∙ Reduces anxiety and creates a more ∙ Provides parents and community with
relaxed happy atmosphere that boosts
learning
more observable products, proofs of
the students‘ learning which motivate
them to support their kids‘ learning
more
Assessment FOR Learning:

Informal-formative-alternative assessments can best serve the purpose of
assessment FOR learning as they continuously inform and guide instruction,
and help students become better learners. Assessments are integrated with
instruction and help teachers monitor students‘ progress, identify their learning
needs and adjust their instruction accordingly. They also give feedback to
students and help them become self-directed, metacognitive and successful
learners.
Assessment AS Learning:
Informal-formative-alternative assessments can also very well serve the
purposes of assessment OF and AS learning. There are various informal
formative-alternative assessment strategies (e.g. journals, self and peer
assessments) that can help students become self-reflective and be good
managers of their own learning, making adjustments and developing more
effective learning strategies, hence serving the purpose of assessment AS
learning.
Assessment OF Learning:
At the same time, there are also various informal-formative-alternative
assessments (recitals, visual and oral presentations, etc.) that can give a picture
of what the students have actually learned after instruction, providing evidence of
learning and certifying competency, hence serving the purpose of assessment
OF learning.
Formal-summative-traditional assessments measure and strengthen the

students‘ cognitive abilities to recall/memorize, comprehend and reconstruct
knowledge, addressing the lower level cognitive skills (from knowledge to
comprehension), while the informal-formative-alternative assessments
measure and strengthen the students‘ higher level of cognitive skills, from
knowledge and comprehension to analysis, synthesis, application and evaluation
of what they have learned.
Lesson 4 – Developing Authentic Classroom Assessments

1. A framework for authentic assessment
To define authentic assessment, we carried out a review of literature on authentic

assessment, on authenticity and assessment in general, and on
student perceptions of (authentic) assessment elements. Five dimensions of
authentic assessment were distinguished: (a) the assessment task, (b) the
physical context, (c) the social context, (d) the assessment result or form, and (e)
the assessment criteria. These dimensions can vary in their level of authenticity
(i.e., they are continuums). It is a misconception to think that something is either
authentic or not authentic (Cronin, 1993; Newmann & Wehlage, 1993), because
the degree of authenticity is not solely a characteristic of the assessment chosen;
it needs to be defined in relation to the criterion situation derived from
professional practice. For example: carrying out an assessment in a team is
authentic only if the chosen assessment task is also carried out in a team in real
life. The main point of the framework is that each of the five dimensions can
resemble the criterion situation to a varying degree, thereby increasing or
decreasing the authenticity of the assessment.
Because authentic assessment should be aligned to authentic instruction
(Biggs, 1996; Van Merriënboer, 1997), the five dimensions of a framework for
authentic assessment are also applicable to authentic instruction. Even though
the focus of this article is on authentic assessment, an interpretation of the five
dimensions for authentic instruction is included in this article to show how the
same dimensions can be used to create an alignment between authentic
instruction and authentic assessment. The dimensions and the underlying
elements of authentic instruction as presented in Figure 2 and Figure 3 do the
same for authentic assessment.
As the figures show, learning and assessment tasks are a lot alike. This is
logical, because the learning task stimulates students to develop the
competencies that professionals have and the assessment task asks students to
demonstrate these same competencies without additional support (Van
Merriënboer, 1997). Schnitzer (1993) stressed that for authentic assessment to
be effective, students need the opportunity to practice with the form of
assessment before it is used as an assessment. This implies that the learning
task must resemble the assessment task, only with different underlying goals.
Learning tasks are for learning, and assessment tasks are for evaluating student
levels of learning in order to improve (formative), or in order to make decisions
(summative). These models show how a five-dimensional framework can deal
with a (conceptual) alignment between authentic instruction and assessment.
The interpretation and validation of the five dimensions for authentic assessment
will be further explained and examined in the rest of this article.
An Argumentation for the Five Dimensions of Authentic Assessment As

stated, there is confusion and there exist many differences of opinions about
what authenticity of assessment really is, and which assessment elements are
important for authenticity. To try to bring some clarity to this situation, the
literature was reviewed to explicate the different ideas about authenticity. Many
subconcepts and synonyms came to light, which were conceptually analyzed and
divided into categories, resulting in five main aspects of authenticity. The notion
of authenticity as a continuum (Newmann & Wehlage, 1993) resulted in a
conceptualization of these five aspects as dimensions that can vary in their
degree of authenticity.
Task. An authentic task is a problem task that confronts students with
activities that are also carried out in professional practice. The fact that an
authentic task is crucial for an authentic assessment is undisputed (Herrington &
Herrington, 1998; Newmann, 1997; Wiggins, 1993), but different researchers
stress different elements of an authentic task. Our framework defines an
authentic task as a task that resembles the criterion task with respect to the
integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, its complexity, and its ownership
(see Kirschner, Martens, & Strijbos, 2004). Furthermore, the users of the
assessment task should perceive the task, including above elements, as
representative, relevant, and meaningful.
An authentic assessment requires students to integrate knowledge, skills, and
attitudes as professionals do (Van Merriënboer, 1997). Furthermore, the
assessment task should resemble the complexity of the criterion task (Petraglia,
1998; Uhlenbeck, 2002). This does not mean that every assessment task should
be very complex. Even though most authentic problems are complex, involving
multidisciplinarity, ill-structuredness, and having multiple possible solutions
(Herrington & Herrington, 1998; Kirschner, 2002; Wiggins, 1993), real-life
problems can also be simple, well-structured with one correct answer, and
requiring only one discipline (Cronin, 1993). The same need for resemblance
holds for ownership of the task and of the process of developing a solution.
Ownership for students in the assessment task should resemble the ownership
for professionals in the criterion task. Savery and Duffy (1995) argued that giving
students ownership of the task and the process to develop a solution is crucial for
engaging students in authentic learning and problem solving. On the other hand,
in real life, assignments are often imposed by employers, and professionals often
use standard tools and procedures to solve a problem, both decreasing the
amount of ownership for the employer. Therefore, the theoretical framework
argues that in order to make students competent in dealing with professional
problems, the assessment task should resemble the complexity and ownership
levels of the real-life criterion situation.
Up to this point, task authenticity appears to be a fairly objective dimension.
This objectivity is confounded by Sambell, McDowell, and Brown (1997), who
showed that it is crucial that students perceive a task as relevant, that (a) they
see the link to a situation in the real world or working situation; or (b) they regard
it as a valuable transferable skill. McDowell (1995) also stressed that students
should see a link between the assessment task and their personal interests
before they perceive the task as meaningful. Clearly, perceived relevance or
meaningfulness will differ from student to student and will possibly even change
as students become more experienced.
Physical context. Where we are, often if not always, determines how we do
something, and often the real place is dirtier (literally and figuratively) than safe
learning environments. Think, for example, of an assessment for auto mechanics
for the military. The capacity of a soldier to find the problem in a nonfunctioning
jeep can be assessed in a clean garage, with all the conceivably needed
equipment available, but a future physical environment may possibly involve a
war zone, inclement weather conditions, less space, and less equipment. Even
though the task itself is authentic, it can be questioned whether assessing
students in a clean and safe environment really assesses their ability to wisely
use their competencies in real-life situations.
The physical context of an authentic assessment should reflect the way
knowledge, skills, and attitudes will be used in professional practice (Brown et al.,
1989; Herrington & Oliver, 2000). Fidelity is often used in the context of computer
simulations, which describe how closely a simulation imitates reality (Alessi,
1988). Authentic assessment often deals with highfidelity contexts. The
presentation of material and the amount of detail presented in the context are
important aspects of the degree of fidelity. Likewise, an important element of the
authenticity of the physical context is that the number and kinds of resources
available (Segers, Dochy, & De Corte, 1999), which mostly contain relevant as
well as irrelevant information (Herrington & Oliver), should resemble the
resources available in the criterion situation. For example, Resnick (1987) argued
that most school tests involve memory work, while out-of-school activities are
often intimately engaged with tools and resources (calculators, tables,
standards), making such school tests less authentic. Segers et al. (1999) argued
that it would be inauthentic to deprive students of resources, because
professionals do rely on resources. Another important characteristic crucial for
providing an authentic physical context is the time students are given to perform
the assessment task (Wiggins, 1989). Tests are normally administered in a
restricted period of time, for example two hours, completely devoted to the test.
In real life, professional activities often involve more time scattered over days or,
on the contrary, require fast and immediate reaction in a split second. Wiggins
(1989) said that an authentic assessment should not rely on unrealistic and
arbitrary time constraints. In sum, the level of authenticity of the physical context
is defined by the resemblance of these elements to the criterion situation.
Social context. Not only the physical context, but also the social context,
influences the authenticity of the assessment. In real life, working together is
often the rule rather than the exception, and Resnick (1987) emphasized that
learning and performing out of school mostly takes place in a social system.
Therefore, a model for authentic assessment should consider social processes
that are present in real-life contexts. What is really important in an authentic
assessment is that the social processes of the assessment resemble the social
processes in an equivalent situation in reality. At this point, this framework
disagrees with literature on authentic assessment that defines collaboration as a
characteristic of authenticity (e.g., Herrington & Herrington, 1998). Our framework
argues that if the real situation demands collaboration, the assessment should
also involve collaboration, but if the situation is normally handled individually, the
assessment should be individual. When the assessment requires collaboration,
processes such as social interaction, positive interdependency and individual
accountability need to be taken into account (Slavin, 1989). When, however, the
assessment is individual, the social context should stimulate some kind of
competition between learners.
Assessment result or form. An assessment involves an assessment
assignment (in a certain physical and social context) that leads to an assessment
result, which is then evaluated against certain assessment criteria (Moerkerke,
Doorten, & de Roode, 1999). The assessment result is related to the kind and
amount of output of the assessment task, independent of the content of the
assessment. In the framework, an authentic result or form is characterized by
four elements. It should be a an (a) quality product or performance that students
can be asked to produce in real life (Wiggins, 1989). This product or performance
should be a (b) demonstration that permits making valid inferences about the
underlying competencies (Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 2000). Since the
demonstration of relevant competencies is often not possible in one single test,
an authentic assessment should involve a (c) full array of tasks and multiple
indicators of learning in order to come to fair conclusions (DarlingHammond &
Snyder, 2000). Uhlenbeck (2002) showed that a combination of different
assessment methods adequately covered the whole range of professional
teaching behavior. Finally, students should (d) present their work to other people,
either orally or in written form, because it is important that they defend their work
to ensure that their apparent mastery is genuine (Wiggins, 1989).
Criteria and standards. Criteria are those characteristics of the assessment
result that are valued; standards are the level of performance expected from
various grades and ages of students (Arter & Spandel, 1992). Setting criteria and
making them explicit and transparent to learners beforehand is important in
authentic assessment, because this guides learning (Sluijsmans, 2002) and, after
all, in real life, employees usually know on what criteria their performances will be
judged. This implies that authentic assessment requires criterion-referenced
judgment. Moreover, some criteria should be related to a realistic outcome,
explicating characteristics or requirements of the product, performance, or
solutions that students need to create. Furthermore, criteria and standards
should concern the development of relevant professional competencies and
should be based on criteria used in the real-life situation (Darling-Hammond &
Snyder, 2000).
Besides basing the criteria on the criterion situation in real life, criteria of an
authentic assessment can also be based on the interpretation of the other four
dimensions of the framework. For example, if the physical context determines
that an authentic assessment of a competency requires five hours, a criterion
should be that students need to produce the assessment result within five hours.
On the other hand, criteria based on professional practice can also guide the
interpretation of the other four dimensions of authentic assessment. In other
words, the framework argues for a reciprocal relationship between the criterion
dimension and the other four dimensions.
2. Authentic assessment development process

Steps to Creating Authentic Assessment
Target Objectives:
1. Understand the four step process to creating authentic assessment. 2.
Understand how a rubric can effectively measure student performance on an
authentic assessment opportunity.
3. Understand the characteristics of an effective rubric.
Question 1: What steps do I take to create an authentic assignment? Now that

you have learned why authentic assessment is important in the classroom, and
what various forms of authentic assessment there are, it is time to learn how to
create an authentic assesment for your classroom. According to Jon Mueller,
North Central College, there are four specific steps that should be followed to
create an authentic assignment. The steps are as follows:
STEP 1 - Standards
An assignment should always be formed with standards and objectives in
mind (backwards design). In order to create a task for students to complete, you
must first ask yourself, "What should my students know following this lesson and
assignment". This will give you a starting point for creating various ideas for
assessment. You must first start by having the end result of the assignment in
mind. Once you have decided what you want your students to get out of their
task, you can move on to step 2.
STEP 2 - Authentic Tasks
In this step, a teacher will decide how they want students to portray their
knowledge of the subject matter using a real-world activity or scenario. A task
should be chosen for students to complete that meets the authentic assessment
criteria. It should be a meaningful task that students feel they can relate to and
can apply in their lives.
STEP 3 - Criteria/Measures
In step 3, you will decide what the student performing the assignment or task
or will look like. What would you like the end product to be? You have already
chosen how you want the student to portray their knowledge through an
authentic task, and you must now determine what that will look like and what
criteria will prove student understanding. In other words, how will you know that
the student has performed well or not? Knowing what criteria you are looking for
in an authentic assignment will assist you in the next step - creating a rubric.
STEP 4 - Rubric
After you have decided what task you would like students to complete, and
what criteria you will use to decide whether or not they have meet the standards,
you will create a rubric for evaluation of students. A rubric is a way for you to
evaluate what level of performance the students are currently performing at.
Rubrics will be discussed further in this unit.
Question 2: How can a rubric assist me in assessing students? A rubric is a

great assessment tool because it breaks down the students‘ performance into
various levels of criteria. Using a rubric, a teacher is able to evaluate what level
of performance a student is currently at, and what they may need to improve
upon. Major benefits of using a rubric to assess students include:
A rubric provides a teacher with a scale of where the student's current
knowledge and performance are currently at as well as what they may need
to improve upon.
A rubric provides a student with their own guidelines while they are
working on an assessment. They are able to guide themselves, as well as assess
their own work or the work of their classmates using the rubric provided to them.
A teacher can work with his or her students to develop assessment criteria
for a rubric. This way, students are taking part in the evaluation process and feel
more of an attachment to what they are working on. They need to live up to their
own standards (criteria) as well as that of the teacher.
Question 3: What are the characteristics of an effective
rubric?
A rubric is comprised of the following:

1. Criteria - characteristics of what the performance should look like. Criteria
was step 3 of the 4-step process of developing authentic assessment. It is
important for a teacher to know what criteria they are looking for in an
assignment or performance before they determine various levels of performance.
2. Levels of Performance - different performance levels are written for each of
the criteria chosen. In general, a teacher will produce an example for each level
of performance. For an example, if one of the criteria in a rubric is for the student
to "use the Internet to support learning and research", simple levels of
performance may be seen as follows:
∙ Lower Level Performance: student has trouble navigating website or is
unable to find answers regarding the research questions using the
website.
∙ Middle Level Performance: Student navigates websites with a few problems,
and is able to find most answers regarding the research questions using
the website.
∙ Higher Level Performance: Student is able to navigate the website with little
to no problems and is able to use the Internet to correctly answer research
questions.
A lower level, middle level, and higher level of performance were all given in
the above example. Usually, a teacher will use descriptive words or numbers to
grade each level of performance. The levels may be numbered 1-3, or descriptive
performance words might be used such as poor, good, fair, or excellent to
determine student success. Criteria are usually placed along the left hand column
of a rubric and levels of performance are placed along the top row of the rubric.
Assignment
Using all of the information you have currently read regarding rubrics, create a
new rubric for an assessment that you currently give your students. You may
choose to update a rubric that you already use or create an entirely new rubric for
any assessment that you currently use in the classroom. You may use your own
format or Rubistar (link to program below) to create your rubric. It is all about
what works for you and your students.
Reflection
After completing this unit on creating authentic assessment and rubrics,
answer the following personal reflection questions:
∙ What new information did you gain regarding the steps to creating authentic
assessment?
∙ Were you already creating assignments in this way? If not, what ways could
you improve upon how you are currently creating student assessment?
∙ Are you currently creating rubrics to assess your student's performance?
What did you get out of creating or recreating a rubric for a current student
assignment?
∙ Reflect upon any other questions, thoughts, or ideas you had during this unit.
D. Sources
1. Adapted from Chappuis, J., R. Stiggins, S. Chappuis, & J. Arter.
2012. Classroom Assessment for Student Learning: Doing It
Right—Using It Well, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education, p. 11
2. Chappuis, J., R. Stiggins, S. Chappuis, & J. Arter. 2012. Classroom
Assessment for Student Learning: Doing It Right—Using It Well,
2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, p. 5.
Classroom Assessment Competencies
E. Suggested Readings
Authentic assessment, classroom assessments
F. Unit Exercises – In a long bond paper, do the following presentably: Activity
1 - In a graphic organizer, capture the main idea of what authentic
assessment is, as well as, differences between authentic and traditional
assessment.
Activity 2 - Mini case study. Have individual reading on cases or stories
portraying use or misuse of authentic assessment. The reflection paper
shall highlight the relationship of principles of high quality assessment to
authentic assessment in various contexts and teaching areas.
Activity 3 - Reflection paper with summary of the story.
UNIT 2
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
a. Design and develop performance tasks using the Goal, Role, Audience,
Situation, Products, Standards (GRASPS) model;
b. Develop appropriate assessment rubrics or customize existing ones to
fit the desired outcome; and
c. Interpret performance assessment data/results for monitoring and
evaluating learner achievement to improve learner performance and
inform instruction.
C. Content
Lesson 1 – What and why of performance assessment

1. Meaning and nature
There are many classroom assessment situations for which valid assessment
requires that a teacher gather formal information about the learner‘s
performances or products. These activities in visual arts, music, dramatic arts,
speech and public speaking, home economics and livelihood education, physical
education, sports, military training and the like. Achievements in these areas may
be measured by what is called performance tests. A performance test is one in
which the responses to test questions are in form of overt manual, vocal, and
other similar behavioral activities.
Performance tests use direct measures of learning rather than indicators
that simply suggest cognitive, affective and psychomotor processes have taken
place. Teachers can use performance test to assess complex cognitive learning
as well as attitudes and social skills in academic areas such as science, social
studies, or mathematics. When doing so, teachers establish situation that allow
them to observe and to rate learners directly as they analyze, solve problem,
experiment, make decisions, measure real-world activities.
Performance tests also allow teachers to observe achievements, mental
habits, ways of working, and behaviors of value in the real world that
conventional tests may miss. In other words, the teacher observes and evaluates
student abilities to carry out complex activities that are used and valued outside
the immediate confines of the classroom.
✔ Assessments in which the learner carry out an activity or produce a
product in order to demonstrate their learning is called performance
assessments (They may be called alternative or authentic
asssessments).
✔ As defined by the Pearson Education Development Group, authentic
assessment aims to evaluate students‘ abilities in ―real world‖ context. In
other words students learn to apply their skills to authentic tasks and
projects. Authentic assessment does not encourage rote learning and
passive test taking. Instead it focuses on students‘ analytical skills,
creativity, written and oral expression skills, ability to integrate what they
learn, and ability to work collaboratively.
✔ Doran defined authentic assessment as real-world situations or context
which generally require a variety of approaches to problem solving and
which allow for the possibility that a problem might have more than one
solution.
✔ A form of assessment in which students are asked to perform real-world
tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and
skills - (Jon Mueller)
✔ ―…Engaging and worthy problems or questions of importance, in which
students must use knowledge to fashion performances effectively and
creatively. The tasks are either replicas of or analogous to the kinds of
problems faced by adult citizens and consumers or professionals in the
field.‖ – (Grant Wiggins)
✔ ―Performance assessments call upon the examinee to demonstrate
specific skills and competencies, that is, to apply the skills and knowledge
they have mastered.‖ – (Richard J. Stiggins)
STRENGTHS OF PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENTS 1.

Can assess complex and higher level of instructional objectives. 2.
More reflective of real-world task.
3. Can have a positive impact on instruction by encouraging students to move
beyond the ―one correct answer mentality‖.
4. Can provide evidence of students‘ in-depth understanding of the topic.
WEAKNESSES OF PERFORMANCE-BASED
ASSESSMENTS 1. Takes time to construct, administer and
score.
2. Requires the criterion of a model answer or a list of desired characteristics
(rubric).
3. Scoring may be susceptible to evaluators‘ bias.
4. Fewer items can be answered in a given time so they tend to be less
content valid than selected response.
5. Limited ability to adequately assess complex thinking.
6. Are time-intensive so they typically yield a smaller number of student
behavior.
Process-oriented performance-based assessment is concerned with

the actual task performance rather than the output or product of the activity.
Recent studies proved that it is also important to focus on the processes which
the students underwent in order to arrive at these products and outputs rather
than to focus only on the actual products or outputs. Process-oriented
performance assessment is a performance which fully focuses on an actual task.
This is not very keen on the output or product of the task.
Product oriented assessment is a kind of assessment wherein the
assessor views and scores the final product made and not on the actual
performance of making that product. It is concerned on the product alone and not
on the process. It is more concerned on the outcome or the performance of the
learner. Products can include a wide range of student‘s works that target specific
skills such as communication skills demonstrated in reading, writing, speaking,
and listening, or psychomotor skills requiring physical abilities to perform a given
task. The finished product or output may be a poem, composition, a report and so
on. It also focuses on the achievement of the learner. These outputs are concrete
evidences of student‘s learning of the particular lesson.
- Purpose of performance assessment
✔ Performance Tests: Direct Measures of Competence

Performance test uses direct measures of learning to assess complex
tasks and activities.
✔ Can Assess Process and Product
Performances assessment can be an assessment of processes and
products or both. For example, teachers can assess the reading process of
each student by noting the percentage of words read accurately and the
number of sentences that are meaningful within the context of the story and
the percentage of story elements that the learner can talk about his/her own
words after reading.
✔ Can be Embedded in Lesson

Many teachers use performance test as part of the lesson. In mathematics
and science classes performance test serves as a teaching activity as well as
an assessment. During the activity the teacher observes and rates the
learners on the methods used to solve the problem and the correctness of the
final solution. This type of assessment provides immediate feedback on how
the learners are performing, reinforces hands-on teaching and learning. In this
manner it moves instruction towards higher order behavior.
✔ Can Assess Affective and Social Skills

Performance tests are used to assess not only higher level cognitive skills but
also the non-cognitive outcomes or the affective domain of learning.
Educators believe that the skilled performance of complex tasks involves
more than the ability to recall information from concepts, generalize and solve
problems. It also includes the mental and behavioral habits evident in the
individual while performing the task also known as interpersonal or social
skills.
- Types of performance tasks

∙ Process-based
PROCESS-ORIENTED PERFORMANCE-BASED LEARNING COMPETENCIES
These learning competencies are concerned with the procedures/process
for the actual task performance. The behavior to be observed among the learners
must be observable which must be reflected in the list of competencies.
Examples of process-oriented learning competencies:
1. Recite a poem by Edgar Allan Poe.
2. Solve one-step word problem involving time measure.
3. Describe two alternative ways to solve a mathematical problem. 4. Prepare
a power point presentation on the steps in the evaluation process. 5. Draw
the graph of Ax + By = C on a table of values for x and y.
In the process-oriented assessment, the learning competencies should start
from a general statement, and then breaks down to easily observable behavior.
Example:
Task: Recite a poem by Edgar Allan Poe
Objectives: The activity aims to enable the students to recite a poem titled
―The Raven‖ by Edgar Allan Poe.
1. Recite the poem from memory without referring to notes.
2. Use appropriate hand and body gestures in delivering the piece. 3. Maintain
eye contact with the audience while reciting the poem. 4. Create the ambiance
of the poem through appropriate rising and falling intonation.
5. Pronounce the words clearly with proper diction.
TASK DESIGNING
What are the learning competencies there corresponds to the specific
learning tasks. The role of the teacher is to see to it that the particular learning
tasks clearly define the specific skills and abilities needed.
The following points need to be considered in designing performance
tasks:
1. Decide what to test. The list of objectives will guide the teacher what
specific learning activity/task will be performed by the learners. The activity
must reflect the competencies to be evaluated such as the knowledge,
skills, habits of mind and indicators of outcomes as focused in the
instruction.
2. Design the assessment context. It is the role of the teacher to create a
task, simulation, or situation that will allow to demonstrate the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes that they have acquired. The task should center on
issues, concepts, problems that are important to the context area. The
requirement for tasks mastery should be clear and should be complex
enough to allow for multimodal assessment. Performance task is not a drill
or a practice but it is non-algorithmic. The task should require self
regulated learning, where the learner should be required to use strategies
to arrive at a solution rather than depend on coaching.
3. Specify the scoring rubrics. The teacher should develop a rubric best
suited to the type of accomplishment he/she wanted to measure. The
performance criteria should be specific and observable.
Example:
Competency: Justifying a conclusion
Task: Group the students by fives. Let them solve a given situation.
Question: Consider a series, 5+ 3+ 1+… Suppose someone claimed that -20
should be accepted as sum for this series. Is the claim correct? Explain your
answer.
PROCESS ASSESSMENT RUBRIC
Below is a suggested scoring scheme for the above task.
Score Performance Indicator
0 point No Attempt
1 point Attempted to solve the problem but the attempt shows no understanding
of the problem; the claim is correct or the answer is wrong.
the values into the equation, and
3
simplified the equation.
points
Interpreted the resulting equation
4
points
Justified the interpretation and made a
7 final answer.
points
Wrote the correct equation, substituted
∙ Products-based
Product oriented assessment is a kind of assessment wherein the

assessor views and scores the final product made and not on the actual
performance of making that product. It is concerned on the product alone and not
on the process. It is more concerned on the outcome or the performance of the
learner. Products can include a wide range of student‘s works that target specific
skills such as communication skills demonstrated in reading, writing, speaking,
and listening, or psychomotor skills requiring physical abilities to perform a given
task. The finished product or output may be a poem, composition, a report and so
on. It also focuses on the achievement of the learner. These outputs are concrete
evidences of student‘s learning of the particular lesson.
PRODUCT-ORIENTED PERFORMANCE-BASED LEARNING COMPETENCIES

The learning competencies associated with products are linked with an
assessment of the levels of ―expertise‖ manifested by the product.
Examples of product-oriented learning competencies:
1. Design a rubric for a process-oriented learning competency.
2. Make a journal on authentic assessment tools.
3. Make a mathematics inventory report on a particular topic.
4. Compose a poem.
5. Make a scrapbook illustrating the history of computers.
Other ways to state the product-learning competencies as: novice, or

beginner, skilled level, and expert level.
Level 1: Does the finished product illustrate the minimum parts or functions?
Level 2: Does the finished product or project contain additional parts and
functions on top of the minimum requirements?
Level 3: Does the finished product contain the basic minimum parts and
functions, have additional features on top of the minimum and is aesthetically
pleasing?
TASK DESIGNING
The design of the learning task will depend on the projects required by the
teacher. Projects or other required outputs should reinforce student‘s learning not
merely a submission of the requirements. For example, the students are
expected to conduct an investigatory project. The students should be given
enough time to do the investigatory research which is to be defended orally and a
report of the investigation should be submitted.
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Performance-Based
Assessment
Product-oriented
Process-oriented
assessment is concerned with the
actual task performance rather
An intangible finished product is than the output or product of
the actual process of activity. Recent studies proved
performance. Process oriented
that it is also important to focus wherein the assessor views and
on the processes which the scores the final product made and not
student undergo in order to arrive on the actual performance of making
A tangible finished product is the that product. It is concerned on the
concrete object or article produced by product alone and not on the process.
the performer. Product oriented It is more concerned on the outcome
assessment is a kind of assessment or the performance of the
at these products and outputs learner. It also focuses on the
rather than focus only on the achievement of the learner.
actual products or outputs.
Examples:
Examples:
Essay, story, poem
Science lab
Research report
demonstration Musical
Diary or journal
performance
Science fair project
Dance or dramatic
Art exhibit or portfolio
performance Typing test
Slides for power point
Debate, public speaking presentation Lab reports
Gymnastics
Paintings
Mathematical
Finished products at home
investigation Operating a
economics Assembling the parts
computer
of the computer
Preparing a power point
presentation
2. Principles of performance assessment
Every performance assessment should:

1. Have a clear purpose that identifies the decision to be made from the
performance assessment. Teachers use the performance assessment
for many purposes: grading, constructing portfolios, diagnosis learning,
helping the pupils recognize the important steps in a performance or
product, providing concrete examples of pupil work for parent
conferences. Whatever is the purpose of performance assessment, it
should be specified at the beginning of the assessment process so that
proper performance criteria and scoring procedures can be established.
Performance assessments are particularly suited to such diagnosis
because they can provide information about how a pupil perform each of
the specific area that make up a more general performance or product.
This criterion by criterion assessment makes it easy to identify the strong
and weak points of a pupil‘s performance. When the performance criteria
are stated in observable pupil‘s behaviors or product characteristics as
they should be, remediation is made easy. Each suggestion for
improvement can be described in specific terms, e.g. ―report to group
project area on time‖, wait for your turn to speak‖, ―do your share in the
group work.‖
2. Identify performance criteria. Performance criteria are the specific
aspects a pupil should perform to properly carry out a performance or
produce a product. They are at the heart of successful performance
assessment, yet they are the area in which most problem occur.
When teachers first think about assessing performance, they tend
to think in terms of general performances such as oral reading, giving a
speech, following safety rules in the laboratory, penmanship, writing a
book report, organizing ideas, fingering a key board or getting along with
peers. In reality such performances cannot be assessed until they are
broken down into more specific aspects or characteristics that compromise
them. These more narrow aspects and characteristics are the
performance criteria that teachers will observe and judge.
Examples of Performance Criteria

Working in Groups Writing a Book Report Reports to group project
on time States the author and title Starts on his/her own Names
type of the book
Shares information Describes what the book was about in four or more
sentences
Contributes ideas States an opinion of the book Listens to others Gives three
reasons to support opinion Waits turn to speak
Follow instructions
Courteous to other group members
Completes assigned tasks on time
To define performance criteria, a teacher must first decide if a process or a

product will be observed. Will processes such as typing or oral reading be
assessed, or will products such as typed letter or book report be assessed? In
the former case, criteria are needed to judge the pupil‘s actual performance of
targeted criteria; in the later, criteria are needed to judge the end product of those
behaviors. In some cases, both process and product can be assessed. For
example, a first grade teacher assessed both process and product when she 1)
observed a pupil writing to determine how the pupil held the pencil, positioned
the paper, and manipulated the pencil, and 2) judged the finished handwritten
product to assess how well the pupil formed his letters. Notice that the teacher
observed different things according to whether she was interested in the pupil‘s
handwriting process or handwriting product. It is for this reason that teachers
must know what they want to observe before performance criteria can be
identified.
Consider a product assessment of second year high school students‘
written paragraphs. The purpose of this assessment is to judge students‘ ability
to write a paragraph on a topic of their choice.
Below is a sample performance criteria. Compare and contrast the
examples given below.
Performance criteria used to judge a written paragraph

First sentence Indents first sentence
Appropriate topic sentence Topic sentence sets the main idea of the paragraph
Good supporting ideas Following sentences support main idea Complete
sentences Sentences arranged in logical order Good vocabulary Sentences
arranged in logical order
Uses age-appropriate vocabulary
3. Provide an appropriate setting for eliciting and judging the
performance or product. Once the performance criteria are defined, a
setting in which to observe the performance or product must be selected
or established. Depending on the nature of the performance or product,
the teacher may observe behavior as they naturally occur in the classroom
or set up specific situations in which pupils must perform.
4. Provide a judgment or score to describe the performance. The final
step in performance assessment is to score pupil‘s performance. Scoring
a performance can be holistic or analytic. In situations such as group
placement, selection, or grading holistic scoring is most useful. To make
such a decision, a teacher seeks to describe an individual‘s performance
using a single, overall score. On the other hand, if the assessment
purpose is to diagnose pupil difficulties or certify mastery of each
individual performance criterion, then analytic scoring, with a separate
score or rating on each performance criterion is appropriate. In either
case, the performance criterion dictates the scoring or rating approach that
is adopted.
Lesson 2 – Developing Performance Tasks

1. Designing performance tasks
Create a task, simulation, or situation that will allow learners to
demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that they have acquired. The
tasks should center on issues, concepts, problems that are important to the
context area.
The following criteria can help guide you in revising and refining the task: 1.
The requirements for the task should be clear without revealing the
solution.
2. The task should represent specific activity from which generalization
about the learner‘s knowledge, thinking ability, and habits of mind can
be made.
3. The task should be complex enough to allow for multimodal
assessment.
4. The task should yield valid multiple solutions.
5. The tasks should require self-regulated learning.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT Validity is

concerned with whether the information obtained from an assessment permits
the teacher to make decisions about a pupil‘s learning. Failure to instruct pupils
on desired performances or the inability to control personal expectations can
produce invalid information and decision making. Another factor than can reduce
the validity of formal performance assessment is bias. Bias occurs when
judgments regarding the performance of one group of people are influenced by
the inclusion of irrelevant, subjective criteria. Thus, in all forms of assessments
especially performance assessments, a teacher must select and use procedures,
performance criteria and settings that do not give unfair advantage to some
pupils because of cultural background, language disability or gender. Another
source of error that commonly affects the validity of performance assessment is
teachers‘ reliance on mental rather than written record keeping. The longer the
interval between observation and the written scoring, the more likely the teacher
is to forget the important features of pupil performance.
Teachers‘ sizing up perceptions and prior knowledge of their pupil can
influence the objectivity of their performance ratings. Factors such as personality,
effort, work habits, cooperation and the like are all part of a teacher‘s perceptions
of the pupils in his/her class. Often, these prior perceptions influence the pupil‘s
rating.
Reliability is concerned with the stability and consistency of assessments;
e.g. Are the results typical of a pupil‘s performance? Hence, the logical way to
ensure the reliability of pupil performance is to observe and score two or more
performances or products of the same pupil.
Reliability is also affected when the performance criteria or rating
categories are vague and clear. This forces the teacher to interpret the criteria
and because interpretations often vary with time and situation, inconsistency can
be introduced into the assessment. One way to eliminate inconsistency is to be
explicit about the purpose of a performance assessment and to state the
performance criteria and rubrics in terms of observable pupil performances. The
objectivity of an observation can be enhanced by having several individuals
independently observe and rate a pupil‘s performance.
GUIDELINES TO IMPROVE THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
∙ Know the purpose of the assessment before beginning the assessment. ∙
Teach and give pupil/students practice on the performance criteria. ∙ State the
performance criteria that are at an appropriate level of difficulty
for the pupils. For instance, the criteria used to judge the oral speaking
performance of third year debate students should be more detailed than
those used to judge first year.
∙ Limit the number of performance criteria to a manageable number. A large
number of criteria makes observation difficult and cause errors and reduce
the validity of the assessment information.
∙ Maintain a written record of pupil/student performance. Checklists, rating
scales, and rubrics are the easiest methods or recording pupil
performances on important criteria, although more descriptive narratives
are often desirable and informative. Tape recording or video tapes may be
used to provide a record of performances, as long as their use does not
distract the pupils/students. If a formal instrument cannot be used to
record judgments of pupil/student, then make informal notes of the strong
and weak points.
ADMINISTRATION OF PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

The administration of performance tests should be standardized as much
as possible. This means that the testing procedures for the same kind of test
must be the same for all the students. The directions and instructions for taking
the test must be clear as possible and must apply to all those taking the test.
Other test factors should be the same as much as time allotment, sequence of
activities, tools, equipment and materials, etc. The person administering the test
must have the same place to stand, the same behavior throughout, the same
things to say, the same observation for the specific activity, and the same ways to
record his ratings. Few teachers can afford the class time necessary to obtain
multiple student/pupil assessments on the same topic. This reality raises an
important problem with the reliability of performance assessments such as lack of
generalizability (Popham, 1995). Because such discrepancies in the quantity of
information obtained from particular assessments, the teacher who employs
performance assessments sees fewer examples of pupil‘s/student‘s mastery than
the one who uses more narrow assessment approaches. The teacher‘s questions
then become ―How reliable is the limited information I have obtained from my
pupils/students?‖
2. Goal, Role, Audience, Situation, Products, Standards (GRASPS)

model: A guide to developing authentic performance tasks
The WHY of GRASPS assessment design
GRASPS is a model advocated for by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe to guide
teachers in designing authentic performance-based assessment. It's a form of
assessment that engages learners to employ their thinking skills and
demonstrate application of essential knowledge, conceptual understanding, and
skills acquired throughout a unit of learning.
Wiggins defined authentic assessment as "...Engaging and worthy problems or

questions of importance, in which students must use knowledge to fashion
performances effectively and creatively. The tasks are either replicas of or
analogous to the kinds of problems faced by adult citizens and consumers or
professionals in the field." (1993, qtd. by Jon Mueller).
The main takeaway for me is that teachers can use the GRASPS assessment
model to:
∙ engage students through contextualized learning;
∙ provide simulations of real-world situations or challenges that adults might
encounter;
∙ create opportunities for students to practice transfer of learning; ∙
foster curiosity and building experiences of students;
∙ develop project management skills of students.
The WHAT of GRASPS assessment model

To help educators construct authentic assessment, Wiggins and McTighe's came
up with GRASPS model. GRASPS is an acronym for teachers to: ∙ Goal: establish
the challenge, issue or problem to solve;
∙ Role: give students a role that they might be taking in a familiar real-life
situation;
∙ Audience: identify the target audience whom students are solving the
problem for or creating the product for;
∙ Situation: create the scenario or explain the context of the situation; ∙
Product/Performance and Purpose: paint a clear picture of the WHAT and
WHY of the product creation or the performance; ∙ Standards & Criteria for
Success: inform students how their work will be assessed by the assumed
audience.
Is the GRASPS assessment model misunderstood?

A set of sentence stems have been provided to help teachers construct a
performance task and often is introduced in IB workshops. It might be because
limited time was allotted for teachers to explore thoroughly the designing
principles of using GRASPS assessment model; therefore, the summative task is
sometimes described in the format of a GRASPS performance task but fails to
illustrate an actual real-world problem or issue that can inspire students to take
authentic or simulated action on.
An example might be:

∙ Goal: Your goal is to write a short story.
∙ Role: You are a middle school student.
∙ Audience: Your target audience is your teacher, and students and parents in
our school community.
∙ Situation: You have been asked by your school community to write a short
story. (This section is sometimes omitted by teachers as a clear situation
is not identified.)
∙ Product/Performance and Purpose: write a 800 word short story to entertain
others.
∙ Standards & Criteria for Success: You will be assessed against criteria B, C
and D.
It might look good at first by framing the assessment through GRASPS model,
but it's like déjà vu all over again. It is definitely a step-up when teachers begin to
use this model when creating a summative assessment task. However, this is still
very much like a traditional assessment task. First of all, the range of the target
audience is too big. The way an author writes to entertain young children, teens,
or adults is very different. The situation described above is unlikely to happen as
it is vague and more details are needed.
Another issue that needs to be addressed is that MYP teachers often inform
students that they will be assessed against criteria B, C, and D. But what do
criteria B, C and D mean? If we want students to organise, produce text, and use
language (MYP Language and Literature criteria BCD), wouldn't it be more
effective for teachers clearly specify the criteria and engage students in
understanding the assessment objectives and strands? We can't expect students
to develop assessment capabilities without explicitly involving them in developing
assessment literacy.
Develop student metacognition through GRASPS

In my humble opinion, through the use of the GRASPS assessment model we
can also create opportunities for students to develop their metacognition. In order
to create a product or solve a problem effectively and efficiently, students first
need to clarify the task, identify their strength and weakness, set appropriate
challenging goals, analyze the context, chunk the big task into small subtasks
within the timeline, seek feedback for improvement, and self-evaluate their work
against the success criteria before the final submission. During the process of the
product creation, teachers provide both explicit and implicit feedback and guide
students to monitor their progress. Frequent check-ins are essential. It should
never be the case that teachers give students a big project and only find out that
students have not addressed a requirement one or two days before the due date.
Refocus GRASPS implementation

Teachers and students can both benefit from the use of GRASPS assessment
model. In this poster design, I refocused the use of GRASPS assessment model
and created essential questions respectively to guide teachers in designing the
GRASPS authentic assessment, and students in developing their metacognition
through conducting the GRASPS assessment.
As mentioned previously, teachers do not always set up a clear situation for the
assessment task. In the MYP framework, when illustrating the situation or
creating the scenario for the task, teachers can refer back to the MYP global
context exploration predetermined. It is also through the careful design of the
scenario or situation, students can be challenged to think about intercultural
communication and thus develop international-mindedness.
An example is given below.
3. Differentiating performance tasks for diverse learners
Differentiated assessment is the way by which teachers modify and match
assessment with the varied characteristics/profiles of students in order to meet
the students‘ individual needs, thereby enhancing their learning and boosting
their ability to show what they have learned. Students differ in their previous
learning experiences, readiness, learning styles, preferences, academic
standing, abilities, strengths and weaknesses, culture, race, and backgrounds.
Teachers use differentiated assessment to match and respond to the varying
learning needs of diverse students in a classroom.
By differentiating assessments, teachers help diverse students to successfully
demonstrate their competencies in particular ways that are fitting and effective for
them. By providing various assessment methods/activities appropriate for
particular types of students, the teachers are able to meet the students‘ individual
needs, thereby helping them to be successful in their learning.
Designing various assessments apt for specific groups of learners provides
more opportunities for students to effectively demonstrate what they have
learned.
Differentiated assessments also guide teachers on how they can differentiate,
modify and improve instruction.
Differentiated assessments can be done by designing and providing various
assessment methods and activities that are appropriate for each type of students
such that they can effectively learn and demonstrate what they have learned.
Differentiated assessments can be done by providing them various options and
opportunities to show their learning and proficiency. From a list of Zach Burrus,
Dave Messer and Judith Dodge, here are some ways of differentiating
assessments:
∙ Designing tiered activities
∙ Scaffolding struggling learners
∙ Challenging advanced learners with more mid-stimulating activities ∙
Adjusting questions
∙ Compacting
∙ Flexible grouping
∙ Flexible assignments and tasks based on students‘ learning styles ∙
Learning contracts
∙ Asking students to do:
∙ Role playing
∙ Unit collage
∙ Individual projects
∙ Visual presentations
∙ Oral presentations
∙ Written presentations
∙ Summaries and reflections
∙ Lists, charts and graphic organizers
∙ Group/collaborative activities
∙ Comic books
∙ Raps/songs/dances/other performances
4. Scoring rubrics
WHAT IS A RUBRIC?
The rubric is a general scoring guide that describes the level at which a
student performs a process or a product. It is an authentic assessment tool that is
particularly useful in assessing criteria that are complex and subjective. It is a
formative type of assessment because it becomes an on-going part of the whole
teaching and learning process. Students themselves are involved in the
assessment process through both peer and self-assessment.
ADVANTAGES OF USING RUBRICS

✔ They allow assessment to be more objective and consistent. ✔ They
require the teacher to clarify his/her criteria in specific terms. ✔ They clearly
show the student how their work will be evaluated and what is expected.
✔ They promote awareness of the criteria to use in assessing performance.
✔ They provide benchmarks against which to measure and document
progress.
FEATURES OF RUBRICS
✔ They focus on measuring a stated objective (performance, behavior or
quality).
✔ They use a range to rate a performance.
✔ They contain a specific performance characteristics in levels indicating the
degree to which standard has been met.
GENERAL STEPS IN PREPEARING AND USING RUBRICS
1. Select a process or a product to be observed among the learners.
2. State the performance criteria for the product or process.
3. Decide the number of scoring levels for the rubric, usually three to five. 4.
State description of performance criteria using set of terms and differentiate
levels of student‘s performance.
5. Compare each student‘s performance to each scoring level. 6. Select the
scoring level that is very close to a student‘s actual performance or product.
7. Grade the student.
GUIDELINES FOR STATING PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

1. Identify the steps or features of the performance or task to be assessed by
imagining yourself performing the task, observing pupils/students perform
the task or inspecting the students‘ outputs. Ask yourself, ―What would I
have to do in order to complete the task? What steps would I have to
follow?‖ you may also observe pupils performing the task and identify the
important elements in their performance. Finally, you can actually carry out
the performance yourself, recording, and studying your performance or
product.
2. List the important aspects of the performance or product. What specific
behaviors or attributes are most important to the successful completion of
the task? What behaviors have been emphasized in instruction? The
specific behaviors or attributes identified will become the performance
criteria that will guide instruction, observation, and assessment. Include
the important aspects and exclude the irrelevant ones.
3. Try to keep the number of performance criteria small enough so that they
can be reasonably observed and judged. Six to twelve criteria is a good
range to use. Remember, you will have to observe and judge performance
on each of the criteria identified.
4. Have teachers think through the criteria as a group.
5. Express the criteria in terms of observable student behaviors or product
characteristics. The performance criteria should direct attention to things
the pupil is doing or characteristics of a product that the pupil has
produced. Be specific when stating the performance criteria. For example,
do not write ―The child works‖, instead write ―The child remains focused
on the task for at least four minutes.‖ Instead of ―organization‖ write
―Information is presented in a logical sequence.‖
6. Avoid vague and ambiguous words like ―correctly‖, ―appropriately‖, and
―good‖.
7. Arrange the performance criteria in the order in which they are likely to be
observed. This will save time when observing and will primarily focus on
the performance.
8. Check for existing performance assessment instrument to use or modify
before constructing your own.
WORDS AND PHRASES FOR PROMPTS AND RUBRIC

DESIGN Instruction Verbs for Five Levels of Thinking
Application Analysis Evaluate
Remembering/ understanding Create
Record Inspect
Repeat Show Apply
Use Inventory
List
Examine Choose Design
Score Create
Rate Plan
Relate Manage
Recall Analyze Select
Locate Arrange
Tell Compare Assess
Review Employ Compose
Contrast Estimate
Restate Interpret Propose Set
Relate Appraise
Describe Operate up
Question Evaluate
Discuss Sketch
Test Revise Judge Collect
Explain Schedule Assemble
Measure Debate
Recognize Illustrate Prepare
Differentiate Oppose
Identify Translate
Defend Construct
Distinguish
Define Demonstrate Criticize Formulate
Calculate
Report Dramatize Program organize
Experiment
Name Diagram
Value
FOUR LEVELS OF DIFFERENCE IN DEGREE

Effectiveness
Degrees of Understanding
Degrees of Frequency Degrees of
∙ Nearly ∙ Highly effective ∙
always/always Effective
∙ Thorough/complet e
∙ Often/frequent ∙ ∙ Moderately
∙ Substantial/exten Sometimes/occasio effective
sive nally ∙ Minimally
∙ Minimal/general/ ∙ Rarely/almost effective/ineffecti
partial/some never/never ve
misunderstanding
DESCRIPTORS FOR WEAKER PERFORMANCE LEVELS Recognizes and

describes briefly no evidence of future projections Demonstrates beginning
understanding presents concepts in isolation Omits important details, facts,
and/or concepts with some errors without complete understanding does not
perceive a pattern generally explains relies on single source general,
fundamental understanding overlooks critical details unable to apply
information in problem solving uses a single method represents a single
perspective vague or incomplete description identifies few connections with
inaccuracies without drawing accurate conclusions has a general sense
without explaining the reason with limited details takes a common,
conventional approach incomplete attempt presents confusing statements
and facts without with some errors demonstrating complete understanding of
the
characteristics
DESCRIPTORS FOR STRONGER PERFORMANCE LEVELS
Thoroughly understands and explains predicts future changes Relates
concepts using a variety of factors identifies an abstract pattern
Thorough mastery of extensive knowledge uses multiple methods Thorough
explanation of critical analysis efficient, thorough solution Shows an
impressive level of depth without errors Represents a variety of perspectives
provides clear, thorough support
Thorough, extensive understanding provides new insight Clearly explains the
reasoning raws complex connections In elaborate detail draws logical
conclusions which uses multiple sources Are not immediately obvious
Demonstrate complete understanding of all the characteristics sophisticated
synthesis of complex body of information
Solves problem by effective application of information
- Types
BASIC METHODS OF SCORING RUBRICS
1. Holistic Scoring – is used to assess the overall performance of a student
across all the performance criteria. The teacher selects the description
that most closely matches the student‘s overall performance on the
process or product. A holistic rubric consists of a single scale with all
criteria to be included in the evaluation being considered together (e.g.
clarity, organization, and mechanics). With a holistic rubric the rater
assigns a single score (usually on a 1 to 4 or 1 to 6 point scale) based on
an overall judgment of the student work. The rater matches an entire piece
of student work to a single description on the scale.
ADVANTAGES OF HOLISTIC RUBRICS

∙ Emphasis on what the learner is able to demonstrate, rather than
what s/he cannot do.
∙ Saves time by minimizing the number of decisions raters make. ∙ Can
be applied consistently by trained raters, thus increases reliability.
DISADVANTAGES OF HOLISTIC RUBRICS

∙ Does not provide specific feedback for improvement.
∙ When student work is at varying levels spanning the criteria points it
can be difficult to select the single best description.
∙ Criteria cannot be weighted.
EXAMPLES OF HOLISTIC SCORING GUIDE

4 Fully Accomplishes the Purpose of the Task
∙ Student‘s work shows full grasp and use of the central mathematical
ideas.
∙ Recorded work communicates clear thinking with the use of some
combination of written, symbolic or visual means.
3 Substantially Accomplishes the Purpose of the Task
∙ Student‘s work shows essential grasp of the central mathematical

ideas.
∙ Recorded work in large part communicates clear thinking.
2 Partially Accomplish
es the Purpose of the Task
∙ Student‘s work shows partial but limited grasp of the central

mathematical idea(s).
∙ Recorded work is incomplete, somewhat misdirected, or not clearly
presented.
1 Makes Little or No Progress Toward Accomplishing the Task
∙ Student‘s work shows little or no progress toward accomplishing the

task.
∙ Shows little or no grasp of the central mathematical idea(s). ∙
Recorded work is barely (if not all) comprehensible.
A HOLISTIC RUBRIC FOR OPEN-ENDED MATHEMATICS QUESTIONS

Level 4
⮚ Contains a complete response with clear, coherent, unambiguous, and
elegant explanations.
⮚ Includes other simple diagrams.
⮚ Communicates effectively to an identified audience.
⮚ Shows understanding of the question‘s mathematical ideas and processes.
⮚ Identifies all the important elements of the question.
⮚ Includes examples and counter examples.
⮚ Goes beyond the requirements of the problems.
Level 3
⮚ Contains a good, solid response with some of the characteristics of the
above, but probably not all.
⮚ Explains less elegantly, less completely.
⮚ Does not go beyond the requirements of the problem.
Level 2
⮚ Contains a complete response, but the explanations may be mudded.
⮚ Presents arguments but incomplete.
⮚ Includes diagrams but inappropriate or unclear.
⮚ Indicates understanding of mathematical ideas, but not expressed clearly.
Level 1
⮚ Omits several parts or all of the questions and response.
⮚ Has major errors.
⮚ Uses inappropriate strategies.
Example of Holistic Rubric: Articulating thoughts through written communication

– final paper/project.
4. Above Average: The audience is able to easily identify the focus of the
work and is engaged by its clear focus and relevant details. Information is
presented logically and naturally. There are no more than two mechanical
errors or misspelled words to distract the reader.
3. Sufficient: The audience is easily able to identify the focus of the student
work which is supported by relevant ideas and supporting details. Information
is presented in a logical manner that is easily followed. There is minimal
interruption to the work due to misspellings and/or mechanical errors.
2. Developing: The audience can identify the central purpose of the student
work without little difficulty and supporting ideas are present and clear. The
information is presented in an orderly fashion that can be followed with little
difficulty. There are some misspellings and/or mechanical errors, but they do
not seriously distract from the work.
1. Needs Improvement: The audience cannot clearly or easily identify the

central ideas or purpose of the student work. Information is presented in a
disorganized fashion causing the audience to have difficulty following the
author‘s ideas. There are many misspellings and/or mechanical errors that
negatively affect the audience‘s ability to read the work.
2. Analytic Scoring – is used to assess individually each performance

criterion stated in the rubric. Each criterion is rated separately using
different levels of performance. An analytic rubric resembles a grid with
the criteria for a student product listed in the leftmost column and with
levels of performance listed across the top row often using numbers
and/or descriptive tags. The cells within the center of the rubric may be left
blank or may contain descriptions of what the specified criteria look like for
each level of performance. When scoring with an analytic rubric each of
the criteria is scored individually.
ADVANTAGES OF ANALYTIC RUBRICS

∙ Provides useful feedback on areas of strength and weakness. ∙ Criterion
can be weighted to reflect the relative importance of each dimension.
DISADVANTAGES OF ANALYTIC RUBRIC

∙ Takes more time to create and use than a holistic rubric.
∙ Unless each point for each criterion is well-defined, raters may not arrive
at the same score.
EXAMPLES OF ANALYTIC RUBRIC

Analytical Scale for Problem Solving
Scale I: Comprehending the Problem
4 Has full comprehension of the
problem.
3 Misunderstands small part of the
problem.
2 Misunderstands large part of the
problem.
1 Totally misunderstands the problem.
0 Not trying at all.
Scale II: Solving the Problem
4 Provides appropriate process for solving the
problem without errors on arithmetic
computations.
3 Utilized moderately correct process but
considerable error in procedure.
2 Employed partially appropriate process but
considerable error in procedure.
1 Used entirely incorrect plan.
0 Not trying at all.
Rubric for Division of Rational Numbers

4 Student divides rational/mixed numbers with 92%-100%
accuracy.
3 Student divides rational/mixed numbers with 82%-91% accuracy.
2 Student divides rational/mixed numbers with 72%-81% accuracy.
1 Student divides rational/mixed numbers with less than 72%
accuracy.
Subject: Mathematics I
Competency: Solve routine problems
Task: Analyze and solve problem involving the area of a triangle. Question:
Find the area of the triangle below. Show your complete solution.
Scoring Key:
with proper unit of measure with or
3
without writing the formula.
points
Shows complete solution but answer is
2 either incorrect or has incorrect unit of
points measure or no unit at all. Gives the
Shows correct and complete solution correct answer with unit of measure but
does not show the solution.
1 point Gives the correct formula but gives an incomplete solution.
0 Incorrect answer/No answer
Example of Analytic Rubric: Articulating thoughts through written communication

– final paper/project.
Needs Developing (2) Average (4)
Improvement (1) Sufficient (3) Above
support the identified. student work interrupted by
thesis. Ideas are is clear and errors.
Clarity (Thesis
Thoughts generally ideas are The central
supported by
appear focused in a almost always purpose of
relevant
disconnected. way that focused in a the student
information and
supports the way that work is clear
ideas.) supports the and
thesis.
thesis. supporting
Relevant ideas are
Information
details always well
and ideas are illustrate the focused.
poorly author‘s Details are
sequenced Information
ideas. relevant,
(the author and ideas
enrich the
jumps around). are Information
work.
The audience presented in and ideas are
has difficulty an order that presented in a
Organization following the the audience logical
(Sequencing of thread of can follow sequence Information
thought. with which is and ideas are
elements/ideas)
minimum followed by presented in
There are five
difficulty. the reader a sequence
or more
with little or no which flows
misspellings
difficulty. naturally and
and/or There are no
is engaging
systematic more than
to the
grammatical four There are no
audience.
errors per misspellings more than
page or 8 or and/or three
Mechanics more in the systematic misspellings
(Correctness of entire grammatical and/or There are no
grammar and document. The errors per grammatical more than
spelling) readability of page or six errors per two
The purpose the work is or more in page and no misspelled
of the student seriously the entire more than five words or
work is not hampered by document. in the entire grammatical
well-defined. errors. Errors document. errors in the
Central ideas The central distract from The document.
are not purpose of the work. readability of
focused to the student The central the work is
work is purpose of the minimally
- Components
Rubrics are composed of four basic parts. In its simplest form, the rubric
includes:
1. A task description. The outcome being assessed or instructions students
received for an assignment.
2. The characteristics to be rated (rows). The skills, knowledge, and/or behavior
to be demonstrated.
3. Levels of mastery/scale (columns). Labels used to describe the levels of
mastery should be tactful and clear. Commonly used labels include: o Not
meeting, approaching, meeting, exceeding
o Exemplary, proficient, marginal, unacceptable
o Advanced, intermediate high, intermediate, novice
o 1, 2, 3, 4
4. A description of each characteristic at each level of mastery/scale (cells).
- Development
Step 1: Identify what you want to assess
Step 2: Identify the characteristics to be rated (rows). These are also called
“dimensions.”
∙ Specify the skills, knowledge, and/or behaviors that you will be looking for. ∙
Limit the characteristics to those that are most important to the assessment.
Step 3: Identify the levels of mastery/scale (columns).
Tip: Aim for an even number (4 or 6) because when an odd number is used, the
middle tends to become the ―catch-all‖ category.
Step 4: Describe each level of mastery for each characteristic/dimension (cells). ∙
Describe the best work you could expect using these characteristics. This
describes the top category.
∙ Describe an unacceptable product. This describes the lowest category. ∙
Develop descriptions of intermediate-level products for intermediate
categories.
Important: Each description and each characteristic should be mutually
exclusive. Step 5: Test rubric.
∙ Apply the rubric to an assignment.
∙ Share with colleagues.
Tip: Faculty members often find it useful to establish the minimum score needed
for the student work to be deemed passable. For example, faculty members may
decided that a ―1‖ or ―2‖ on a 4-point scale (4=exemplary, 3=proficient,
2=marginal, 1=unacceptable), does not meet the minimum quality expectations.
We encourage a standard setting session to set the score needed to meet
expectations (also called a ―cutscore‖). Monica has posted materials from
standard setting workshops, one offered on campus and the other at a national
conference (includes speaker notes with the presentation slides).
They may set their criteria for success as 90% of the students must score 3 or
higher. If assessment study results fall short, action will need to be taken. Step 6:
Discuss with colleagues. Review feedback and revise.
Important: When developing a rubric for program assessment, enlist the help of
colleagues. Rubrics promote shared expectations and consistent grading
practices which benefit faculty members and students in the program.
- Interpretation and utilization
In academic terms, a rubric is a standard of performance for a defined

population. By using rubrics, teachers are able to communicate with students
what their expectations are and how they will be graded. A common reason that
students are not able to successfully complete assignments is that the
expectations are lost in translation between teacher and student. Popular
arguments against rubrics include that they block the creativity that students
would have if they weren‘t given guidelines for assignments or that it encourages
students to do the bare minimum of each assignment. Though these arguments
may have some truth to them, it is incredibly important to give students guidelines
for what is expected of them, especially in the STEM classes. With rubrics,
teachers are able to give students a physical copy of what is expected of them for
specific assignments. Rubrics cause transparency for the way teachers score
assignments, consistency for scoring, and facilitates peer-assessment and self
assessment.
Rubric Attributes
A common rubric can set expectations for students. Teachers may create rubrics
in order to organize their expectations for students as well as to organize the
scoring for particular assignments. A simple rubric includes criteria, levels of
performance, scores, and descriptors (Poor). Rubrics can be holistic or analytic.
Holistic rubrics provide a single score based on an overall impression of a
student‘s performance on a task. Holistic rubrics are good for quick scoring and
provide an overview of students‘ performance, but unfortunately does not provide
details in the feedback. Analytical rubrics provide specific feedback. Analytical
rubrics are good for providing detailed feedback and can be more consistent
across students and graders, but is time consuming for the graders (Zimmaro,
2004). Both types of rubrics, holistic and analytical, can enhance student
learning, but to maximize consistency of scoring and feedback for students,
analytical rubrics should be used. Though analytic rubrics are more time
consuming for the teacher, analytic rubrics are important for students because of
the detailed feedback that they get and the consistency for scoring between
teachers and students.
Using Rubrics for Scoring Transparency
Rubrics also allow transparency in a teachers grading policy. When given a

rubric, students know exactly what is expected and how things are scored. It is
important for a teacher to let their students know how they will be graded so
students can set expectations for themselves as they are doing assignments or
projects. It is crucial that rubrics are given to students at the same time that the
homework is assigned. Students will be able to refer back to this as they are
making progress on assignment, especially on projects. Class projects often are
spread among several weeks or months, not only will rubrics help students know
what they are expected to do, but they can refer to it to know how much each
part of a project is worth. By knowing how much each part of a project is worth,
students can time manage better by spending more time on parts that are worth
more and less of parts that are not worth as much in the total grade of a project.
Unfortunately, no rubric can stop students from complaining about certain
expectations they are given, but it can stop students from saying that they didn‘t
know what was expected.
Using rubrics allows students to know exactly what is expected of them. Rubrics
can be used for daily assignments, projects or even exams. There can be
miscommunication when a teacher is trying to describe an assignment so when
the student goes home, they can refer to a rubric to know what they are
supposed to do. When students stop paying attention in class, they often do not
do the assignment that was given to them, claiming they did not know what to do,
but with a rubric, students no longer have the excuse that they did not know what
to do. Teachers can also benefit from having scoring transparency. When there
are set expectations for every student, and those students know those
expectations, it allows for the teacher to dismiss any claims from students that
they were unaware of the assignment requirements.
Using rubrics to improve grading consistency
Using rubrics can increase consistency in grading. A rubric can be seen as a

regulatory device for scoring. One could say that scoring with a rubric is more
reliable than scoring without one. (Jonsson & Svingby 2007) While assessing
students work, rubrics can be a useful tool for keeping consistency between the
scoring of the same assignments among different students. If a teacher has the
scoring guidelines in front of them as they are grading assignments, it is simple
to compare what students expectations were against the finished student
assignments.
Using rubrics can also keep scoring consistent over different departments in
schools. Commonly, the same classes can be taught by different teachers. A
rubric has specific guidelines for what is expected and gives quantitative
guidelines for how to score assignments. Individual teachers may have different
grading policies, but by using the same guidelines, scoring can become
consistent between multiple teachers. Agreement on the important qualities of
student‘s products can allow more consistent evaluations since the performance
criteria do not vary from teacher to teacher. This can increase teacher and
student confidence. (Arter & Mctighe, 2001) Rubrics can also improve the way
teachers collaborate to collectively make a rubric. Teachers must come together
to decide what is expected of their students.
Using rubrics for peer-assessment and self-assessment
Rubrics can offer the opportunity for peer-assessment. After students finish
projects or assignments in general, the teacher can disburse the assignment to
different students to compare the assignment to the rubric. With specific
guidelines right in front of them, students can grade other students with less bias.
Teachers can allow students to grade other students since there are specific
guidelines and instructions for how to score the assignments. It is advantageous
for students who learn how to give and receive feedback (Jonsson, Svingby
2007).
Rubrics also offer the opportunity for self-assessment. Not only will students be
able to self-assess their progress on assignments by referring to scoring rubrics,
but they will be able to use rubrics to score themselves on their finished
assignment. Teachers can assign students to look over their assignment and
compare it to the rubric guidelines and give themselves a score. Rubrics can help
close the gap between student-assessment and teacher-assessment. Students
are more likely to be true with their assessment on themselves than they would
be on peer students, since students would be harder on themselves than others.
Students can gain life skills such as self-reflection and following guidelines by
using rubrics.
Enhancing student learning
Rubrics can enhance student learning. When students are made aware of the
rubrics prior to instruction, they know the level of performance that is expected
and can become more motivated to learn and reach those standards. Rubrics
can make the targets of instruction clear, especially for problem solving, group
process skills, and writing (Arter & Mctighe, 2001). Rubrics are easy to
understand and easy to explain which is why they have become so popular
among teachers, parents, and students. Rubrics often help students make
progress on their assignments or projects while also helping students stay on the
right track to finish a quality assignment or projects. Student learning can improve
greatly through the use of rubrics because of how it makes instruction clear and
how it keeps students on track to complete quality home work.
Rubrics can enhance student learning by having consistency in the way teachers
score individual assignments as well as keeping consistency between the ways
different teachers score the same assignments. Rubrics can also improve
student learning by allowing students to peer-assess and self-assess
assignments. Through scoring guidelines, students can learn the value of giving
and getting feedback from themselves and others. Though rubrics may seem like
a simple way to score assignments, rubrics allow for huge growth in the class
room by providing transparency in grading, consistency, peer-assessment, and
self-assessment.
Why are rubrics important?

Rubrics are important because they clarify for students the qualities their work
should have. This point is often expressed in terms of students understanding the
learning target and criteria for success. For this reason, rubrics help teachers
teach, they help coordinate instruction and assessment, and they help students
learn.
Rubrics help teachers teach

To write or select rubrics, teachers need to focus on the criteria by which learning
will be assessed. This focus on what you intend students to learn rather than
what you intend to teach actually helps improve instruction. The common
approach of "teaching things," as in "I taught the American Revolution" or "I
taught factoring quadratic equations," is clear on content but not so clear on
outcomes. Without clarity on outcomes, it's hard to know how much of various
aspects of the content to teach. Rubrics help with clarity of both content and
outcomes.
Really good rubrics help teachers avoid confusing the task or activity with the
learning goal, and therefore confusing completion of the task with learning.
Rubrics help keep teachers focused on criteria, not tasks. I have already
discussed this point in the section about selecting criteria. Focusing rubrics on
learning and not on tasks is the most important concept in this book. I will return
to it over and over. It seems to be a difficult concept—or probably a more
accurate statement is that focusing on tasks is so easy and so seductive that it
becomes the path many busy teachers take. Penny-wise and pound-foolish, such
an approach saves time in the short run by sacrificing learning in the long run.
Rubrics help coordinate instruction and assessment

Most rubrics should be designed for repeated use, over time, on several tasks.
Students are given a rubric at the beginning of a unit of instruction or an episode
of work. They tackle the work, receive feedback, practice, revise or do another
task, continue to practice, and ultimately receive a grade—all using the same
rubric as their description of the criteria and the quality levels that will
demonstrate learning. This path to learning is much more cohesive than a string
of assignments with related but different criteria.
Rubrics help students learn

The criteria and performance-level descriptions in rubrics help students
understand what the desired performance is and what it looks like. Effective
rubrics show students how they will know to what extent their performance
passes muster on each criterion of importance, and if used formatively can also
show students what their next steps should be to enhance the quality of their
performance. This claim is backed by research at all grade levels and in different
disciplines.
Several studies of student-generated criteria demonstrate that students can

participate in defining and describing the qualities their work should have. Nancy
Harris and Laura Kuehn (Higgins, Harris, & Kuehn, 1994) did research in their
own team-taught classroom to see what sorts of criteria primary school students
could generate for a "good project." They found that their students, in grades 1
and 2, were able to define criteria for group projects. At the beginning of the year,
most of the criteria were about process (for example, the group members getting
along with each other). In December, students were able to view examples of
projects, and with continued brainstorming and discussion they began to see the
importance of substantive criteria (for example, the information contained in the
project). By the end of the year, about half the criteria students chose were about
process and half were about product. This study shows us that students need to
learn how to focus on learning—and, more important, that they can begin to do
this as early as 1st grade.
Andrade, Du, and Wang (2008) investigated the effects of having 3rd and 4th
graders read a model written assignment, generate their own list of criteria, and
use rubrics to self-assess the quality of the written stories and essays they then
produced. A comparison group brainstormed criteria and self-assessed their
drafts but did not use the rubric. Controlling for previous writing ability, the group
that used the rubrics for self-assessment wrote better overall, and specifically in
the areas of ideas, organization, voice, and word choice. There were no
differences between the groups in the areas of sentences and conventions,
presumably areas of much previous drill for all young writers. Andrade, Du, and
Mycek (2010) replicated these findings with students in 5th, 6th, and 7th grade,
except that the rubric group's writing was evaluated as having higher quality on
all six criteria.
Ross, Hoagaboam-Gray, and Rolheiser (2002) taught 5th and 6th grade students
self-evaluation skills in mathematics, also using a method based on criteria. Their
self-evaluation instruction involved four strategies: involving students in defining
criteria, teaching them how to apply the criteria, giving them feedback on these
self-evaluations against criteria, and helping them develop action plans based on
the self-evaluations. Controlling for previous problem-solving ability, students
who self-assessed using criteria outscored a comparison group at solving
mathematics problems.
Ross and Starling (2008) used the same four-component self-assessment

training, based on criteria, with secondary students in a 9th grade geography
class. Students were learning to solve geography problems using global
information systems (GIS) software, so the learning goals were about both
accurate use of the software and applying it to real-world geography problems,
including being able to explain their problem-solving strategies. Controlling for
pretest computer self-efficacy (known to be important in technology learning), the
treatment group outscored a comparison group on three different measures:
production of a map using the software, a report explaining their problem-solving
strategies, and an exam measuring knowledge of the mapping program. The
largest difference was for the problem-solving explanations.
Hafner and Hafner (2003) investigated college biology students' use of rubrics for
peer assessment and teacher assessment of a collaborative oral presentation.
There were five criteria: organization and research, persuasiveness and logic of
argument, collaboration, delivery and grammar, and creativity and originality.
Originally the rubric was developed and then modified with discussion and
involvement of students. For the study, the same rubric was used for a required
course assignment three years in a row. The instructors were interested in finding
out whether the information students gained from peer evaluation was accurate,
whether it matched teacher input, and whether this accuracy was consistent
across different years and classes. The short answer was yes. Students were
able to accurately give feedback to their peers, their information matched that of
their instructor, and this was the case for each class.
D. Sources
Hena, L. (2015). Classroom Assessment 2. Quezon City: Great Books
Trading
E. Suggested Readings
Performance assessment, process-oriented based assessment, and
product-oriented based assessment
F. Unit Exercises
1. Activity 4 – (Process) Performance Task and Rubric. Develop a
performance task and scoring rubric, containing appropriate weighted
criteria (indicators), descriptors for interpretation and aligned standards
using GRASPS model
2. Activity 5 – (Product) Performance Task and Rubric. Develop a
performance task and scoring rubric, containing appropriate weighted
criteria (indicators), descriptors for interpretation and aligned standards
using GRASPS model
UNIT 3
AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT OF THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
a. Select appropriately developed, high quality affective assessment tools;
b. Use target- and learner-appropriate affective assessment methods and
tools; and
c. Interpret performance assessment data/results for monitoring and
evaluating learner achievement to improve learner performance and
inform instruction.
C. Content
Lesson 1 – Affective Targets
The affective domain is part of a system that was published in 1965 for
identifying, understanding and addressing how people learn. In the Bloom‘s
taxonomy published in 1965, three domains were identified: cognitive, affective
and psychomotor domains. In this unit, we shall be concerned with the second of
these domains which is the affective domain.
Unlike the cognitive domain which emphasizes measurements of
reasoning and the mental faculties of the student, the affective domain describes
learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion, or a degree of
acceptance or rejection. It is, admittedly, a far more difficult domain to objectively
analyse and assess since affective objectives vary from simple attention to
selected phenomena to complex but internally consistent qualities of character
and conscience. Nevertheless, much of the educative process needs to deal with
assessment and measurement of students‘ abilities in this domain. For instance,
it is often heard that certain people are ―schooled‖ but not ―educated‖. This
cliché simply refers to the fact that much of the processes in education today are
aimed at developing the cognitive aspects of development and very little or no
time is spent on the development of the affective domain. The development of
the psychomotor domain is also an important consideration in education.
However, due to space and time limitations, this shall not cover the appropriate
measurement and evaluation techniques in the psychomotor domain. The
interested reader, however, is referred to the list of references given at the end of
this chapter for more information.
We shall first discuss the taxonomy developed in the affective domain as a
starting point of our discussions on measurement and evaluation in this particular
educational domain of interest.
THE TAXONOMY IN THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

The taxonomy in the affective domain contains a large number of
objectives in the literature expressed as interests, attitudes, appreciations,
values, and emotional sets or biases (from Krathwohl et. Al, 1964). The
descriptions of each step in the taxonomy culled from Krathwohl‘s Taxonomy of
Affective Domain (1964) are given as follows:
Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas,
material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: to
differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), to respond to.
Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials,
or phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply
with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim.
Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas,
materials, or phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured proficiency in,
to relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate.
Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a
harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to
theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine.
Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance
with the values he or she has internalized. Examples include: to revise, to
require, to be rated high in value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to resolve.
If we are desirous to apply the continuum of Krathwohl et al. to our
teaching, then we are encouraging students to not just receive information at the
bottom of the affective hierarchy. Instead, as teachers, we would like for them to
respond to what they learn, to value it, to organize it and maybe even to
characterize themselves as environmentalists, geogology majors or earth
scientists. Notice that in these subjects, for instance, it is important to also
mention and perhaps study the biographies of great scientists since these serve
as inspiration for them to emulate the way that great scientist have led simple
lives and devoted their talents to the cause of science.
We are also interested in students‘ attitudes toward science, scientists,
learning science and specific science topics. We want to find teaching methods
that encourage students and draw them in. affective topics in educational
literature include attitudes, motivation, communication styles, classroom
management styles, classroom management styles, learning styles, use of
technology in the classroom and nonverbal communication, interests,
predisposition and self-efficacy. As teachers, we need to be careful about our
own actions that may negatively impact on students‘ attitudes which go straight
into the affective domain. For instance, facial expressions that reveal sarcasm,
body movements that betray distrust and dislike, should all be avoided.
The affective domain is the least studies and most often overlooked
domain in educational literature despite the fact that almost every researcher or
author begins with a premise on the importance of the affective domain in the
teaching-learning process. The reason, perhaps, is the fact that the affective
domain is the most nebulous and the hardest to evaluate of Bloom‘s three
domains. Traditional assessment procedures, for instance, concentrate on the
cognitive aspects of learning and as teachers majority of us typically focus our
efforts on the development of tests and instruments for measuring cognitive
learning. However, it is important to realize that by tapping the potentials of the
affective domain in enhancing learning, we increase the likelihood of real and
authentic learning among our students. Similarly, students may experience
affective roadblocks to learning that can neither be recognized nor solved when
using a purely cognitive approach.
AFFECTIVE LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Affective desired learning competencies are often stated in the form of
instructional objectives. What then are instructional objectives? - Instructional
objectives are specific, measurable, short-term, observable student behaviors.
- Objectives are the foundation upon which you can build lessons and
assessments that you can prove meet your overall course or lesson
goals.
- Think of objectives as tools you use to make sure you reach your goals.
They are the arrows you shoot towards your target (goal). - The purpose of
objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the vision of education
in the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that
both students and teacher know what is going on, and so learning can be
objectively measured. Different archers have different styles, so do
different teachers. Thus you can
shoot your arrows (objectives) in many ways. The important thing is
that they reach your target (goals) and score that bullseye!
We have reproduced the taxonomy of educational objectives in the

affective domain below as adopted from Krathwohl. Each level of the affective
domain is given a description and an example of an appropriate objective or
learning competency is provided. Notice that it is far more difficult to state an
objective in the affective domain because they often refer to feelings and internal
processes of the mind and body that cannot be tested and measured using
traditional methods. We also mention in passing that we assess and measure the
affective domain in schools but such measurements will not be used to grade
students on this domain.
Level Definition Example
Receiving Being aware of or attending
to something in
the environment
Valuing Showing some definite
Responding Showing some new involvement or
behaviors as a result of commitment
experience
about the book, read another book by
the same author, another book about
Organization Integrating a new value
civil rights, etc.
into one‘s general set of
values. Giving it some The individual might demonstrate this
ranking among one‘s by voluntarily attending a lecture on
general priorities civil rights.
Individual would read a book passage
The individual might arrange a civil
about civil rights.
rights rally.
Individual would answer questions
Value committed to the value,
Acting consistently with perhaps becoming a civil
the new value rights leader.
The individual is firmly
Characterization by
Figure 1 – The Taxonomy in the Affective Domain
Likewise, we provide some examples of verns or behavioural terms that

can be used to express learning competencies or objectives in the affective
domain. We cannot stress enough the importance of using behavioural terms in
specifying our learning competencies. Behavioural terms tend to simplify the
assessment and measurement methodologies that are suggested in this
textbook. Behavioural objectives focus on observable behaviors which can be
easily translated in quantitative terms.
Receiving Responding Valuing Organization Characterization
-comply -respond
-accept -discriminate -systematize
-accept
-cooperate
-attend -display -weigh
-defend
-discuss -internalize
-develop -order
-devote
-examine -verify
-recognize -organize
-pursue -seek
-obey
-complete
-codify
Figure 2 – Behavioral Verbs Appropriate for the Affective Domain
In the affective domain, and in particular, when we consider learning

competencies, we also consider the following focal concepts:
1. Attitudes
Attitudes are defined as a mental predisposition to act that is expressed by
evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour. Individuals
generally have attitudes that focus on objects, people of institutions. Attitudes are
also attached to mental categories. Mental orientations towards concepts are
generally referred to as values. Attitudes are comprised of four components.
A. Cognitions
Cognitions are our beliefs, theories, expectancies, cause-and-effect
beliefs, and perceptions relative to the focal object. This concept is not the
same as ―feelings‖ but just a statement of beliefs and expectations which
vary from one individual to the next.
B. Affect
The affective component refers to our feeling with respect to the focal
object such as fear, liking, or anger. For instance, the color ―blue‖ evokes
different feelings for different individuals: some like the color blue but
others do not. Some associate the color blue with ―loneliness‖ while
others associate it with ―calm and peace‖.
C. Behavioral Intentions
Behavioral intentions are our goals, aspirations, and our expected
responses to the attitude object.
D. Evaluation
Evaluations are often considered the central component of attitudes.
Evaluations consist of the imputation of some degree of goodness or
badness to an attitude object. When we speak of a positive or negative
attitude toward an object, we are referring to the evaluative component.
Evaluations are a function of cognitive, affect and behavioural intentions of
the object. It is most often the behavioural intentions of the object. It is
most often the evaluation that is stored in memory, often without the
corresponding cognitions and affect that were responsible for its formation
(Robert Scholl, University of Rhode Island, 2002).
Why study attitudes?

Obviously, attitudes can influence the way we act and think in the social
communities we belong. They can function as frameworks and references for
forming conclusions and interpreting or acting for or against an individual;
individuals, a concept or an idea. For instance, think about your attitudes toward
―drinking alcoholic beverages‖ or ―gambling‖ or ―going on an all-night bar
hopping spree every night‖. Or, perhaps, think about your attitude towards
―mathematics and mathematical equations‖. Do these attitudes shape the way
you think and
corresponding act? What is your response? How is your response informed by
each of these attitudes?
Several studies in the past, for instance, concluded that poor performance
in school mathematics cannot be strictly attributable to differential mental abilities
but to the students‘ attitudes toward the subject. When mathematics classes are
recited, students with negative attitude towards mathematics tend to pay less
attention and occupy their minds with something else. Thus, attitudes may
influence behaviour. People will behave in ways consistent with their attitudes.
2. Interests
Interests are subjects that fascinate you and want to learn more about.
Interests are usually more about learning and discovering ideas, concepts, and
knowledge like history, animal behavior, or even pop culture. For example, if your
interest is history, going to museums would be your hobby.
What Are Your Interests?
Sometimes people take any job without thinking about if they like the job.
They learn that there are some tasks they like to do. And there are other tasks
they don't like to do.
Finding a job that has tasks or duties that are interesting to you will make
the job more enjoyable, and you will be more motivated to keep that job. You'll
also do a better in the job and will be more likely to be promoted.
Interests are what you like to do at work. You can choose a career based
on your interests.
Benefits of Matching Your Interests

Here are reasons to pick a job that matches your interests:
You will be happier doing a job you like (matches your interests) than one
you dislike.
Not everything you enjoy doing will provide you with a good income. It is
important to balance what you enjoy, what you are good at (your skills), and what
jobs are available.
You may not enjoy every part of your job, but you should enjoy most of it.
Discover Your Interests
An interest assessment asks you questions about your hobbies and what
you like to do. It matches your interests to job options and gives you a list of
careers that you might like.
Taking an interest assessment can help you understand which careers

might best fit you. An interest assessment will give you a broad list of career
options that match your interests.
Directions: Click on this link to take this short interest assessment.

http://www.ohe.state.mn.us/sPages/interestAssessment.cfm
Interest Assessment
Read each statement below. If you agree, select the corresponding
checkbox. I like to...
...do puzzles
...work on cars
...attend concerts, theaters or art exhibits

...work in teams
...organize things like files, offices or activities
...set goals for myself
...build things
...read fiction, poetry or plays
...have clear instructions to follow
...influence or persuade people
...do experiments
...teach or train people
...help people solve their problems
...take care of animals
...have my day structured
...sell things
...do creative writing
...work on science projects
...take on new responsibilities
...heal people
...figure out how things work
...put things together or assemble models
...be creative
...pay attention to details
...do filing or typing
...learn about other cultures
...analyze things like problems, situations or trends
...play instruments or sing
...dream about starting my own business
...cook
...act in plays
...think things through before making decisions
...work with numbers or charts
...have discussions about issues like politics or current events
...keep records of my work
...be a leader
...work outdoors
...work in an office
...work on math problems
...help people
...draw
...give speeches
Click the squares next to the activities that you like to do. If you don't like
to do an activity, leave the square blank.
When you have looked at the whole list, click "Go" at the bottom of the
page.
The next page will show how many responses you had in each of the six
interest types. Most people have two or three types that are higher than the rest.
The two or three types with your biggest numbers are the interest areas that best
fit you. Write down those two or three types. This is your interest code.
Look at the career clusters that match each of your interest code letters.
The interest code uses the following words to describe the six interest groups:
R = Realistic people are DOERS. Realistic people like to work with their
hands, either with plants and animals or tools. They like to fix things. I =
Investigative people are THINKERS. Investigative people like to analyze data
and solve problems. They usually prefer to work independently. A = Artistic
people are CREATORS. Artistic people often enjoy making things or performing
in front of other people. They like flexibility in their lives. S = Social people are
HELPERS. Social people like to work with other people, often on teams. They
enjoy counseling or caring for others. E = Enterprising people are
PERSUADERS. Enterprising people like to start projects and make decisions.
They often enjoy selling things or managing other people.
C = Conventional people are ORGANIZERS. Conventional people like
structured jobs. They enjoy working with numbers and instructions. They often
organize data and write reports.
3. Motivation
Motivation is a reason or set or reasons for engaging in a particular

behaviour, especially human behaviour as studies in psychology and
neuropsychology. The reasons may include basic needs (e.g., food, water,
shelter) or an object, goal, state of being, or ideal that is desirable, which may or
may not be viewed as ―positive‖, such as seeking a state of being in which pain
is absent. The motivation for a behaviour may also be attributed to less-apparent
reasons such as altruism or morality. According to Geen (1995), motivation refers
to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behaviour. There
are many theories that explain human motivation. The need theory is one of
these theories. Abraham Maslow‘s hierarchy of human needs theory is the most
widely discussed theory of motivation. The theory can be summarized as thus:
- Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behaviour;
only unsatisfied needs can influence behaviour, satisfied needs cannot.
- Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from
the basic to the complex.
- The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level
need is at least minimally satisfied.
- The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality,
humanness and psychological health a person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest,
latest) are as follows:
- Physiological: food, clothing, shelter
- Safety and security: home and family
- Social: being in a community
- Self esteem
- Self actualization
Herzberg‘s two factor theory is another need theory of motivation.
Frederick Herzberg‘s two factor theory, concludes that certain factors in the
workplace result in job satisfaction, while others do not, but if absent lead to
dissatisfaction. He distinguished between:
- Motivators: (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give
positive satisfaction, and
- Hygiene factors: (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits)
which do not motivate if present, but if absent will result in
demotivation.
The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence
will make you healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration. The theory
is sometimes called the ―Motivator-Hygiene Theory‖. From a practical point of
view (vs academic) Herzberg‘s two factor theory has proven more powerful than
Maslow since its concepts are simpler to understand. Steve Bicknell did
considerable research into Employee Engagement Data. In particular, the
analysis of verbatim comments over 50 companies found there was a common
theme between low hygiene – high motivator and low Employee Engagement.
Employees consistently recorded low scores against management/leadership –
Employees were optimistic about success but happy to complain about
leadership since their hygiene factors had not been addressed. Message – sort
the hygiene, then drive the motivation.
Finally, created by Clayton Alderfer, Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs was
expanded, leading to his ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth).
Physiological and safety, the lower order needs in the relatedness category. The
growth category contained the self actualization and self esteem needs.
Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the
crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation
that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively in other
fields. Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn
and their behaviour towards subject matter (Ormrod, 2003). It can:
1. Direct behaviour toward particular goals
2. Lead to increased effort and energy
3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
4. Enhance cognitive processing
5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing
6. Lead to improved performance
Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes
need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the
teacher creates. There are two kinds of motivation:
- Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do
something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is
important, or they feel that what they are learning is morally significant.
- Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do
something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or
her (like money or good grades)
4. Values
A review of your values and interests will tell you what jobs will give you a
sense of pride and ignite your passion. Getting to know your true self will help
you define your values and interests which can lead to a clearer life path.
Defining Values
Values are intangible standards or principles which give meaning to our
lives and guide our behavior and choices.
For Some, Defining Values Is Easy

Some people see their values clearly and express them easily. There is
little confusion or question about where these people stand. Being committed to
your values lays the foundation you need to build your life around.
And for the Rest of us…

For others, expressing a clear set of values is more difficult, either
because their values are in flux or because they are no longer sure about them.
This is especially true for people who are undergoing a period of transition.
Transitional periods allow us to re-evaluate what values are important to us. Re
defining our values in transition periods of our lives is a necessary step in
creating the life we want for ourselves.
What Are Interests and How Are They Different from Values? Interests are
something that excites your curiosity or attention. Interests are different from
values in that values are your personal principles. Interests get you excited about
something and inspire you to take action. You will use your values to guide you
as you pursue your interests. Defining what interests you have is also important.
What are you passionate about? What excites you?
Values
Values are individual beliefs that motivate people to act one way or another. They
serve as a guide for human behavior.
Generally, people are predisposed to adopt the values that they are raised with.
People also tend to believe that those values are ―right‖ because they are the
values of their particular culture.
Ethical decision-making often involves weighing values against each other and
choosing which values to elevate. Conflicts can result when people have different
values, leading to a clash of preferences and priorities.
Some values have intrinsic worth, such as love, truth, and freedom. Other values,
such as ambition, responsibility, and courage, describe traits or behaviors that
are instrumental as means to an end.
Still other values are considered sacred and are moral imperatives for those who
believe in them. Sacred values will seldom be compromised because they are
perceived as duties rather than as factors to be weighed in decision-making. For
example, for some people, their nation‘s flag may represent a sacred value. But
for others, the flag may just be a piece of cloth.
So, whether values are sacred, have intrinsic worth, or are a means to an end,
values vary among individuals and across cultures and time. However values are
universally recognized as a driving force in ethical decision-making.
5. Self-concept
By Dr. Saul McLeod, published 2008
The self-concept is a general term used to refer to how someone thinks about,
evaluates or perceives themselves. To be aware of oneself is to have a concept
of oneself.
Baumeister (1999) provides the following self-concept definition:
"The individual's belief about himself or herself, including the person's attributes
and who and what the self is".
The self-concept is an important term for both social and humanistic psychology.
Lewis (1990) suggests that the development of a concept of self has two
aspects:
(1) The Existential Self
This is 'the most basic part of the self-scheme or self-concept; the sense of being
separate and distinct from others and the awareness of the constancy of the self'
(Bee, 1992).
The child realizes that they exist as a separate entity from others and that they
continue to exist over time and space.
According to Lewis awareness of the existential self begins as young as two to

three months old and arises in part due to the relation the child has with the
world. For example, the child smiles and someone smiles back, or the child
touches a mobile and sees it move.
(2) The Categorical Self

Having realized that he or she exists as a separate experiencing being, the child
next becomes aware that he or she is also an object in the world.
Just as other objects including people have properties that can be experienced
(big, small, red, smooth and so on) so the child is becoming aware of himself or
herself as an object which can be experienced and which has properties.
The self too can be put into categories such as age, gender, size or skill. Two of
the first categories to be applied are age (―I am 3‖) and gender (―I am a girl‖).
In early childhood. the categories children apply to themselves are very concrete
(e.g., hair color, height and favorite things). Later, self-description also begins to
include reference to internal psychological traits, comparative evaluations and to
how others see them.
Carl Rogers (1959) believes that the self-concept has three different
components:
• The view you have of yourself (self-image)
• How much value you place on yourself (self-esteem or
self-worth) • What you wish you were really like (ideal-self)
Self-image (how you see yourself)

self image
This does not necessarily have to reflect reality. Indeed a person with anorexia
who is thin may have a self-image in which the person believes they are fat. A
person's self-image is affected by many factors, such as parental influences,
friends, the media etc.
Kuhn (1960) investigated the self-image by using The Twenty Statements Test.
He asked people to answer the question 'Who am I?' in 20 different ways.
He found that the responses could be divided into two major groups. These were
social roles (external or objective aspects of oneself such as son, teacher, friend)
and personality traits (internal or affective aspects of oneself such as gregarious,
impatient, humorous).
The list of answers to the question ―Who Am I?‖ probably include examples of
each of the following four types of responses:
1) Physical Description: I‘m tall, have blue eyes...etc.
2) Social Roles: We are all social beings whose behavior is shaped to some
extent by the roles we play. Such roles as student, housewife, or member of the
football team not only help others to recognize us but also help us to know what
is expected of us in various situations.
3) Personal Traits: These are the third dimension of our self-descriptions. ―I‘m
impulsive...I‘m generous...I tend to worry a lot‖...etc.
4) Existential Statements (abstract ones): These can range from "I‘m a child of
the universe" to "I‘m a human being" to "I‘m a spiritual being"...etc.
Typically young people describe themselves more in terms of personal traits,

whereas older people feel defined to a greater extent by their social roles.
Self-esteem (the extent to which you value yourself)

Self-esteem (also known as self-worth) refers to the extent to which we like,
accept or approve of ourselves, or how much we value ourselves.
Self-esteem always involves a degree of evaluation and we may have either a
positive or a negative view of ourselves.
High self-esteem (we have a positive view of ourselves)
This tends to lead to
Confidence in our own abilities
Self-acceptance
Not worrying about what others think
Optimism
Low self-esteem (we have a negative view of ourselves)
This tends to lead to
Lack of confidence
Want to be/look like someone else
Always worrying what others might think
Pessimism
There are several ways of measuring self-esteem. For example, Harrill Self
Esteem Inventory is a questionnaire comprising 15 statements about a range of
interests. Another example is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which is a
neutral cartoon given to the participant who then has to devise a story about
what's going on.
Morse and Gergen (1970) showed that in uncertain or anxiety-arousing situations

our self-esteem may change rapidly. Participants were waiting for a job interview
in a waiting room. They were sat with another candidate (a confederate of the
experimenter) in one of two conditions:
A) Mr. Clean - dressed in a smart suit, carrying a briefcase opened to reveal a

slide rule and books.
B) Mr. Dirty - dressed in an old T-shirt and jeans, slouched over a cheap sex
novel.
Self-esteem of participants with Mr. Dirty increased whilst those with Mr. Clean
decreased! No mention made of how this affected subjects‘ performance in
interview.
Level of self-esteem affects performance at numerous tasks though

(Coopersmith, 1967) so could expect Mr. Dirty subjects to perform better than Mr.
Clean.
Even though self-esteem might fluctuate, there are times when we continue to
believe good things about ourselves even when evidence to the contrary exists.
This is known as the perseverance effect.
Miller and Ross (1975) showed that people who believed they had socially
desirable characteristics continued in this belief even when the experimenters
tried to get them to believe the opposite.
Does the same thing happen with bad things if we have low self-esteem? Maybe
not, perhaps with very low self-esteem, all we believe about ourselves might be
bad.
Argyle (2008) believes there are 4 major factors that influence self-esteem.
1. The Reaction of Others
If people admire us, flatter us, seek out our company, listen attentively and agree
with us we tend to develop a positive self-image. If they avoid us, neglect us, tell
us things about ourselves that we don‘t want to hear we develop a negative self
image.
2. Comparison with Others

If the people we compare ourselves with (our reference group) appear to be more
successful, happier, richer, better looking than ourselves we tend to develop a
negative self-image BUT if they are less successful than us our image will be
positive.
3. Social Roles
Some social roles carry prestige e.g., doctor, airline pilot, TV. presenter,
premiership footballer and this promotes self-esteem. Other roles carry a stigma.
E.g., a prisoner, mental hospital patient, refuse collector or unemployed person.
4. Identification
Roles aren‘t just ―out there.‖ They also become part of our personality i.e. we
identity with the positions we occupy, the roles we play and the groups we belong
to.
But just as important as all these factors, are the influence of our parents! (See
Coopersmith‘s research.)
Ideal Self (what you'd like to be)

If there is a mismatch between how you see yourself (e.g., your self-image) and
what you‘d like to be (e.g., your ideal-self ) then this is likely to affect how much
you value yourself.
Therefore, there is an intimate relationship between self-image, ego-ideal and

self-esteem. Humanistic psychologists study this using the Q-Sort Method.
A person‘s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in the life
and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a
person‘s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence.
Where a person‘s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar,
a state of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever does a total state of congruence
exist; all people experience a certain amount of incongruence.
The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard.

Roger‘s believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a
state of congruence.
Michael Argyle (2008) says there are four major factors which influence its
development:
The ways in which others (particularly significant others) react to

us. How we think we compare to others
Our social roles
The extent to which we identify with other people
How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2008). Self concept. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html
6. Locus of control
Locus of control is the degree to which people believe that they, as
opposed to external forces (beyond their influence), have control over the
outcome of events in their lives. The concept was developed by Julian B. Rotter
in 1954, and has since become an aspect of personality psychology. A person's
"locus" (plural "loci", Latin for "place" or "location") is conceptualized as internal
(a belief that one can control one's own life) or external (a belief that life is
controlled by outside factors which the person cannot influence, or that chance or
fate controls their lives).[1]
Individuals with a strong internal locus of control believe events in their life
are primarily a result of their own actions: for example, when receiving exam
results, people with an internal locus of control tend to praise or blame
themselves and their abilities. People with a strong external locus of control tend
to praise or blame external factors such as the teacher or the exam.[2]
Locus of control has generated much research in a variety of areas in
psychology. The construct is applicable to such fields as educational psychology,
health psychology, and clinical psychology. Debate continues whether specific or
more global measures of locus of control will prove to be more useful in practical
application. Careful distinctions should also be made between locus of control (a
concept linked with expectancies about the future) and attributional style (a
concept linked with explanations for past outcomes), or between locus of control
and concepts such as self-efficacy.
Locus of control is one of the four dimensions of core self-evaluations –
one's fundamental appraisal of oneself – along with neuroticism, self-efficacy,
and self-esteem.[3] The concept of core self-evaluations was first examined by
Judge, Locke, and Durham (1997), and since has proven to have the ability to
predict several work outcomes, specifically, job satisfaction and job
performance.[4] In a follow-up study, Judge et al. (2002) argued that locus of
control, neuroticism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem factors may have a common
core.
History
Locus of control is Weiner's attribution theory as applied
the framework of Rotter's (1954) to student motivation
social-learning
Perceived locus of control
Interna External
l
Attributions of control Ability Hardness of

tasks
Attributions of no Effort Luck or fate

control
theory of personality. In
1966 he published an
article in Psychological
Monographs which
summarized over a
decade of research (by
Rotter and his students), much of it previously unpublished. In 1976, Herbert M.
Lefcourt defined the perceived locus of control: "...a generalised expectancy for
internal as opposed to external control of reinforcements". Attempts have been
made to trace the genesis of the concept to the work of Alfred Adler, but its
immediate background lies in the work of Rotter and his students. Early work on
the topic of expectations about control of reinforcement had been performed in
the 1950s by James and Phares (prepared for unpublished doctoral dissertations
supervised by Rotter at The Ohio State University).
Another Rotter student, William H. James studied two types of "expectancy
shifts":
∙ Typical expectancy shifts, believing that success (or failure) would be
followed by a similar outcome
∙ Atypical expectancy shifts, believing that success (or failure) would be
followed by a dissimilar outcome
Additional research led to the hypothesis that typical expectancy shifts were
displayed more often by those who attributed their outcomes to ability, whereas
those who displayed atypical expectancy were more likely to attribute their
outcomes to chance. This was interpreted that people could be divided into those
who attribute to ability (an internal cause) versus those who attribute to luck (an
external cause). Bernard Weiner argued that rather than ability-versus-luck, locus
may relate to whether attributions are made to stable or unstable causes.
Rotter (1975, 1989) has discussed problems and misconceptions in others' use
of the internal-versus-external construct.
Personality orientation
Rotter (1975) cautioned that internality and externality represent two ends
of a continuum, not an either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of
events to their own control. People who have internal locus of control believe that
the outcomes of their actions are results of their own abilities. Internals believe
that their hard work would lead them to obtain positive outcomes.They also
believe that every action has its consequence, which makes them accept the fact
that things happen and it depends on them if they want to have control over it or
not. Externals attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances. People
with an external locus of control tend to believe that the things which happen in
their lives are out of their control, and even that their own actions are a result of
external factors, such as fate, luck, the influence of powerful others (such as
doctors, the police, or government officials) and/or a belief that the world is too
complex for one to predict or successfully control its outcomes. Such people tend
to blame others rather than themselves for their lives' outcomes. It should not be
thought, however, that internality is linked exclusively with attribution to effort and
externality with attribution to luck (as Weiner's work – see below – makes clear).
This has obvious implications for differences between internals and externals in
terms of their achievement motivation, suggesting that internal locus is linked
with higher levels of need for achievement. Due to their locating control outside
themselves, externals tend to feel they have less control over their fate. People
with an external locus of control tend to be more stressed and prone to clinical
depression.
Internals were believed by Rotter (1966) to exhibit two essential
characteristics: high achievement motivation and low outer-directedness. This
was the basis of the locus-of-control scale proposed by Rotter in 1966, although
it was based on Rotter's belief that locus of control is a single construct. Since
1970, Rotter's assumption of uni-dimensionality has been challenged, with
Levenson (for example) arguing that different dimensions of locus of control
(such as beliefs that events in one's life are self-determined, or organized by
powerful others and are chance-based) must be separated. Weiner's early work
in the 1970s suggested that orthogonal to the internality-externality dimension,
differences should be considered between those who attribute to stable and
those who attribute to unstable causes.
This new, dimensional theory meant that one could now attribute
outcomes to ability (an internal stable cause), effort (an internal unstable cause),
task difficulty (an external stable cause) or luck (an external, unstable cause).
Although this was how Weiner originally saw these four causes, he has been
challenged as to whether people see luck (for example) as an external cause,
whether ability is always perceived as stable, and whether effort is always seen
as changing. Indeed, in more recent publications (e.g. Weiner, 1980) he uses
different terms for these four causes (such as "objective task characteristics"
instead of "task difficulty" and "chance" instead of "luck"). Psychologists since
Weiner have distinguished between stable and unstable effort, knowing that in
some circumstances effort could be seen as a stable cause (especially given the
presence of words such as "industrious" in English).
Regarding locus of control, there is another type of control that entails a
mix among the internal and external types. People that have the combination of
the two types of locus of control are often referred to as Bi-locals. People that
have Bi-local characteristics are known to handle stress and cope with their
diseases more efficiently by having the mixture of internal and external locus of
control. People that have this mix of loci of control can take personal
responsibility for their actions and the consequences thereof while remaining
capable of relying upon and having faith in outside resources; these
characteristics correspond to the internal and external loci of control,
respectively.
Measuring scales
The most widely used questionnaire to measure locus of control is the 13-
item (plus six filler items), forced-choice scale of Rotter (1966). However, this is
not the only questionnaire; Bialer's (1961) 23-item scale for children predates
Rotter's work. Also relevant to the locus-of-control scale are the Crandall
Intellectual Ascription of Responsibility Scale (Crandall, 1965) and the Nowicki
Strickland Scale (Nowicki & Strickland 1973). One of the earliest psychometric
scales to assess locus of control (using a Likert-type scale, in contrast to the
forced-choice alternative measure in Rotter's scale) was that devised by W. H.
James for his unpublished doctoral dissertation, supervised by Rotter at Ohio
State University; however, this remains unpublished.
Many measures of locus of control have appeared since Rotter's scale.
These were reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993) and include those related to
health psychology, industrial and organizational psychology and those
specifically for children (such as the Stanford Preschool Internal-External Scale
for three- to six-year-olds). Furnham and Steele (1993) cite data suggesting that
the most reliable, valid questionnaire for adults is the Duttweiler scale. For a
review of the health questionnaires cited by these authors, see "Applications"
below.
The Duttweiler (1984) Internal Control Index (ICI) addresses perceived
problems with the Rotter scales, including their forced-choice format,
susceptibility to social desirability and heterogeneity (as indicated by factor
analysis). She also notes that, while other scales existed in 1984 to measure
locus of control, "they appear to be subject to many of the same problems".
Unlike the forced-choice format used on Rotter's scale, Duttweiler's 28-item ICI
uses a Likert-type scale in which people must state whether they would rarely,
occasionally, sometimes, frequently or usually behave as specified in each of 28
statements. The ICI assess variables pertinent to internal locus: cognitive
processing, autonomy, resistance to social influence, self-confidence and delay
of gratification. A small (133 student-subject) validation study indicated that the
scale had good internal consistency reliability (a Cronbach's alpha of 0.85).
Attributional style
Main article: Explanatory style
Attributional style (or explanatory style) is a concept introduced by Lyn
Yvonne Abramson, Martin Seligman and John D. Teasdale.This concept
advances a stage further than Weiner, stating that in addition to the concepts of
internality-externality and stability a dimension of globality-specificity is also
needed. Abramson et al. believed that how people explained successes and
failures in their lives related to whether they attributed these to internal or
external factors, short-term or long-term factors, and factors that affected all
situations.
The topic of attribution theory (introduced to psychology by Fritz Heider)
has had an influence on locus of control theory, but there are important historical
differences between the two models. Attribution theorists have been
predominantly social psychologists, concerned with the general processes
characterizing how and why people make the attributions they do, whereas locus
of control theorists have been concerned with individual differences.
Significant to the history of both approaches are the contributions made by
Bernard Weiner in the 1970s. Before this time, attribution theorists and locus of
control theorists had been largely concerned with divisions into external and
internal loci of causality. Weiner added the dimension of stability-instability (and
later controllability), indicating how a cause could be perceived as having been
internal to a person yet still beyond the person's control. The stability dimension
added to the understanding of why people succeed or fail after such outcomes.
Although not part of Weiner's model, a further dimension of attribution, that of
globality-specificity, was added by Abramson, Seligman and Teasdale. [
Applications
Locus of control's best known application may have been in the area of
health psychology, largely due to the work of Kenneth Wallston. Scales to
measure locus of control in the health domain were reviewed by Furnham and
Steele in 1993. The best-known are the Health Locus of Control Scale and the
Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale, or MHLC. The latter scale is
based on the idea (echoing Levenson's earlier work) that health may be
attributed to three sources: internal factors (such as self-determination of a
healthy lifestyle), powerful others (such as one's doctor) or luck (which is very
dangerous as lifestyle advice will be ignored – these people are very difficult to
help).
Some of the scales reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993) relate to
health in more specific domains, such as obesity (for example, Saltzer's (1982)
Weight Locus of Control Scale or Stotland and Zuroff's (1990) Dieting Beliefs
Scale), mental health (such as Wood and Letak's (1982) Mental Health Locus of
Control Scale or the Depression Locus of Control Scale of Whiteman, Desmond
and Price, 1987) and cancer (the Cancer Locus of Control Scale of Pruyn et al.,
1988). In discussing applications of the concept to health psychology Furnham
and Steele refer to Claire Bradley's work, linking locus of control to the
management of diabetes mellitus. Empirical data on health locus of control in a
number of fields was reviewed by Norman and Bennett in 1995; they note that
data on whether certain health-related behaviors are related to internal health
locus of control have been ambiguous. They note that some studies found that
internal health locus of control is linked with increased exercise, but cite other
studies which found a weak (or no) relationship between exercise behaviors
(such as jogging) and internal health locus of control. A similar ambiguity is noted
for data on the relationship between internal health locus of control and other
health-related behaviors (such as breast self-examination, weight control and
preventive-health behavior). Of particular interest are the data cited on the
relationship between internal health locus of control and alcohol consumption.
Norman and Bennett note that some studies that compared alcoholics with non
alcoholics suggest alcoholism is linked to increased externality for health locus of
control; however, other studies have linked alcoholism with increased internality.
Similar ambiguity has been found in studies of alcohol consumption in the
general, non-alcoholic population. They are more optimistic in reviewing the
literature on the relationship between internal health locus of control and smoking
cessation, although they also point out that there are grounds for supposing that
powerful-others and internal-health loci of control may be linked with this
behavior. It is thought that, rather than being caused by one or the other, that
alcoholism is directly related to the strength of the locus, regardless of type,
internal or external.
They argue that a stronger relationship is found when health locus of
control is assessed for specific domains than when general measures are taken.
Overall, studies using behavior-specific health locus scales have tended to
produce more positive results.These scales have been found to be more
predictive of general behavior than more general scales, such as the MHLC
scale. Norman and Bennett cite several studies that used health-related locus-of
control scales in specific domains (including smoking cessation), diabetes, tablet
treated diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, cancer, and heart and lung disease. They
also argue that health locus of control is better at predicting health-related
behavior if studied in conjunction with health value (the value people attach to
their health), suggesting that health value is an important moderator variable in
the health locus of control relationship. For example, Weiss and Larsen (1990)
found an increased relationship between internal health locus of control and
health when health value was assessed.[31] Despite the importance Norman and
Bennett attach to specific measures of locus of control, there are general
textbooks on personality which cite studies linking internal locus of control with
improved physical health, mental health and quality of life in people with diverse
conditions: HIV, migraines, diabetes, kidney disease and epilepsy.
During the 1970s and 1980s, Whyte correlated locus of control with the
academic success of students enrolled in higher-education courses. Students
who were more internally controlled believed that hard work and focus would
result in successful academic progress, and they performed better academically.
Those students who were identified as more externally controlled (believing that
their future depended upon luck or fate) tended to have lower academic
performance levels. Cassandra B. Whyte researched how control tendency
influenced behavioral outcomes in the academic realm by examining the effects
of various modes of counseling on grade improvements and the locus of control
of high-risk college students.
Rotter also looked at studies regarding the correlation between gambling
and either an internal or external locus of control. For internals, gambling is more
reserved. When betting, they primarily focus on safe and moderate wagers.
Externals, however, take more chances and, for example, bet more on a card or
number that has not appeared for a certain period, under the notion that this card
or number has a higher chance of occurring.
Organizational psychology and religion

Other fields to which the concept has been applied include industrial and
organizational psychology, sports psychology, educational psychology and the
psychology of religion. Richard Kahoe has published work in the latter field,
suggesting that intrinsic religious orientation correlates positively (and extrinsic
religious orientation correlates negatively) with internal locus. Of relevance to
both health psychology and the psychology of religion is the work of Holt, Clark,
Kreuter and Rubio (2003) on a questionnaire to assess spiritual-health locus of
control. The authors distinguished between an active spiritual-health locus of
control (in which "God empowers the individual to take healthy actions") and a
more passive spiritual-health locus of control (where health is left up to God). In
industrial and organizational psychology, it has been found that internals are
more likely to take positive action to change their jobs (rather than merely talk
about occupational change) than externals. Locus of control relates to a wide
variety of work variables, with work-specific measures relating more strongly than
general measures. In Educational setting, some research has shown that
students who were intrinsically motivated had processed reading material more
deeply and had better academic performance than students with extrinsic
motivation.
Consumer research
Locus of control has also been applied to the field of consumer research.
For example, Martin, Veer and Pervan (2007) examined how the weight locus of
control of women (i.e., beliefs about the control of body weight) influence how
they react to female models in advertising of different body shapes. They found
that women who believe they can control their weight ("internals"), respond most
favorably to slim models in advertising, and this favorable response is mediated
by self-referencing. In contrast, women who feel powerless about their weight
("externals"), self-reference larger-sized models, but only prefer larger-sized
models when the advertisement is for a non-fattening product. For fattening
products, they exhibit a similar preference for larger-sized models and slim
models. The weight locus of control measure was also found to be correlated
with measures for weight control beliefs and willpower.
Political ideology
Locus of control has been linked to political ideology. In the 1972 U.S.
Presidential election, research of college students found that those with an
internal locus of control were substantially more likely to register as a Republican,
while those with an external locus of control were substantially more likely to
register as a Democratic. A 2011 study surveying students at Cameron University
in Oklahoma found similar results, although these studies were limited in scope.
Consistent with these findings, Kaye Sweetser (2014) found that Republicans
significantly displayed greater internal locus of control than Democrats and
Independents.
Those with an internal locus of control are more likely to be of higher
socioeconomic status, and are more likely to be politically involved (e.g.,
following political news, joining a political organization) Those with an internal
locus of control are also more likely to vote.
Familial origins
The development of locus of control is associated with family style and
resources, cultural stability and experiences with effort leading to reward. Many
internals have grown up with families modeling typical internal beliefs; these
families emphasized effort, education, responsibility and thinking, and parents
typically gave their children rewards they had promised them. In contrast,
externals are typically associated with lower socioeconomic status. Societies
experiencing social unrest increase the expectancy of being out-of-control;
therefore, people in such societies become more external.
The 1995 research of Schneewind suggests that "children in large single parent
families headed by women are more likely to develop an external locus of
control" Schultz and Schultz also claim that children in families where parents
have been supportive and consistent in discipline develop internal locus of
control. At least one study has found that children whose parents had an external
locus of control are more likely to attribute their successes and failures to
external causes. Findings from early studies on the familial origins of locus of
control were summarized by Lefcourt: "Warmth, supportiveness and parental
encouragement seem to be essential for development of an internal locus".
However, causal evidence regarding how parental locus of control influences
offspring locus of control (whether genetic, or environmentally mediated) is
lacking.
Locus of control becomes more internal with age. As children grow older,
they gain skills which give them more control over their environment. However,
whether this or biological development is responsible for changes in locus is
unclear.
Age
Some studies showed that with age people develop a more internal locus
of control, but other study results have been ambiguous. Longitudinal data
collected by Gatz and Karel imply that internality may increase until middle age,
decreasing thereafter. Noting the ambiguity of data in this area, Aldwin and
Gilmer (2004) cite Lachman's claim that locus of control is ambiguous. Indeed,
there is evidence here that changes in locus of control in later life relate more
visibly to increased externality (rather than reduced internality) if the two
concepts are taken to be orthogonal. Evidence cited by Schultz and Schultz
(2005) suggests that locus of control increases in internality until middle age. The
authors also note that attempts to control the environment become more
pronounced between ages eight and fourteen.
Health locus of control is how people measure and understand how
people relate their health to their behavior, health status and how long it may take
to recover from a disease. Locus of control can influence how people think and
react towards their health and health decisions. Each day we are exposed to
potential diseases that may affect our health. The way we approach that reality
has a lot to do with our locus of control. Sometimes it is expected to see older
adults experience progressive declines in their health, for this reason it is
believed that their health locus of control will be affected. However, this does not
necessarily mean that their locus of control will be affected negatively but older
adults may experience decline in their health and this can show lower levels of
internal locus of control.
Age plays an important role in one's internal and external locus of control.
When comparing a young child and an older adult with their levels of locus of
control in regards to health, the older person will have more control over their
attitude and approach to the situation. As people age they become aware of the
fact that events outside of their own control happen and that other individuals can
have control of their health outcomes.
A study published in the journal Psychosomatic Medicine examined the
health effect of childhood locus of control. 7,500 British adults (followed from
birth), who had shown an internal locus of control at age 10, were less likely to be
overweight at age 30. The children who had an internal locus of control also
appeared to have higher levels of self-esteem.
Gender-based differences
As Schultz and Schultz (2005) point out, significant gender differences in
locus of control have not been found for adults in the U.S. population. However,
these authors also note that there may be specific sex-based differences for
specific categories of items to assess locus of control; for example, they cite
evidence that men may have a greater internal locus for questions related to
academic achievement.
A study made by Takaki and colleagues (2006), focused on the gender
differences with relationship to internal locus of control and self-efficacy in
hemodialysis patients and their compliance. This study showed that females that
had high internal locus of control were less compliant in regards to their health
and medical advice compared to the men that participated in this study.
Compliance is known to be the degree in which a person's behavior, in this case
the patient, has a relationship with the medical advice. For example, a person
that is compliant will correctly follow his/her doctor's advice.
A 2018 study that looked at the relationship between locus of control and
optimism among children aged 10–15, however, found that an external locus of
control was more prevalent among young girls. The study found no significant
differences had been found in internal and unknown locus of control.
Cross-cultural and regional issues

The question of whether people from different cultures vary in locus of
control has long been of interest to social psychologists.
Japanese people tend to be more external in locus-of-control orientation
than people in the U.S.; however, differences in locus of control between different
countries within Europe (and between the U.S. and Europe) tend to be small. As
Berry et al. pointed out in 1992, ethnic groups within the United States have been
compared on locus of control; African Americans in the U.S. are more external
than whites when socioeconomic status is controlled. Berry et al. also pointed out
in 1992 how research on other ethnic minorities in the U.S. (such as Hispanics)
has been ambiguous. More on cross-cultural variations in locus of control can be
found in Shiraev & Levy (2004). Research in this area indicates that locus of
control has been a useful concept for researchers in cross-cultural psychology.
On a less broad scale, Sims and Baumann explained how regions in the
United States cope with natural disasters differently. The example they used was
tornados. They "applied Rotter's theory to explain why more people have died in
tornado[e]s in Alabama than in Illinois". They explain that after giving surveys to
residents of four counties in both Alabama and Illinois, Alabama residents were
shown to be more external in their way of thinking about events that occur in their
lives. Illinois residents, however, were more internal. Because Alabama residents
had a more external way of processing information, they took fewer precautions
prior to the appearance of a tornado. Those in Illinois, however, were more
prepared, thus leading to fewer casualties.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a person's belief that he or she can accomplish a particular
activity. It is a related concept introduced by Albert Bandura, and has been
measured by means of a psychometric scale. It differs from locus of control by
relating to competence in circumscribed situations and activities (rather than
more general cross-situational beliefs about control). Bandura has also
emphasised differences between self-efficacy and self-esteem, using examples
where low self-efficacy (for instance, in ballroom dancing) are unlikely to result in
low self-esteem because competence in that domain is not very important (see
valence) to an individual. Although individuals may have a high internal health
locus of control and feel in control of their own health, they may not feel
efficacious in performing a specific treatment regimen that is essential to
maintaining their own health. Self-efficacy plays an important role in one's health
because when people feel that they have self-efficacy over their health
conditions, the effects of their health becomes less of a stressor.
Smith (1989) has argued that locus of control only weakly measures self
efficacy; "only a subset of items refer directly to the subject's capabilities".Smith
noted that training in coping skills led to increases in self-efficacy, but did not
affect locus of control as measured by Rotter's 1966 scale.
Stress
The previous section showed how self-efficacy can be related to a
person's locus of control, and stress also has a relationship in these areas. Self
efficacy can be something that people use to deal with the stress that they are
faced within their everyday lives. Some findings suggest that higher levels of
external locus of control combined with lower levels self-efficacy are related to
higher illness-related psychological distress. People who report a more external
locus of control also report more concurrent and future stressful experiences and
higher levels of psychological and physical problems. These people are also
more vulnerable to external influences and as a result, they become more
responsive to stress.
Veterans of the military forces who have spinal cord injuries and post traumatic
stress are a good group to look at in regard to locus of control and stress. Aging
shows to be a very important factor that can be related to the severity of the
symptoms of PTSD experienced by patients following the trauma of war.
Research suggests that patients who suffered a spinal cord injury benefit from
knowing that they have control over their health problems and their disability,
which reflects the characteristics of having an internal locus of control. A study by
Chung et al. (2006) focused on how the responses of spinal cord injury
post-traumatic stress varied depending on age. The researchers tested different
age groups including young adults, middle-aged, and elderly; the average age
was 25, 48, and 65 for each group respectively. After the study,
they concluded that age does not make a difference on how spinal cord injury
patients respond to the traumatic events that happened. However, they did
mention that age did play a role in the extent to which the external locus of
control was used, and concluded that the young adult group demonstrated more
external locus of control characteristics than the other age groups to which they
were being compared.
7. Self-efficacy
Finally, the last concepts relates to self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an
impression that one is capable of performing in a certain manner or attaining
certain goals. It is a belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of
actions required to manage prospective situations. Unlike efficacy, which is the
power to produce an effect (in essence, competence), self-efficacy is the belief
(whether or not accurate) that one has the power to produce that effect.
It is important here the understand the distinction between self-esteem
and self-efficacy. Self-esteem relates to a person‘s sense of self-worth, whereas
self efficacy relates to a person‘s perception of their ability to reach a goal. For
example, say a person is a terrible rock climber. They would likely have a poor
self-efficacy in regard to rock climbing, but this wouldn‘t need to affect their self
esteem; most people don‘t invest much of their self esteem in this activity.
Research on learning has indicated that in certain circumstances, having less
self-efficacy for a subject may be helpful, while more negative attitudes towards
how quickly/well one will learn, can actually prove of benefit. One study uses the
foreign language classroom to examine students‘ beliefs about learning,
perceptions of goal attainment, and motivation to continue language study.
(Christine Galbreath Jernigan, What do Student Expect to Learn? The Role of
Learner Expectancies, Beliefs, and Attributions for Success and Failure in
Student Motivation.) Survey and interview results indicated students‘ attributions
for success and failure and their expectations for certain subjects‘ learning ability
played a role in the relationship between goal attainment and volition. It appears
that over-efficaciousness negatively affected student motivation. For other
students who felt they were ―bad at languages,‖ their negative beliefs increased
their motivation to study.
8. Anxiety
Anxiety is a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic,
emotional, and behavioral components.
These components combine to create the feelings that we typically

recognize as fear, apprehension, or worry.
Anxiety is often accompanied by physical sensations such as heart

palpitations, nausea, chest pain, shortness of breath, stomach aches, or
headache.
The cognitive component entails expectation of a diffuse and certain

danger.
Somatically the body prepares the organism to deal with threat (known as
an emergency reaction): blood pressure and heart rate are increased, sweating is
increased, bloodflow to the major muscle groups is increased, and immune and
digestive system functions are inhibited.
Externally, somatic signs of anxiety may include pale skin, sweating,

trembling, and pupillary dilation.
Emotionally, anxiety causes a sense of dread or panic and physically
causes nausea, and chills.
Behaviorally, both voluntary and involuntary behaviors may arise directed

at escaping or avoiding the source of anxiety and often maladaptive, being most
extreme in anxiety disorders.
However, anxiety is not always pathological or maladaptive: it is a

common emotion along with fear, anger, sadness, and happiness, and it has a
very important function in relation to survival.
Neural circuitry involving the amygdala and hippocampus is thought to

underlie anxiety.
When confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as

foul odors or tastes, PET-scans show increased bloodflow in the amygdala.
In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety.
This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to

prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors.
9. Creativity
4 Ways to Develop Creativity in Students
Creativity is a valuable skill, and there are common strategies teachers
can use to help students develop it.
By Ben Johnson
January 16, 2019
Two students creating a windmill out of a water bottle in science
class ©iStock/Steve Debenport
Creativity is the most difficult thinking skill to acquire, and also the most
sought-after. We value it in our music, entertainment, technology, and other
aspects of our existence. We appreciate and yearn for it because it enriches our
understanding and can make life easier.
Creativity always starts with imagination, and history shows that many
things we imagine are later actually created. Gene Roddenberry imagined the
Star Trek flip communicators in 1966, and Motorola produced them in 1996. In
the mid 1800s, Augusta Ada King envisioned a language for computing
machines that didn‘t even exist; today she is honored as the founder of modern
programing languages.
When Benjamin Bloom identified what he called the taxonomy of the

cognitive domain, he ranked synthesis (creativity) as one of the most difficult
skills to master because a person has to use all of the other cognitive skills in the
creative process. Since, according to Bloom, creating is the highest order of
thinking, it should be in the forefront of all learning environments and an end
goal. When students create what they imagine, they‘re in the driver‘s seat.
CREATIVITY IN THE CLASSROOM

When designing learning experiences, teachers can plan and frame
curriculum and provide tools that give students options, voice, and choice in
order to enable them to be creative. In my work in schools, I‘ve found four things
that successful teachers do to develop creativity in their students.
1. Set up learning activities that allow students to explore their creativity in
relevant, interesting, and worthwhile ways. Classroom example: Fourth-grade
students are presented with a sample of rocks. They are to devise tests to
determine what kind of rocks they have based on the definitions they‘ve studied.
Students find their own ways to determine differences in hardness, color, and
shapes.
Another classroom example: A kindergarten class creates a new illustrated book

each week that celebrates a different member of the class or an adult at the
school. Each book is full of pages drawn by each student. They have the full
liberty of depicting what the person likes and how they perceive him or her.
2. Value creativity and celebrate and reward it. Classroom example: Third-grade
students are learning about polygons and to see if they know the concept, the
teacher takes them outside and gives each student a sidewalk chalk. Each
student is given the task of drawing several examples of polygons on the
driveway.
Once the students have accomplished this, the teacher tells the students to
transform those shapes into something they love. The students want to show
everyone their geometric-based kittens, robots, and dragons and then have an
opportunity to explain to the whole class why they liked them.
3. Teach students the other skills they need to be creative. Classroom example:
A second-grade class is learning about the concept of freezing. The teacher asks
one question to get them started, ―Does only water freeze?‖ The students then
design an experiment to determine what other things freeze. The limit is that they
can only use what they have in the classroom at the time.
The students come up with a list of things that they will leave outside to see if
they freeze: water, juice, vinegar, glue, glass cleaner, toothpaste, and paper.
Some suggestions they decide are already solids and shouldn‘t go outside:
pencils, erasers, and books (but somehow paper stays on the test list). The next
day, they discuss their findings and have engaging conversations about why the
paper is stiff and the vinegar has not frozen.
The initial discussion among students about what might freeze fosters skills such
as advocating for one‘s ideas and compromising. The follow-up discussion
encourages deductive reasoning and active listening.
4. Remove constraints for creativity and give the students space and a
framework in which they can be creative. Classroom example: A sixth-grade
class produces Halloween costume plays. In order to wear costumes to school,
the students have to write a play that incorporates each of their characters into a
plot and then present the play. For instance, they have to come up with how a
giant soda can and the superhero Wonder Woman will interact. The students
love the challenge.
WE LEARN BY DOING
Imagination and creativity are the traits that fuel the future. Both serve to
inspire students and should be integrated into every part of learning. In planning
and designing learning for students, this we know: Teaching students how to
think is more important than teaching students what to think.
10.Epistemological beliefs
(Personal) epistemology or epistemic beliefs have become a target of
increased research interest in developmental and educational psychology. In the
following, the term ―epistemic beliefs‖ shall be consistently used to refer to a
person‘s beliefs about the nature of human knowledge, like its certainty and how
it is conceptualized, and a person‘s beliefs about the criteria for and the process
of knowing. While acknowledging the different notions in the literature for either
the whole construct or special facets of it (e.g., epistemic cognition, epistemic
resources, epistemological reflection, personal epistemology, reflective
judgment), these shall be subsumed under the widely used label ―epistemic
beliefs‖ for reasons of readability. Empirical investigations of epistemic beliefs
began in the late 1960s, and previously epistemology was solely a topic of
philosophy but not of empirical psychological research. The increased research
interest in epistemic beliefs can not only be ascribed to empirical evidence for a
relation between epistemic beliefs and academic performance, cognition, or the
learning process but also to the need for advanced epistemic beliefs in a
knowledge-based society. Epistemic beliefs are a rather complex construct, and
researchers have not yet reached consensus or clarity about many issues. This
chapter provides an overview of the most relevant issues in research on
epistemic beliefs. It will point to different conceptualizations and models and will
outline various approaches on the dimensionality and specificity of epistemic
beliefs. Furthermore, attempts to assess epistemic beliefs will be outlined. In
addition, different approaches to the development and change of epistemic
beliefs (including how change might be promoted) will be summarized, as well as
studies on the role of epistemic beliefs in learning. This chapter also considers
research on the interplay of epistemic beliefs and metacognition, the role of
epistemic beliefs in dealing with new media, and cultural differences in epistemic
beliefs.
Modelling Epistemic Beliefs in the Context of Vocational Education and Training

These models cannot be directly used to investigate epistemic beliefs in the
context of VET because they assign vocational situations to the general level and
intermingle vocational situations with a downright huge number of other contexts
(Muis et al., 2006). Based on international research, Berding (2015; 2016a)
provides a working model for describing epistemic beliefs in the context of VET.
Figure 1 gives a brief overview. Figure 1. Working Model of Epistemic Beliefs in
VET
Dimensions of epistemic beliefs: The model differentiates five dimensions
of epistemic beliefs based on the work by Hofer and Pintrich (1997), Müller
(2009), and Zinn (2013). The work by Hofer and Pintrich (1997) was chosen as a
platform because empirical studies prove the multi-dimensionality of epistemic
beliefs, and the identified factors in different studies reflect the postulated
epistemic belief dimensions (e.g., Buehl, 2008; Hofer, 2000; Paechter et al.,
2013). Furthermore, Hofer and Pintrich‘s (1997) model is a basis for other work
on epistemic beliefs, and is limited to beliefs that many researchers accept and
regard as central components of epistemic and epistemological questions (e.g.,
Bråten, Britt, Strømsø, & Rouet, 2011; Muis et al., 2006). Supplemented by
studies on the dimensions of epistemic beliefs in commercial (Müller, 2009) and
technical VET (Zinn, 2013), the model outlines epistemic beliefs as follows:
∙ Structure of knowledge: Beliefs about the structure of knowledge range
from ‗knowledge consists of isolated elements‘ (absolute view) to ‗knowledge is
constituted by highly interrelated concepts‘ (sophisticated view) (Hofer & Pintrich,
1997).
∙ Certainty of knowledge: Beliefs about the certainty of knowledge range
from ‗knowledge is certain and unchanging‘ (absolute view) to ‗knowledge is
uncertain und continuously evolving‘ (sophisticated view) (Hofer & Pintrich,
1997).
∙ Source of knowledge: Beliefs about the source of knowledge range from
‗knowledge exists outside the individual‘ (absolute view) to ‗knowledge is
individually constructed inside a person‘ (sophisticated view) (Hofer & Pintrich,
1997).
∙ Justification of knowledge: Beliefs about the justification of knowledge
describe the conditions that need to be fulfilled in order to regard a notion as
knowledge. Based on the model by King and Kitchener (1994), this continuum
ranges from ‗justification by direct observation and authorities‘ (absolute view) to
‗justification by ―what feels right‖‘ (absolute view) all the way to ‗justification by
integrating and balancing arguments, evidence, authorities, and expertise‘
(sophisticated view) (Hofer, 2004).
∙ Applicability of knowledge: This dimension ranges from ‗knowledge is
unimportant for managing professional situations‘ (absolute view) to ‗knowledge
is a necessary condition for complying with professional requirements‘
(sophisticated view) (Zinn, 2013).
Levels of epistemic beliefs: In the past, research modelled epistemic
beliefs as general beliefs (e.g., Schommer, 1990).
Empirical studies however report evidence that individuals hold different
beliefs for different domains (e.g., Buehl et al., 2002; Hofer, 2000; Jehng et al.,
1993), and models for describing epistemic beliefs in academic contexts
differentiate at least between general and domain-specific beliefs (e.g., Buehl &
Alexander, 2006; Muis et al., 2006). Bråten et al. (2008) add a more detailed
level within a domain representing individuals‘ beliefs about concrete topics. This
supplement is reasonable since Trautwein, Lüdtke, and Beyer (2004) report a
massive variation of 79% on the level of specific topics, whereas only 21% of the
variance occurs at the level of personal differences (general epistemic beliefs).
As a consequence, the model distinguishes between general epistemic
beliefs representing the beliefs about knowledge and knowing in non professional
contexts, and domain-specific epistemic beliefs modelling the beliefs about
knowledge and knowing in professional contexts. At the domain level these
contexts are structured into groups of professions. For example, the model
postulates the existence of a commercial context because the analysis of the
curricula of 55 commercial professions by the German Federal Institute for
Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) indicates that these professions share
about 69% of the same knowledge (Brötz et al., 2014). These strong similarities
therefore justify the grouping of the 55 professions into a commercial context.
Further contexts can be built by creating groups for technical professions (e.g.,
construction draughtsman) or by forming groups for social professions (e.g.,
geriatric nurse).
The professional contexts are made more specific by introducing generic
topics for the professions. According to the German Federal Institute for
Vocational Education and Training (BIBB), the two most important topics here in
the commercial context are accounting and marketing, respectively representing
22% and 21% of the professions‘ shared knowledge (Brötz et al., 2014). These
topics form the starting point for the topic-specific epistemic beliefs.
Impact on learning: Research emphasizes the role of epistemic beliefs for
learning processes and outcomes. For example, Paulsen and Feldman (1999)
found that students believing in complex knowledge show a stronger intrinsic
goal orientation, a weaker extrinsic goal orientation, and a weaker test anxiety
than students believing in simple knowledge. Mokwinski (2011) reports that
students believing in complex knowledge on a general level show less intrinsic
motivation and interest than students believing in simple knowledge. In contrast,
the less students believe in authorities transmitting knowledge, the more interest
they show. For apprentices in the field of technical VET, believing in authorities
transmitting knowledge is associated with a greater extrinsic motivation on the
domain-specific level. The study by Ricco et al. (2010) shows that beliefs about
the certainty, the developmental character of knowledge, the reliance on
authorities, and the belief in the need for justification are associated with task
value, self-efficacy, mastery, and performance goals. Thus, epistemic beliefs
influence learners‘ motivation.
Furthermore, several studies report an impact of epistemic beliefs on
learning outcomes. For example, Cano (2005) reports that beliefs about the
structure and certainty of knowledge predict academic achievements. The
analysis by Mason et al. (2013) shows that beliefs about the certainty and
justification of knowledge influence scientific achievements. Ricco et al. (2010)
found among other things that beliefs about the certainty of knowledge predict
science grades over and above motivational constructs.
In line with Muis et al. (2006), Bråten et al. (2008), and Buehl and
Alexander (2006), the model assumes that the more concrete levels of epistemic
beliefs predict instruction, learning processes, and success more strongly than
the general level. The reason for this is that the domain- and topic-specific beliefs
refer more strongly to the concrete content knowledge to be learned and the
corresponding learning activities.
Lesson 2 – Appropriate methods

1. Types
Assessing the affective domain is also one of the important goals in the
teaching learning process. The development of desirable values and attitudes
among the learners should be emphasized in all levels of learning. This domain
of learning is difficult to assess objectively.
There are varied assessment tools that teachers can utilize to assess the
learning objectives focusing on attitudes, motivation, valuing what is learned and
other values. These assessment techniques must not be used for grading
purposes, but should be used by the teachers to gather information about the
student‘s behavior. In this manner, this will help teachers understand the nature
of their students. The five stages in the affective domain as fully illustrated in the
first chapter are: receiving, responding, valuing, organizing, and characterizing.
Affective learning competencies are often stated in the form of
instructional objectives. Instructional objectives are specific, measurable, short
term, observable student behaviors. Objectives are the foundation upon which
you can build lessons and assessments that you can prove to meet your over-all
course or lesson goals. Think of objectives as tools to make sure you reach your
goals; arrows you shoot towards your target (goal). The purpose of objectives is
to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that both students and teachers
know what is going on, and so learning can be objectively measured. Learning in
the affective domain is assessed and measured in schools but not used as grade
of students in this domain.
2. Selection
What is the Affective Domain anyway?
This summary was compiled by Karin Kirk, SERC.A chart showing the
hierarchy of the affective domain: receiving, responding, valuing, organization,
and characterization by value set
Background
The affective domain is part of a system that was published in 1965 for
identifying, understanding and addressing how people learn. Part of Bloom's
Taxonomy, this classification of educational objectives includes the cognitive
domain, the affective domain and the psychomotor domain.
The cognitive domain is organized in a hierarchy that begins with the

straightforward acquisition of knowledge, followed by the more sophisticated
cognitive tasks of comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation.
The psychomotor domain relates to the learning of physical movements.

The members of the original committee did not write a book on about the
psychomotor domain.
Definitions of the affective domain

The affective domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a
feeling tone, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejection. Affective
objectives vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but
internally consistent qualities of character and conscience. We found a large
number of such objectives in the literature expressed as interests, attitudes,
appreciations, values, and emotional sets or biases. [from Krathwohl et al, 1964 ]
Here are descriptions of each step in the taxonomy, starting at the most
basic level. (From Krathwohl's Taxonomy of Affective Domain)
Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas,

material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: to
differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), to respond to.
Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or

phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply
with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim.
Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or

phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured proficiency in, to
relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate.
Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a
harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to
theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine.
Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with

the values he or she has internalized. Examples include: to revise, to require, to
be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to resolve.
What is the relevance of the affective domain in education? If we are striving

to apply the continuum of Krathwohl et al. to our teaching, then we are
encouraging students to not just receive information at the bottom of the affective
hierarchy. We'd like for them to respond to what they learn, to value it, to
organize it and maybe even to characterize themselves as science students,
science majors or scientists.
We are also interested in students' attitudes toward science, scientists,

learning science and specific science topics. We want to find teaching methods
that encourage students and draw them in. Affective topics in educational
literature include attitudes, motivation, communication styles, classroom
management styles, learning styles, use of technology in the classroom and
nonverbal communication. It is also important not to turn students off by subtle
actions or communications that go straight to the affective domain and prevent
students from becoming engaged.
In the educational literature, nearly every author introduces their paper by

stating that the affective domain is essential for learning, but it is the least
studied, most often overlooked, the most nebulous and the hardest to evaluate of
Bloom's three domains. In formal classroom teaching, the majority of the
teacher's efforts typically go into the cognitive aspects of the teaching and
learning and most of the classroom time is designed for cognitive outcomes.
Similarly, evaluating cognitive learning is straightforward but assessing affective
outcomes is difficult. Thus, there is significant value in realizing the potential to
increase student learning by tapping into the affective domain. Similarly, students
may experience affective roadblocks to learning that can neither be recognized
nor solved when using a purely cognitive approach.
3. Development
AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT TOOLS
The varied assessment tools that can be utilized by teachers to assess the
affective domain are as follows: rating scales, checklists, Likert scale,
journals/written reflections, anecdotal records, and semantic differential.
ANECDOTAL RECORDS
An anecdotal record is an observational method used frequently in
classroom or learning settings in which the observer summarizes a single
developmental incident after the event has occurred. Written from memory, the
anecdotal record documents a student‘s growth and trends. Such records are
intended to be brief, factual accountings. Anecdotal records are written in
journalistic form. They identify the who, what, where, when and how of a
particular incident, focusing on the subject‘s specific conduct in the situation. In
early childhood education, teachers use anecdotal records in common practice
for assessment of skill development in young children. The recorded
observations are intended to identify the child‘s current skill level, interests and
skills to develop next.
Anecdotal records should always be objective recordings of the student‘s
actions and behaviors. The records should be written in a nonjudgmental
manner. With a collection of anecdotal records about a student, the child‘s
developmental progress can be documented and teaching can be tailored to
meet the student‘s individual needs. Below is an example of an anecdotal record.
Notice that it provodes information about the learner, the date of observation, the
name of the teacher observing and a factual description of the event.
Pupil: Lyn De la Cruz
Date: 12/3/06
Observer: Ms. H. Maam
Lyn has been quiet and passive for one month, rarely interacting with
classmates in class or on the playground. Today Lyn suddenly ―opened up‖ and
wanted continual interaction with classmates. She could not settle down, kept
circulating around the room until she became bothersome to me and her
classmates. I tried to settle her down, but was unsuccessful.
CHECKLIST
A checklist is a written list of performance criteria. As a pupil‘s
performance is observed or product is judged, the scorer determines whether the
performance or product meets each performance criterion. If it does, a
checkmark is placed next to the criterion, indicating that it was observed; if it
does not, the checkmark is omitted. Checklists are diagnostic, reusable, and
capable of charting pupil‘s progress. They provide a detailed record of pupils‘
performances, one that can and should be shown to pupils to help them see
where improvement is needed.
A Sample Checklist for an Oral Presentation
1. Physical Expression
___ a. Stands straight and faces audience
___ b. Changes facial expression with changes in tone of the
presentation.
___ c. Maintain eye contact with an audience.
2. Vocal Expression
___ a. Speaks in a steady, clear voice
___ b. Varies tone to emphasize points
___ c. Speaks loudly enough to be heard by audience
___ d. Paces words in an even flow.
___ e. Enunciates each word.
3. Verbal Expression
___ a. Chooses precise words to convey meaning.
___ b. Avoids unnecessary repetitions.
___ c. States sentences with complete thoughts or ideas.
___ d. Organizes information logically.
___ e. Summarizes main points at conclusion.
Checklist for Typing
Yes No
1. Sitting properly with body erect; siting up straight. ___ ___ 2. Hands a
little bit raised, with fingers resting on the right keys. ___ ___ 3. Well
prepared and coordinated movements of hands and fingers;
there is gracefulness of movement. ___ ___ 4. Paper is inserted
properly; margins are set up also properly; Adjustments are made easy.
___ ___ 5. Speed is more than 60 words per minute. ___ ___ 6. Accuracy
is more than 90 percent. ___ ___ 7. Copy is generally clean and neat. ___
___
JOURNALS
Journals can be used for student reflection. Students write about topics
that are important to the course. As students become more independent in their
thinking, feedback from the teacher becomes less important. The journal
becomes a tool for self-monitoring. The journal allows students to voice ideas,
concerns and opinions. They stimulate a written conversation between student
and teacher or student and student.
REFLECTION PAPER
A reflection paper can be written on an assigned piece of reading, a
lecture or an experience, such as internship or volunteer experience. A reflection
paper probably will be further clarified by the teacher or professor who assigns it
to you. However, for the most part, a reflection paper cites your reactions,
feelings and analysis of an experience in a more personal way than in a formal
research or analytical essay. When writing a reflection paper on literature or
another experience, the point is to include your thoughts and reactions to the
reading or experience. You can present your feelings on what you read and
explain them. You also can use a reflection paper to analyze what you have read.
Like any other paper or essay, it should be cohesive and refer directly to the
specific passage or quote in the material that inspired this feeling. You can
include personal experience in a reflection paper, but do not depend on it; base
your reactions and reflections on the material that is your subject.
Don’t Summarize. Do not use a reflection paper simply to summarize
what you have read or done. Also, a reflection paper should not be a free flow of
ideas and thoughts. The idea of a reflection paper is to write an essay describing
your reactions and analysis to a reading or other experience; however, it is more
formal than a journal entry, so leave out informal language and form.
Organize You Thoughts. A reflection paper should be as organized as
any other type of formal essay. Include an introduction, perhaps one that
describes your expectations before the reading or the experience. You also may
want to summarize the conclusions you made during the process.
The body of your paper should explain the conclusions you have come to
and why, basing your conclusions in concrete details from your reading and
experience. End the paper with a conclusion that sums up what you got from
reading. You might want to refer to your conclusions in relation to your
expectations or come to some other conclusion or analysis about the text or
experience in light of your feelings and reactions.
RATING SCALES
Although they are similar to checklists, rating scales allow the observer to
judge performance along a continuum rather than a dichotomy. Both checklists
and rating scales are based upon a set of performance criteria, and it is common
for the same set of performance criteria to be used in both rating scale and a
checklist. However, a checklist gives the observer two categories for judging,
while a rating scale gives more than two categories.
Three Types of Rating Scales

Numerical Rating Scale
Direction: Indicate how often the pupil performs each of these behaviors
while giving an oral presentation. For each behavior circle 1 if the pupil always
performs the behavior, 2 if the pupil usually perform the behavior, 3 if the pupil
seldom performs the behavior, and 4 if the pupil never performs the behavior.
Physical Expression
A. Stands straight and faces audience.
1234
B. Changes facial expression with changes in tone of the presentation.
1234
Graphic Rating Scale
Direction: Place an X on the line which shows how often the pupil did each
of the behaviors listed while giving an oral presentation.
Physical Expression
Always Usually Seldom Never B. Changes facial expression with

changes in tone of the presentation.
Always Usually Seldom Never
Descriptive Rating Scale

Directions: Place an X on the line at the place which best describes the
pupil‘s performance on each behavior.
Stand straight weaves, fidgets, constant, distracting Always looks

eyes roam from the movements, no eye
At audience audience to ceiling contact with audience

B.Changes facial expression with changes in tone of the
presentation.
Matches facial facial expressions no match between Expressions to

usually appropriate; tone and facial Content and emphasis
occasional lack of expression expression
LIKERT SCALE
In a Likert Scale, the students are asked to rate their agreement or
disagreement on a statement.
Chemistry Attitude Inventory
Directions: Below are the statements that describe student‘s feeling
toward chemistry. Please answer them by checking the appropriate column
which you think accurately describes your reaction as each statement applies to
you in Chemistry. Please answer all items.
5 - SA - Strongly Agree
4 - A - Agree
3 - U - Undecided
2 - D - Disagree
1 - SD - Strongly Disagree
Statements SA A U D SD 1. I find chemistry interesting.
2. I believe that chemistry is one of the most useful

subject.
3. Chemistry topic challenges me to study more
about the subject.
4. Knowledge of chemistry is useful in our lives.
5. I do not see any value in chemistry.
6. I find chemistry dry and boring.
7. I like studying chemistry more than any other
academic subjects.
8. Chemistry lessons confuse me.
9. I feel that I have a good foundation in chemistry.
10.I spend less time for my chemistry lessons than
for any other lessons.
11.I easily give up solving chemistry problems.
12.I feel that I am being forced to study chemistry.
13.I feel nervous every time I am in my chemistry
class.
14.Chemistry involves too much memorizing.
15.I enjoy solving chemistry problems.
16.Chemistry is one of my favorite subjects.
17.I find chemistry a difficult subject.
18.I believe that I can effectively practice my
profession without taking chemistry in college.
19.I find it important that every college student
should take chemistry.
20.I am interested in reading books, magazines and
other materials related to chemistry.
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL
Semantic Differential is a type of a rating scale designed to measure the
connotative meaning of objects, events, and concepts. The connotations are
used to derive the attitude towards the given object, event or concept.
Osgood‘s semantic differential was an application of his more general
attempt to measure the semantics or meaning of words, particularly adjectives,
and their referent concepts. The respondent is asked to choose where his or her
position lies, on a scale between two bipolar adjectives (for example: ―Adequate
Inadequate‖, ―Good-Evil‖ or ―Valuable-Worthless‖). Semantic differentials can be
used to measure opinions, attitudes and values on a psychometrically controlled
scale.
Example of Semantic Differential
Direction: Below are teacher attributes/behaviors which are readily
observable in class. Rate the teacher objectively by using the scale provided.
Please do not leave any item unanswered.
Criteria for Rating
5 - Outstanding
4 - Very Good
3 - Good
2 - Fair
1 - Poor
PERSONALITY
1. Pleasing 5 4 3 2 1 Domineering or aggressive, weak
POISE AND CONFIDENCE
2. Thorough at ease 5 4 3 2 1 Extremely ill at ease Nervous in class
VOICE
3. Well-modulated 5 4 3 2 1 Inaudible/can hardly be heard
DICTION
4. Very Good 5 4 3 2 1 Noticeably poor
COMMUNICATION SKILL
5. Formulates and 5 4 3 2 1 Poor in communicating
Thoughts clearly
ideas
KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECT MATTER
6. Comprehensive, 5 4 3 2 1 Noticeably inadequate, thorough
inaccurate
INTELLECTUAL EXPANSIVENESS
7. Interrelates subject matter to 5 4 3 2 1 Absence of
other fields when appropriate
interrelation
USE OF TEACHING AIDS
8. Uses multiple scores 5 4 3 2 1 Confines lectures
Lectures/discussions to textbooks

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UNIT 1

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT IN THE CLASSROOM

B. Time Frame – 4 weeks (12 hours)

Lesson 1 – High Quality Assessment in Retrospect

Five Keys to High-Quality Classroom Assessment

1. Clear Purpose - Assessment processes and results serve clear and

2. Clear Targets - Assessments reflect clear student learning targets.

4. Effective Communication - Assessment results function to increase student

5. Student Involvement - Students are active participants in the assessment

Lesson 2 – What is Authentic Assessment?

Authentic assessment is "a form of assessment in which students are asked

Jon Mueller developed a comprehensive website, the Authentic Assessment

Traditional Assessments Authentic Assessments

Curriculum drives the assessment Assessment drives the curriculum

Resemble real-world tasks and activities

A. Structure & Logistics

B. Intellectual Design Features

C. Grading and Scoring

3. Related terms - Mueller's* Glossary of Authentic Assessment Terms

Some educators choose to distinguish between authentic assessment and

Authentic Task: An assignment given to students designed to assess their

Content Standards: Statements that describe what students should know or

Criteria: Characteristics of good performance on a particular task. For

Descriptors: Statements of expected performance at each level of

Distractors: The incorrect alternatives or choices in a selected response

Goal: In the field of student assessment, a goal is a very broad statement of

Objective: Much like a goal or standard, an objective is a statement of what

Performance Assessment: See Authentic Assessment above. I use these

Portfolio: A collection of a student's work specifically selected to tell a

Reliability: The degree to which a measure yields consistent results.

Rubric: A scoring scale used to evaluate student work. A rubric is composed

Standard: Much like a goal or objective, a standard is a statement of what

Stem: A question or statement followed by a number of choices or

Validity: "The degree to which a certain inference from a test is appropriate

Value Standards: Statements that describe attitudes teachers would like

Lesson 3 – Why use authentic assessment?

Although definitions of authentic assessment do vary there seems to be

Authentic Assessment Principles

Use a range of tools to access learning

Why is it important to assess authentically?

It is important that we strive to create authentic assessment experiences

2. Traditional assessment vis-à-vis authentic assessment

Traditional assessments refer to conventional methods of testing, usually

To better compare traditional vs. alternative assessments, here‘s a table:

∙ Provides indirect evidence of

∙ Measures students‘ ability to apply

∙ Requires students to demonstrate ∙ Provides direct evidence of

∙ Tests and strengthens the

∙ Hides the test ∙ Teaches the test

∙ Assessment is separated from ∙ Assessment is integrated with

∙ Provides limited ways for ∙ Provides multiple avenues for

∙ Rigidand fixed ∙ Flexible and provides multiple acceptable ways of

∙ Assessment drives curriculum and

Advantages of Traditional Assessment Over Authentic Assessment:

∙ Easyto score; Teachers can evaluate

∙ Lesstime and easier to prepare; easy ∙ Time consuming; labor intensive ∙

∙ Objective, reliable and valid ∙ Susceptible to unfairness, subjectivity,

∙ Economical ∙ Less economical

Advantages of Authentic Assessment Over Traditional Assessment On

∙ Provides students many

∙ Assessment is separate from ∙ Assessment is integrated with

∙ Hides the test ∙ Teaches the test

∙ Teacher-structured:teachers direct ∙ Invokes feelings of anxiety detrimental