Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONFERENCE
MATERIALS
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Saniç Dr. M. Mustafa Gül
Prof. Dr. Niftali Qodjayev Ali Bereket
Prof. Dr. Cihan Bulut Ali Tatli
Prof. Dr. Shahin Khalilli Venera Suleymanova
Asst. Prof. Dr. Erdal Karaman Mehmet Şahiner
Dr. Tayyar Mustafayev Sandra Derrick
Dr. Heydar Eminli
GENERAL COORDINATOR
Ali Bereket
CONFERENCE SECRETARY
Ali Tatli
ACADEMIC COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Saniç Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Prof. Dr. Niftali Qodjayev Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Prof. Dr. Cihan Bulut Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Prof. Dr. Dunyamin Yunisov Azerbaıjan University of Languages Azerbaijan
Prof. Dr. Shahin Khalilli Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Asst. Prof. Dr. Erdal Karaman Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Asst. Prof. Dr. Narmina Aliyeva Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Asst. Prof. Dr. Etrabe Gül Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Asst. Prof. Dr. Natalya Lapaeva Perm State Pedagogical University Russia
Asst. Prof. Dr. Greg Jacob Portland State University USA
Dr. F. Alexander Magill Şifa University Turkey
Dr. Heydar Eminli Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Dr. M. Mustafa Gül Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Dr. Süleyman Sarıbaş Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Ali Bereket Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Ali Tatli Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Sandra Derrick Fulbright Scholar USA
Shirley Stanley Qafqaz University USA
Kaitlin Ward Montclair State University USA
Venera Suleymanova Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Mehmet Şahiner Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
Aziz Çankaya Qafqaz University Azerbaijan
DESIGN
Sahib Kazimov, Ilham Aliyev
i
MEANS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Sarvin Alizadeh 52
LEXICAL PARALLELS IN TURKIC “DIVAN” OF FUZULI
Sevinj Aliyeva 55
ENGLISH WORDS OF TURKIC ORIGIN
Turane Abdullayeva 57
THE USE OF MODAL VERBS IN AZERBAIJANI,
ENGLISH AND GERMAN LANGUAGES
Vefa Bayramova 59
TYPES OF EPONYMS
Khatira Ahmedova 61
THE PERIODS OF LANGUAGE CHANGES IN ENGLISH
Yegana Safarova 63
HOW AZERBAIJANI STUDENTS LEARN DEGREES
OF ADJECTIVE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Haqiqat Aliyeva 65
COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS AND GLITCHES ASSOCIATED
WITH TEACHING THE ART OF COMMUNICATION
Ömer Düngel 67
ENGLISH NOMINAL CLAUSES: ANALYZING THE TRANSLATION OF
SUBORDINATE WH – INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES AND INFINITIVE
WH - CLAUSES IN AZERI
Parisa Farrokh, Abolfazl Rajabli, Kambiz Mahmoodzadeh 71
THE ROLE OF AFFIXES IN UNDERSTANDING THE
ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS
Pervine Valiyeva 82
THE IMPORTANCE OF COHESION AND COHERENCE IN DISCOURSE
Turana Aghayeva 85
ENGLISH'S GLOBAL TRIUMPH
Vineet Kaul 87
CONTEXTUAL NEGATIVE ELEMENTS AND IMPLICIT NEGATION
Venera Suleymanova 91
NÂBÎ DÎVÂNININ LEKSİKASINA MODERN AÇIDAN YAKLAŞIM
Salih Savaş 95
LITERATURE 105
AMERICAN NOVEL AND THE ORIENT:
ARGUMENTS AND COMMENTARIES
Shahin Khalilli 106
ii
MODERN APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEMS OF A MAN
AND SOCIETY IN THE CREATIVITY OF IRIS MURDOCH
Nurlana Alaskarova 108
SHEAKESPEARE‘S APPROACHES TO POLITICS
AND POLITICAL THEORY
Ali Tatli 111
THE ONLY WAY TO SAVE FROM LONELINESS
Ayten Zeynalli 114
APPROACHES TO JUSTICE AND MERCY IN RENAISSANCE DRAMA
Aziz Chankaya 115
MODERN APPROACHES TO AGATHA
CHRISTIE’S HERO HERCULE POIROT
Fidan Hacıyeva 117
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S CREATIVITY
Khonul Anvarzade 119
THE ANGRY YOUNG MAN : ‘JOHN OSBORNE’
Günay Allahverdiyeva 121
MODERN APPROACHES TO SHAKESPEARE’S LANGUAGE
Gunay Guliyeva 124
MODERN APPROACHES TO CHARACTER OF HAMLET
Tuğçe Özdemir 127
THE NEW APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF ORIENTAL
THEME IN ENGLISH LITERATURE
Lala Isayeva 128
OTTOMAN POETRY AND BRITISH CRITICISM
Ali Bereket 131
COINCIDENCES CHANGED TESS`S LIFE IN THOMAS
HARDY`S “TESS OF THE D`URBERVILLES”
Aynur Hacıyeva 132
NEW AZERBAIJANI PROSE AND ITS STYLE VARIETY
Ayten Zargarova 134
JAMES JOYCE AND MODERNISM
Gunel Mammadkarimova 138
THE AMERICAN DREAM IN THE MASTERPIECE
OF FRANCIS SCOTT FITZGERALD
Naila Bandiyeva 140
A TALE OF LOST ILLUSIONS OF VICTORIAN PERIOD BASED
ON “GREAT EXPECTATIONS” BY CHARLES DICKENS
Rena Qurbanova 142
iii
REVENGE AND THE RESULT IN “WUTHERING HEIGHTS”
BY EMILY BRONTE
Saida Mehdiyeva 146
GREAT OPPORTUNITIES OF LITTLE GENRE
Shafa Jabiyeva 148
THE “PIE” WHICH LEADS “GREAT EXPECTATIONS”
Khanim Ahmadova 150
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE
(BASED ON THE THEORY OF FREUD)
Khayala Maharramova 153
PSYCHOANALYTIC READING OF MATERNAL
ISSUES IN “MADAME BOVARY”
Meryem Çelik 156
MODERN APPROACHES TO THE HUNNIC EMPIRE
IN THE WESTERN LITERATURE
Natiq Adilov 158
REVOLUTION THEME IN A TALE OF TWO CITIES
Aytekin Aliyeva 161
STUDY OF LITERARY TECHNIQUES OF STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS
ON JAMES JOYCE AND VIRGINIA WOOLF ‘S WORKS
Sevda Salayeva 163
SYMBOLISM IN JAMES JOYCE'S "ARABY"
Narmin Veledova 167
THE ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH CASTLES NAMES
Salmanli Aysel 170
APPROACHES TO SHEAKESPEARE ‘S OTHELLO
Sevda Huseynova 173
EDUCATION 175
MODERN APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Shirley A. Stanley 176
“INTRODUCING AUTHENTIC LITERATURE TO AN EFL CLASSROOMS”
Aynur Bashirova 181
QUALIFIED EDUCATION AND ITS GLORIOUS FUTURE
Aygun Guliyeva 183
THE ROLE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Sadigli Aysel 185
MODERN APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Echon Mendoza Alina 187
iv
USING POEMS TO DEVELOP PRODUCTIVE SKILLS
Hamidov Elchin 191
INCREASE INTERPERSONAL REGARD AND UNDERSTANDING
Elnara Sevdimova 193
THE NEED FOR ELECTRONIC LEARNING IN EDUCATION
Esra Arslan 195
INVESTIGATING THE USE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
STRATEGIES AMONG IRANIAN EFL STUDENTS
Hamidreza Bolhari 197
APPLICATION OF GAMES INTO THE TEACHING PROCESS
OF ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Leyla Alili 199
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT INCREASES
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE LEARNING PROCESS
Matanat Rustamova 202
USING SITUATION COMEDIES AS A TOOL FOR ELT
Merve Turan 205
ORGANIZING LESSONS TO IMPROVE LANGUAGE SKILLS
Parvana Hajiyeva 206
TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN THROUGH STORIES
Sevda Kelbiyeva 208
COMMON PROBLEMS HINDERING AZERI LEARNERS
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Khazar Novruzov 211
TEACHING ENGLISH TO ARABIC- SPEAKING STUDENTS:
CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS
Yegane Memmedova 214
v
vi
CONFERENCE MATERIALS
LINGUISTICS
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
SUMMARY
The article explores elliptic forms of complex syntactic units in English and Azerbaijani. Depending
upon different situations there appear elliptic forms of complex syntactic units. The author tries to
prove that there are different kinds of elliptic sentences and they appear on the components of the
text and the previous and the following sentences.
Key words: incomplete, elliptic, construction, syntactical unit.
The elliptic forms of complex syntactic units are those complexes which the
missing of either principal or the subordinate clause – in transform – construction
doesn’t seem to be incomplete either structurally or semantically.
Like the simple sentences, here the component undergone by ellipciss is not
needed to be restorated. It should be mentioned that not in all cases the ellipciss
of any component of complex syntactic units happens. On this account A.M.
Mukhin writes: “Incomplete sentences are not only those sentences one of which
components is missed/ usually the previous and the following parts of the text can
be reconstructed/ but also are those which have no in reality the missing of the
component but have the colouring of outer content in them” [1, p.178].
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
3. It is your fault, don’t halloo till you are out of the wood.
4. Инди ъязандыр чяк, юзэяйя гуйу газан юзц дцшяр etc.
The predicate of the ellipciss of the principal clause expressed by the verbs “say”,
“демяк” is not only connected with the proverbs and sayings, but also the other
constructions are observed in languages of different system.
E.g. 1. Cliff – She’s hurt. Are you all right?
Alison – Well, does it look it?
Cliff – She’s burnt her arm on the iron.
Jimmy – Darling, I am sorry
Alison – Get out!
Jimmy – I’m sorry, believe me.
You think, I did it on pur…
Alison – Clear out of my sight (Modern English plays)
2. Киши йазыьы эюзляриндян о йана гойдулар бяйям.
Эетмя эюзцмдян, эедярик юзцмдян (Ш.Гурбанов)
Analysing the semantic interrelationship of the above mentioned complex
syntactic units it is proved that in English sentence the component “you say” is
abridged: Though they have structural completeness, that’s the outer case. Their
wholly informative thought reveals the incompleteness. It is the same about the
Azerbaijani complex syntactic unit. Here in the second sentence the predicate of
the principal clause which is expressed by the verb “дейирляр” is abridged.
The fact of ellipciss happens in such complex syntactic units the predicate of
which is expressed by the verb “to see” in English and “эюрмяк” in Azerbaijani
principal clauses. Without going into details it should be mentioned that such kind
of principal clauses demands the object subordinate clauses in both compared
languages. The results of investigation prove that in these complex syntactic units
the verbs “see” and “эюрмяк” are used in “wh” questions. And these sentences
express community and abstractness. In such type of complex syntactic units the
content of the question “what”, “ня” should be revealed. Here “what”, “ня” perform
the function of direct object in the sentence: “what did we see?”, “ня эюрдцк?”.
The following sentence of this question may be either a simple sentence or a
complex syntactic unit. In the second case the object subordinate clause is used.
E.g. 1. Going what did we see?
We saw that she was sitting with her hands on her knees and thinking
2. Эедиб ня эюрдцк? Эюрдцк ки, Ъащанэир отуруб яли чянясиндя дярин
хяйала далыб.
In answering to the verb “saw” “эюрдцк” which is used in the principal clause
and repeated twice. The usage and repetition of the verb “saw”, “эюрдцк” not only
hinders the speed speech but also restricts the effective and emotional force of the
expression.
The frequent usage of the verb “to look”, “бахмаг” is a lot. In such kind of
complex syntactic units the ellipciss of the verbal predicate “saw” “эюрдц” happen
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
It happens when the expression “о заман” “at that time” is used within that
complex syntactic unit.
E.g. О заман эялди ки, мяълис гурулуб.
But in the above complex syntactic unit it is impossible to add the expression
“о заман”. Here the object relation seems and it is realized with the homogeneous
predicate “эюрдцк” which underwent the ellipciss.
E.g. Эялдик эюрдцк ки, мяълис гурулуб.
(We came and saw that the party was organized)
Unfortunately the fact of ellipciss not always reconstructed resultatively but
also there are some elliptic complex syntactic units which are changed the types
of subordinate clauses by reconstructing them.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up: who was that coming at this time?
2. Аста-аста диванdаn durdu, бу вахт эялян ким ола?
Analysing the above mentioned complex syntactic units it has been proved
that “who was that coming at this time?” “бу вахт эялян ким ола?” are not connected
with the principal clauses directly by the semantic-grammatical points wholly. The
reason is that in those complex constructions the subordinate clause, in reality, is
closely connected with the abridged expression in the principal clause. This may
be reconstructed by different ways. In the first case we may use the verb “thought”,
“фикирляшди” in the principal clause and we may be aware of the completing subor-
dinate clauses. In this case the type of subordinate clauses will be the object subor-
dinate clauses.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up and thought who was that coming at this time.
2. Аста-аста диванdаn durdu вя фикирляшди ки, бу вахт эялян ким ола.
But in the second case not only the homogeneous predicate, but also the whole
principal clause which is interrelated with the subordinate clause is reconstructed.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up and was in such a mind who was that coming
at this time.
2. Диванdаn durdu вя ону беля бир фикир апарды ки, бу вахт эялян ким ола.
By the result of this reconstruction the other relation between the components
may appear. Here the thought – logical relation is the same but the grammatical
relation is quite different. So, in the second reconstruction the attributive subor-
dinate clauses are formalized.
There are some kinds of elliptic forms which depend upon the components of
the text within and without the previous and following constructions it’ll be
difficult to make the thought wholly. Such complex syntactic units are widely used
in Azerbaijani.
E.g. - Соба, ай Соба, де эюрцм газлар щара учду?
Soba, hey Soba, tell me where the geese flew?
- Човдар кюкямдян йе, дейим.
Eat my rye cookey, I’ll tell.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
How can I grab my students’ attention when discussing academic writing at the
university level? Even I am bored by the sound of the topic, and this is my field. In
fact, students around the world admit to dreading the act of writing. They fear writing
assignments more than a menial job or a strict parent. Sometimes this fear is based on
receiving a critique from a teacher, sometimes this, a response to not being taught the
fundamentals of writing. But how, in this generation who knows technology better than
me and most of my colleagues here and abroad, can I entice you to delight in the writing
process? You text. You twitter. You write announcements in incomplete sentences and
abbreviate phrases such as “Oh my God” to “OMG,” abbreviations that drive a writing
professor batty.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Perhaps to love writing takes a particular kind of person, but I don’t think so. I
believe good writing comes in many forms and from sundry persons. Did you know
that there are academic articles about text messaging? One is titled “The Syntactic
Aspects of Text Messaging”(Ong’onda,), which was written a woman who analyzes
media’s influence on language. My students know what critical thinking is. Apply
analysis to text messaging and you have a cool project for an article. Consider Shakespeare
who has been written about for hundreds of years. The man still exists on the printed
page, not only in the classroom where his famous works are read, but also in relation
to academic analysis of literature. Topics of class division, love, jealousy, dysfunction,
and death never tire. To whom do we owe credit? To Shakespeare, of course, but also
to our scholars and their imaginations. Why? Because they thought critically and dared
to imagine a new way of seeing. If I were to give any advice, perhaps my colleagues
would want me to tell you to practice writing, to write an essay four times over, to
make it perfect, to study grammar more, to craft beautiful sentences. They are right.
These are elements of writing that are universal and, without such skills, you will not
be taken seriously as an academic or a specialist in your field. Do I love Chekov because
he wrote about a lady and her dog? Somewhat, yes, but I also love him for the rhythm
of his prose and the confidence in his writer’s voice, a distinct style that shaped his
adherents’ writing. My advice, if I were to give any, might be different. I might simply
want to say: dare to imagine, dare to create, and then don’t stop working until your
vision is accomplished.
Allow me to use the “bridge” metaphor, tired yet true: Writing is a bridge to just
about any other field. Articles are published in the sciences, in translation, literature,
and law. Writing connects us to friends and family. We send emails, text messages,
and nowadays, more than ever are reading the words of a person, not the gestures of a
person. Writing has power. What we read in the newspaper affects us. We whisper
news into friends’ ears; we call each other on the phone. When we read a good piece
of writing, words influence us more than we can understand. We carry words in our
heads. We carry memories of how we felt reading a particularly moving story or even
a well-written article. We remember when someone’s thoughts challenge our own,
especially when an opinion or idea makes us uncomfortable, and we remember when
someone has written so well, and we take that as a challenge to do better.
Learning to write in the international style that I have introduced to my class is not
only a bridge to other fields, but the international style is a bridge to other cultures
worldwide. Good research distinguishes a strong professor from a weak professor.
Good research sets a student apart from his or her peers not just in the classroom, but
internationally. And, good research connects students and professionals to others with
similar interests. A good researcher challenges what has been accepted and attempts
to shine a new perspective on a subject.
Good research excels you in your chosen field. Qafqaz is the leading university in
research. Perhaps, as young adults, you don’t yet realize how impressive this role is
for your university and your future. You are actually part of its growth and expansion,
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
and I ask you today to take an active role. You are, after all, molding your country by
what you write and by how you write. You have more power than you understand. Use
it, and use it well. Be a representative of Azerbaijan and, specifically, Qafqaz University.
In 1962 William Labov studied one of New York City’s (NYC) most salient features
of its stereotyped accent; the r-lessness of its speakers. He believed that the (r) variable
(realized as either [r] or [∅] ) could mirror the city’s social stratification, “if any two
sub-groups of NYC speakers are ranked on a scale of social stratification, then they
will be ranked in the same order by their differential use of (r)” (Labov 2006: 41).
Because the [r] variant is considered to be the ‘better’ sounding than its [∅] counterpart,
it is said to carry overt prestige; Meyerhoff (2006: 37) defines an overtly prestigious
variant as the one, “associated with the highest social classes or more powerful speakers
in a community”. Labov set out to see if the prestigiousness of the (r) variable would
be related to the social stratification of three department stores and their workers. In
2009, we attempted to duplicate Labov’s study to verify whether the same predictable
stratification patterns he observed still remain intact in the social fibers of the speech
community. More specifically, we attempted to investigate whether the workers would
be socially (and linguistically) stratified along similar and predictable lines and if there
would still be a clear correlation between the (r) variable and the status ranking of the
department stores, i.e., the higher the stratification of the store, the more realizations
of (r). Using Labov’s Rapid and Anonymous (R+A) survey, we elicited two casually
uttered tokens of fourth floor (pre-consonantal and word-final [r] are unrealized in the
stereotyped pronunciation), and two carefully uttered tokens from the department stores’
workers. Like Labov our goal was to engage the sales people in a very simple and quick
speech event. It was also paramount that the exchange be as natural as possible, which
brings up the issue of the Observer’s Paradox; since [r] is considered to carry overt
prestige, people would theoretically be more likely to pronounce [r] if they were aware
that we were paying attention to their speech. Therefore, the tokens could be misrep-
resentative of natural NYC speech and result in the data possibly being skewed in terms
of overall realizations of [r]. One of the major advantages of Labov’s R+A methodology
is that it attempts to limit the effects of the Observer’s Paradox. As the ‘interviewers’
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
we individually approached a random employee and asked them where a particular item
could be found, which elicited the casual response “fourth floor”. The second exchange
occurred where the interviewer said “excuse me?” and the employee then more carefully
and emphatically repeated “fourth floor”. After the conclusion of the speech event,
we recorded the data of the (r) occurrences (the dependent variables) in both the casual
and emphatic speech and also included the same independent variables as Labov: the
store, occupation, floor within the store, sex, race, age [estimated in five year increments],
and any noticeable foreign or regional accent. Our data, consisting of 252 (r) variants
from 63 speakers, reveals that the (r) stratification is still a salient linguistic variable in
NYC’s speech community and that the phenomenon still occurs in a pattern that preserves
the social stratification between the three department stores. Most importantly, our data
also suggests that, although the r-less variant is still prevalent, [r] is becoming more
common in NYC. Comparing the data to Labov’s, a pattern emerges of an over-all,
though not evenly, increase of r-pronunciation. Our reproduction of Labov's study
reinforces the notion that NYC is a unified speech community and also suggests that
due to the increasing realization of [r], the city's speakers are becoming even more
unified.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Labov, W. (2006). The Social Stratification of English in New York City (2 ed.). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
2. Meyerhoff, M. (2006).Introducing Sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge.
ABSTRACT
The essence of good writing is precision and clarity and the use of abbreviations seems an ideal way
to ensure these essentials. An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always
it consists of letters or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. The purpose is to provide readily-
understandable substitutes for groups of words and so aid the reading effort. However there are very few
abbreviations that their forms have been standardised internationally. The phenomenon of abbreviation
reflects perfectly the spirit of our dynamic epoch. We use them frequently to transmit much information
during the shortest period of time.
Abbreviation is a comparatively new linguistic phenomenon. The practice of abbreviating terms became
convenient, because literacy rose, and advances in science and technology brought with them more com-
plicated terms and concepts. Certain abbreviations can mean different things to different people. In some
fields, including chemistry, medicine, computer science, and geographic information systems abbreviations
are used so frequently that the reader can feel lost in an alphabet soup. However, the main purpose for using
these devices is to improve the reading process, fostering fluent readability and efficient comprehension.
Writers overuse abbreviations, not realizing the problems they cause readers. But they should only
use them for the convenience of the reader. We should better to remember what Shakespeare once observed:
“Who understands thee not, loves thee not.” The main aim of this paper is trying to provide solutions for
eliminating abbreviations.
Key words: abbreviation, acronym, stunt acronym.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only
in written speech while, orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for
the economy of space and effort in writing. For instance, sec. - second, D.M.- Doctor
of Medicine. These are English origin. But when we use graphical abbreviations of
Latin origin in the spelling we shorten Latin words, while orally we pronounce English
equivalents in the full form: p.a.-a year (per annum), lb - pound (libra), i. e.-that is (id
est) etc. Initial abbreviations are the bordering case between graphical and lexical
abbreviations.
There are three types of initialisms in English:
a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, MPA, CND etc.
b) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. : UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.
c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms
are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School
System).
We may unite group b and c into one group, which we call acronyms. Some scien-
tists accept it, but others not. All acronyms are abbreviations, but not all abbreviations
are acronyms.
Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is
clipped. E.g.: intro (introduction), copter (helicopter), fanzine (fan magazine), tec
(detective). [4]
The abbreviations are the most intensively developing units of English. There is
the distinctive interest to them in modern linguistics. Abbreviations, the subject of our
analysis, make our life easier. However, when using them, we shouldn’t overdo it.
The more we use abbreviations the more our text will be vague to read. We should
introduce an abbreviation only if: 1. the term appear at least three times in each part
of our work; and 2. the term consists of at least three words. There are also some abb-
reviations that are better known than the words they stand for and do not have to be
explained in the text or added to the list of abbreviations. E.g.: AIDS (acquired immu-
nodeficiency syndrome), CD-ROM( compact disk read only memory),PIN(personal
identification number), UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund).If an abbreviation
is better known than the spelled-out form, we may give the abbreviation even if the term
is used only once.[2,1]
Some acronyms are truly “hidden names”. They are spelled out and treated as
ordinary words and follow the capitalization rules. After a while we may even forget
that they were once special creations:
Scuba= Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
Radar=Radio Detecting And Ranging
Laser=Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Not all acronyms are created. Some are discovered by attentive readers. Such “false”
abbreviations provoke unintended smiles. In the 1970s, Richard Nixon’s opponents had
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
great fun pointing to the acronym formed by the initials of the Committee to Re-Elect
the President: CREEP.[1,5]
Stunt acronyms, which are created for a specific, often political purpose can help
groups get attention. For instance, MADD -Mothers Against Drunk Driving. CAVE-
Citizens Against Virtually Everything. These stunt acronyms are not the problem. They
can be useful and even entertaining. Acronyms can be handy. The real problem lies
with initial abbreviations, the greatest destroyer of meaning in modern publications.
Most initial abbreviations are difficult to understand.
Every business, school, laboratory and agency has its own language, which consists
of unique abbreviations. For instance, to the Shipping Department the abbreviation
“QA” may mean “Quick Action”, while for the Manufacturing Department, “QA”
means “Quality Assurance”. “CD” may refer to “certificate of deposit” in Accounting,
“coefficient drag” in Engineering and “Compact disk” everywhere else. Whenever
possible we should avoid using abbreviations.
Of course, if you are using a common abbreviation such as PC to mean personal
computer and the context makes this clear, there's no real problem. But if you are using
it for another term, such as: Postal Clerk or Production Control, then such a common
abbreviation can still be a problem. The abbreviation PC means different things to
different groups. In Law: probable cause, physical containment, personally corrupt,
police constable. In Medicine: peripheral clarity, perforated cranium, prostate cancer.
In Military: power converter, production control, pass certified, Peace Corps. Not only
common people, but also inexperienced members of any organization may misunderstand
an abbreviation or acronym. For example the “Federal Highway Administration” has
a program known as “ISTEA” (pronounced “ice tea”). Naturally enough, the acronym
gets spelled as “ICE TEA”(1,6)
Such confusion shows that these writers don’t really understand the term. Because
they clearly don’t know what the letters stand for, they only want to sound learned, well-
informed. But in reality, the words forming this acronym is - Intermodal Surface
Transportation Efficiency Act.
To eliminate the problems mentioned above we want to introduce the following
solutions:
1. We should better avoid abbreviations as many as possible.
2. We may use them only if they are convenient for our readers.
All readers must know exactly what we mean. Spelling abbreviations out may
irritate our readers.
3. Converting abbreviations into words as many as possible is also the effective way.
We should prefer to use the full words - Vice President, not VP.
It would be suitable to use an alternative - computer's memory, not RAM (Random
Access Memory).
4. If it is convenient for the reader to use an abbreviation in a long document, we must
try to spell out its meaning in brackets the first time we use it. For example: CBT
14
April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
İngilis dili adlandırdığımız dil ilk dəfə İngiltərənin Şimal dənizi sahillərinə eramızın
V-VI əsrlərində Danimarka, indiki Almaniya və Niderlandın şimal-qərbindən olan də-
nizçilər tərəfindən gətirilmişdir. Bu immiqrantlar Hind-Avropa dili ailəsinin German
qoluna mənsub olan əlaqəli dialektlərdə danışırdılar. Onların dili German dillərindən
ayrıldıqdan sonra öz fərqləndirici xüsusiyyətlərini inkişaf etdirməyə başladı və eramızın
600-cü illərindən indi bizim adlandırdığımız kimi “Qədim İngilis Dili” və ya “Anqlo-
Sakson” olaraq inkişaf edərək müasir İngiltərənin çox böyük ərazisini əhatə etdi.
1066-cı ildəki norman istilası Britaniya adalarına yeni sosial və linqvistik təsir gə-
tirən başqa bir amil sayıla bilər. Həmin dövrdə ingilis dilinə latın və fransız dillərindən
15
Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
minlərlə söz daxil oldu və onun qrammatikası da həmçinin kəskin dəyişikliklərə məruz
qaldı, lakin sonralar aristokratiyanın ingilis dilini öz dilləri olaraq qəbul etməsi fransız
dilinin istifadəsini tədricən sona çatdırdı. İstiladan dilin dirçəlməsinə qədər olan dövrdə
istifadə olunan ingiliscə “Orta Dövr İngilis Dili” adlanır.
İngilis dilinin sözlər axınına məruz qaldığı və “Erkən Müasir İngilis Dili”nin möv-
cud olduğu dövr təxminən 1500-1800-cü illəri əhatə edir. Bu dövrdə ingilis dili səs
dəyişmələri, sintaktik formalaşmalar və leksik zənginləşmə keçirmişdir. Bundan əlavə
XVI-XVII əsrlərdə yaşamış dramaturq V.Şekspirin də ingilis dilinin zənginləşməsində
böyük rolu olmuşdur. Şekspir heç vaxt “doğru” olaraq qəbul edilmiş lüğətdən istifadə
etməməmiş, dilin daha artığına qadir olduğuna inanaraq ona yeni sözlər əlavə etməyə
çalışmışdır. O ingilis dilinə 1700-dən çox yeni söz gətirmişdir. O sözlərin çoxu bu gün
də istifadə olunur və həmin sözlərin üzərində asanlıqla isimdən felə, sifətdən felə və s.
çevrilmələr aparmaq mümkündür. Məsələn: mimic, negotiate, torture, champion, rant,
bedroom, obscene, assaissination, accused, generous və s.
1500-1800-cü illəri əhatə edən Erkən Müasir İngilis dili və 1800-cü ildən bu günə
kimi istifadə olunan Son Müasir İngilis dili arasında bəzi fərqlər var. XV-XVIII əsrlərdə
dilin daha çox formasında dəyişikliklər oldu. Britaniyalıların ətraf ölkələrlə olan sıx
ticarət və iqtisadi əlaqələri dilə yeni söz və frazalar gətirdi. Son Müasir İngilis dilinin
əhatə etdiyi dövrdə isə dildə neologizmlərin yaranma mənbələri və sayı fərqlidir. Sözü
gedən dövrdə ingilis dili iki əsas səbəbdən neologizmlər qazanıb. Birincisi sənayedəki
inqilab, texnologiyanın inkişafı ilə əlaqədar olaraq, ikinci isə Britaniya imperiyasının
bu zaman kəsiyində dünyanın demək olar ki, dörddə bir hissəsi üzərindəki hakimiyyəti
onun xarici ölkələrdən daha çox söz götürməsinə səbəb olmuşdur.
Dünya dəyişir və qaçılmaz olaraq lüğət tərkibi də dəyişikliyə uğrayır. İyirmi il
bundan əvvəl insanlar “noob”, “twitter”, “facebook” sözləri haqda heç nə bilmirdi. Hal-
hazırda isə ingilis dili söz yaratma partlayışı yaşamaqdadır. Bəzi yeni sözlər yazılışca
bəzən heç sözə də bənzəmir. Məsələn: “noob” sözü virtual aləmdə istifadə olunur və
“yeni istifadəçi” anlamına gəlir, amma bəzən internet istifadəçiləri bu sözü “noob” olaraq
deyil, “o”hərfini “0” rəqəmi ilə əvəz edərək “n00b” şəklində yazmağa üstünlük verir.
Müasir dövrdə dilin söz mənbələri tamam fərqlidir. Məsələn: yeni yaranan idman
terminləri, siyasi dəyişikliklər və ya virtual dünyada işlənən sözlər. Bütün bunları nə-
zərə alsaq dildə olan sözlərin sayını müəyyənləşdirmənin mümkünsüzlüyü reallığını
anlayarıq.
Məsələnin başqa tərəfi isə sürətlə yaranan və lüğət tərkibinə daxil edilən sözlərin
neologizm kimi qəbul edilib edilməməsidir. Alimlər bildirir ki, yeni yaranan bir söz
ən azından dünyanın 60% -ni təşkil edən ölkələrdə məna kəsb etməli, alternativə malik
olmalıdır. Bu daha çox yeni ixtiralar səbəbi ilə yaranan sözlərə aiddir. Çünki bəzi dillər,
o cümlədən ingilis dili sözləri olduğu kimi qəbul etmə xüsusiyyətinə sahib olsalar da
elə dillər var ki, yeni yaranan sözlərin tərcümə edilməsinə və ya mahiyyətinə görə dilin
daxili imkanları hesabına başqa alternativlərlə əvəz olunmasına üstünlük verir. Odur
ki, bu cəhətdən qəbul edilməyən və bəzi ölkələrdə anlaşılmayan sözlər neologizm kimi
qəbul edilmir və bir müddət sonra başqa sözlərlə əvəz olunur.
16
April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Oxford lüğəti müxtəlif sahələrdə baş verən dəyişiklikləri əks etdirmək məqsədi ilə
daim yenilənir, lakin əlavə olunan bəzi sözlər insanları gələcəkdə dilin necə olacağına
dair qorxuya salır. Lüğətə daxil edilmiş uğursuz neologizmlərdən bəziləri:
Blamestorming- Heç kimin məsuliyyətini üzərinə götürmədiyi bir günahı kollek-
tivin bir nəfərin üzərinə atması metodu anlamına gəlir. Bu sözün uğursuz olma səbəbi
ona dildə gərəyin olmamasıdır, çünki bu sözü əvəz edən “blame” sözü artıq mövcuddur
və bu fikri tam ifadə edir. Başqa səbəb isə “blamestorming” sözü “brainstorming” sö-
zünün bir növ təqlidi olaraq yaradılmasıdır ki, bu da gülüş doğurur.
Threequel- Hansısa bir kitabın, filmin və s. üçüncü hissəsi anlamına gəlir. Bu söz
bütün hallarda işlənə bilmədiyi üçün doğru sayılmır, çünki “-quel” hissəciyini digər
rəqəmlərə əlavə etdikdə tələffüzdə çətinliklər yaranır.
Bu misallardan aydın şəkildə görmək olar ki, heç də dilə daxil edilmiş sözlərin
hamısı mükəmməl şəkildə düşünülməmişdir. Lingvistik nöqteyi-nəzərdən dil kommu-
nikasiya üçün ən sadə vasitədir. Yeni ideyalar və konsepsiyalar dilə nüfuz edərkən o
kommunikasiyanı asanlaşdırmaq üçün bu amillərə uyğunlaşmalıdır. Dil ya yeni sözlər
qəbul edərək və ya yaradaraq zənginləşə, inkişaf edə bilər, ya da əksinə həmin sözlərin
sayəsində bəsitləşib, nizamsızlaşa bilər. Mühüm olan dilə çox sözün daxil olması deyil,
dilə uyğunlaşan və dilin uyğunlaşacağı sözlərin daxil edilməsi və istehza doğurmayacaq
şəkildə dilin öz imkanları hesabına yeni sözlərin yaradılmasıdır. Bu qaydalara əməl edi-
lərək dəyişdirilən və yenilənən dilin daha zəngin olacağına heç bir şübhə ola bilməz.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/history/index.html
2. http://piksels.com/words-invented-by-shakespeare
3. http://www.answers.com/topic/english-language
4. http://www.wordlab.com/
5. http://www.wordinfo.info/words/index/info/view_unit/4214/?letter=E&spage=5
6. http://www.cracked.com/article_17408_15-words-you-won19-t-believe-they-added-to dictionary_ p2. html
17
Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
This research paper contains of some information about idioms, slang, jargons, colloquialism and dialects
that are ingredients of informal language and the usage of them in informal American speech.
Key words: informal, slang, idiom, jargon, colloquialism, dialect.
No living language is simply one set of words which can be used the same way in
all situations. There are an infinite variety of different ways to arrange the elements of
language. It means that we can express the same thing in different ways, depending
where we are, who we are talking to and how we feel. We can’t talk to friend’s mother
in the same manner we would talk to our friend. We can’t talk to a bartender the same
way we would talk to a judge. The degree of formality of the situation in which we are
attending, one of the main factor that determine which words and expressions are
appropriate in given case.
As Antrushina stated that informal vocabulary is used in one’s immediate circle;
family, relatives or friends and this style is relaxed, free and easy, familiar and unpre-
tentious. (“Лексикология английского языка”; Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева,
Н.Н. Морозова. 2004; p.31) Informal language is allowed in our everyday life, such
as, while playing sports, while studying with friends, at the party, with close family
members, while shopping etc. Informal English gives us a chance to deliver our thoughts
easily with simple words, idioms, phrases and so on which are away of difficult cons-
tructions.
Tomasz P.Srynaski gave some peculiar characteristics of informal English (http://
www.antimoon.com/how/formal-informal-english.htm):
1. Typically used in “improvised” speech when the speaker is speaking without pre-
paration, as in a conversation (in real life or over the phone). It also occurs in writing
usually when the writer is writing quickly and without editing. eg; in an internet
chat room or in personal e-mails.
2. Sentences are shorter and simpler, eg; Looks like the discounts have actually worked.
3. Informal English contains useful “everyday phrases” like Here you are. Come again?
4. Phrasal verbs are used frequently. People prefer to say found out instead of disco-
vered, got away instead of escaped.
5. Words and phrases are sometimes pronounced in a shortened and simplified way,
eg; Lemme go! Whassup? Whatch a gonna do?
“An informal style approximates the cadence and structure of spoken English while
conforming to the grammatical conventions of written English. "(G.J.Alred, C.T.Brusaw,
and W. E. Oliu, Handbook of Technical Writing, 9th ed. St. Martin's Press, 2008)
Prof. Argenis A.Zapata (2008) stated that vocabulary use of informal English is
somehow liberal and includes lots of cliches, colloquialisms, idioms, phrasal verbs,
proverbs and slang.
Most idioms have a nonliteral meaning. The meanings of words are arbitrarily sti-
pulated in memory. The meanings of phrases and sentences, however, are derived
compositionally from the meanings of their individual words and their syntactic structure.
18
April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
19
Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Jargon is similar to slang - it is a specific set of words and phrases which are unique
to a small group of people. Jargon is work-related slang.
"Jargon is the verbal sleight of hand that makes the old hat seem newly fashionable;
it gives an air of novelty and specious profundity to ideas that, if stated directly, would
seem superficial, stale, frivolous, or false." (David Lehman)
Jonathan Guthrie called jargon poetry of modern business: "Jargon is the epic poetry
of modern business. It can turn a bunch of windbags in a meeting room into a 'quick
wins taskforce.' I once asked a handyman toiling in an office doorway whether he was
installing a wheelchair ramp. 'No,' he said solemnly, 'it's a diversity access feature.'"
(Jonathan Guthrie, "Three Cheers for the Epic Poetry of Jargon." Financial Times,
Dec. 13, 2007)
"Generally, when people use jargon not to communicate but to impress their audien-
ces with their importance . . . or use it to announce membership in a group, communi-
cation suffers and the jargon can quickly degenerate into something close to the twitte-
ring of birds."(W. Lutz, "Jargon." Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1992)
Most of the time, jargon evolves because the people in a certain job need to use
certain words and terms which don't mean much to people not working in those areas
or with those machines. However, sometimes you get "corporate jargon" in which large
companies or offices deliberately create slogans which become jargon-these are usually
elaborate ways of saying things which could be said much more simply, and are used
so show that you are a "team player."
K. Allen and K. Burridge states that many people think that jargon should be cen-
sored. However, close examination of jargon shows that, although some of it is vacuous
pretentiousness and its proper use is both necessary and unobjectionable.
Colloquialism would be the language, words and phrases used in casual situations
by the people, as opposed to formal language.
“Over the last generation writing has become more informal than it ever was before.
The area of highly formal writing has shrunk considerable, like state papers, articles
in learned publications, legal documents, court decisions and so on. Other writing has
become quite hospitable to so -called colloquialism, it has become more informal,
more relaxed, more familiar, more casual”. (Theodore Bernstein, The Careful Writer.
Simon & Schuster, 1995)
A really good example would be to look at the way different people refer to
carbonated drinks - in the United States, we can tell where you are from by how you
ask for your beverage! People in the northeastern and middle states call it "pop," while
people in the western states say "soda." People in the south ask for a "coke" or for "dope!"
According to November publication of “Time” magazine (1954) The United States
colloquialisms evolve slowly. 'Jag,' 'tops,' 'dude' stayed around for decades before they
began to lose their freshness” ("Far-Out Words for Cats" Time magazine, Nov. 8, 1954)
Colloquial language is the low variety language which is popularly used by people
most of the time, so it is an everyday language used at home; with families and friends;
20
April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
at shops etc. but not used at offices, educational institutions, formal conversations, or
media.
Dialect is a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation,
grammar, or vocabulary, especially a way of speaking that differs from the standard
variety of the language. The scientific study of dialects is known as dialectology.
"Some people think of dialects as sub-standard varieties of a language, spoken only
by low-status groups--illustrated by such comments as 'He speaks correct English,
without a trace of dialect.' Comments of this kind fail to recognize that standard English
is as much a dialect as any other variety--though a dialect of a rather special kind, because
it is one to which society has given extra prestige. Everyone speaks a dialect-whether
urban or rural, standard or non-standard, upper class or lower class." (D. Crystal, How
Language Works. Overlook, 2006)
Conclusion
This study allowed me to find out information about informal English of America. I
was able to know how people use informal elements like slang, idioms, jargons and
so on in their everyday speech. As we know people prefer changes and being special.
They maintain it in their speech as well and avoid using trite phrases, expressions and
word-combinations. English language is very rich and one can express his or her thoughts
in numerous ways. So people use some idioms, slang, and jargons in their speech in
order to avoid monotonous utterance and such elements of informal language make
speech more vivid. All languages are developing continuously and it creates favorable
condition for invention of new words to make speech more colorful.
REFERENCES
1. “Slang in America”, Walt Whitman, 1885.
2. “Лексикология английского языка” ; Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова. 2004; p.31
3. G.J.Alred, C.T.Brusaw, and W.E.Oliu, Handbook of Technical Writing, 9th ed. St. Martin's Press, 2008
4. Chomsky, 1980; Cruse, 1986; Fraser, 1970; Katz 1973
5. Cacciari & Glucksberg, 1991; Nunberg et al, 1994
6. Keith Allan and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006
7. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2007)
8. Historical Dictionary of American Slang
9. James Sledd, "On Not Teaching English Usage." The English Journal, Nov. 1965
10. Jonathan Guthrie, "Three Cheers for the Epic Poetry of Jargon." Financial Times, Dec. 13, 2007
11. W. Lutz, "Jargon." Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1992
12. Theodore Bernstein, The Careful Writer. Simon & Schuster, 1995
13. “Far-Out Words for Cats” Time magazine, Nov. 8, 1954
14. Neil Rafferty, "Queen Opens a Pricey Piece of Scots History." The Sunday Times, Oct. 10, 2004
15. D. Crystal, How Language Works. Overlook, 2006
16. http://grammar.about.com/od/classicessays/a/whitmanslang.htm (12.02.2012)
17. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_colloquial_language (12.02.2012)
18. http://www.antimoon.com/how/formal-informal-english.htm
19. http://webdelprofesor.ula.ve/humanidades/azapata/materias/english_4/formal_vs_informal_ english.
pdf (15.02.2012)
21
Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
There is a difference between American and British usage in the word school. In
British usage school by itself refers only to primary and secondary schools and to sixth
forms attached to secondary schools - if one "goes to school", this type of institution
is implied. By contrast an American student at a university may talk of "going to school"
or "being in school". US law students and medical students almost universally speak
in terms of going to "law school" and "med school", respectively.
While comparing school years in British (except Scotland) and American English
we can notice that the secondary school in the United States also includes middle school
or junior high school which is two or three year transitional school between elementary
and high school. Let’s pay attention the difference in the definition of public school in
these two countries. It is government-owned and supported by taxpayers in the US,
while in the UK it refers to ill-defined private independent schools funded by students’
fees. However, those schools supported by government are called state school in the
UK.1
The word college is different in its usage too. In the US it refers to a post-high
school institution that grants either associate's or bachelor's degrees, but in the UK it
refers to any post-secondary institution that is not a university. In both the US and UK
college can refer to some division within a university such as the "college of business
22
April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
and economics" though in the UK "faculty" is more often used. Institutions in the US
that offer two to four years of post-high school education often have the word college
as part of their name, while those offering more advanced degrees are called a university.
Among high-school and college students in the United States, the words freshman,
sophomore, junior and senior refer to the first, second, third, and fourth years respectively.
Many institutes in both countries also use the term first-year as a gender-neutral rep-
lacement for freshman, although in the US this is recent usage, formerly referring only
to those in the first year as a graduate student. One exception is the University of
Virginia; since its founding in 1819 the terms "first-year", "second-year", "third-year",
and "fourth-year" have been used to describe undergraduate university students. In the
UK first-year university students are sometimes called freshers early in the academic
year; however, there aren’t specific names neither for those in other years, nor for
school pupils. Graduate and professional students in the United States are known by
their year of study, such as a "second-year medical student" or a "fifth-year doctoral
candidate."
In the UK a university student is said “to study”, “to read or informally to do” a
subject. In the recent past the expression “to read a subject” was more common at the
older universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. In the US a student studies or majors
in a subject .To major in something refers to the student's principal course of study; to
study may refer to any class being taken.2
At university level in BrE, each module is taught by a lecturer or tutor; professor
is the job-title of a senior academic. In AmE each class is generally taught by a professor
(although some US tertiary educational institutions follow the BrE usage). A British
professor is not exactly equivalent to a US professor, because the latter category divides
into three levels: full professor, associate professor, and assistant professor. In the UK,
the ranks below professor are reader, then senior lecturer (though some universities
treat these grades as equivalent in salary, but different in function), then lecturer.3
In the UK, a student is said to sit or take an exam, while in the U.S., a student takes
an exam. The expression he sits for an exam also arises in BrE, but only rarely in AmE.
American lawyers-to-be sit for their bar exams and American master's and doctoral
students may sit for their comprehensive exams, but in nearly all other instances,
Americans take their exams. When preparing for an exam students revise (BrE)/review
(AmE) what they have studied.
In the US anyone who finishes studying at any educational institution by passing
relevant examinations is said to graduate and to be a graduate, but in the UK only
degree and above level students can graduate. These days student itself has a wider
meaning in AmE. It is used more and more for people studying above the primary
school level, but pupil is still used in secondary school contexts as well. Pupil is
understood in AmE, but generally not used - all learners in institutions of education are
students in AmE. Whereas in BrE it tends to be used for people studying at a post-
secondary educational institution and the term pupil is widely used for a young person
at primary or secondary school.
23
Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Of two major varieties of English, American English has begun to influence the
English spoken in Europe. Nevertheless, British English is still dominant in the schools
and universities. Furthermore, most teachers speak British English and most educational
material is based on the British English variety.
END NOTE
1. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1971. S. v., “public education”.
2. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_Englishdifferences#Education
3. O.М. Воевудская, О.В.Ивашенко. Практикум по лексикологии современнево английского
языка. p103.
REFERENCES
1. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1971. S. v., “public education”.
2. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_Englishdifferences#Educatio
3. O.М. Воевудская, О.В.Ивашенко. Практикум по лексикологии современнево английского
языка. p103.
Bugün dünyada 220 milyona yakın insan Türk Dilini konuşmakta ve yaşatmaktadır.
Türkçe dünyada en fazla konuşulan dil olarak 15.sırada yer almaktadır. Türk dili ya-
pılan sıralandırmalarda Altay dilleri kümesine sokulur. Altay dilleri de Ural-Altay dil
ailesi içinde sayılır.Mehmet Fuat Bozkurtun ele aldığı makaleye göre, bu alanda ilk
araştırma yapan İsveçli Philipp Von Strahlenberg'dir. İlk gereçleri Avrupa ve Asya'nın
Kuzeyi ile Doğu Bölümleri adlı kitabında verilmiştir.
Winkler, Ural-Altay dil ailesini daha da genişleterek ölü dillerden Sümer ve Akad
dilleri bu aileden saymıştır. Japoncanın Altay dillerinden sayılması Boller, Grunzel,
Pröhle gibi bilim adamları tarafından ayrıca savunulmuştur.Türk dili, Altay dil ailesinin
Oğuz kolunda bulunur. Altay dilleri dünyanın birçok coğrafyasına yayılmış ve yaygın
olarak kullanılmıştır.Avrupadan, Orta Doğuya ve Orta Asyadan Uzak Doğuya kadar
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
varabilen büyük bir alanda konuşulan bir dil ailesidir.Ayrıca Altay Kolunda Türk dilleri,
Moğol,Mançu Tunguz ve Japon ve Kore dilleri bulunur.Türk Dilleri içinde Moğol,
Mançu, ve Tunguz dillerinin bu soydan geldiği kesin olarak kabul edilmekle beraber,
Japon ve Kore dillerinin Altay Dil Ailesine ait olup olmadığı halen tartışmalı bir konudur.
Altay Diller Ailesi kendi içinde de gruplara ayrılır:
Oğuz,Kıpçak,Çuvaş,Uygur,ve Yakut başıca kollarıdır.Oğuz Kolu içinde: Türkçe,
Azerice ve Türkmence yer alır.
Japon dili ve Kore Dili ise izole dil olarak adlandırılır. Ancak enteresan olan nokta
Türk dili ve Japon dilinin aynı gramatik özellikleri taşımasıdır.
Türk Dilinin özellikleri şunlardır:
1. Sondan eklemeli bir dildir
2. Ön ek almazlar
3. Ünlü uyumu gözetilir
4. Cinsiyet ayrımı yapılmaz
5. Soru eki kullanılır
6. Özne Nesne, Yüklem uyumu vardır
Yukarıda ki bu özellikler aynen Japon dilinde de geçerlidir.Bu benzerlikler, Japon
dilinin de Altay Diller Ailesi içinde olduğuna dair güçlü benzerliklerdir.Dil akrabalığını
güçlendiren düşünce, biçim benzerliğidir.Bu akrabalık günümüzde tam olarak kabul
gören bir düşünce değildir. Bazı araştırmacılar Japon dilini Kore dilinin bir lehçesi
olarak kabul ederler, ancak bu fikir de kesin olarak kabul görmemiştir.Japon dili ve
Türk dilinin biçim ve gramatik benzerlikler dışında dikkat çekici bir nokta da ses ben-
zerliklerinin ve hatta kelime benzerliklerini olmasıdır.Buna örnek olarak aşagıdaki
kelimeleri gösterebiliriz:
Türkçe Japonca Türkçe Japonca
Kyotonun Kyotonu Ara Ada
Ankaraya gitti Ankara itta Yukarı Agaru
İmiş imas Giy Gi
Kara Kuray Taksi de Takuşi de
Alaca Akasa Nedir ki? Nan des ka?
İçi Uçi İyi İi
Kırar Kireru Akasya Akashia
Sonra da Sore de Yamaç Yama
Yaban Yaban Koyu Koi
Yukarıda yazılı örnekleri incelediğimizde kelimelerdeki mana, ses ve yazım ben-
zerliği şaşırtıcı derece yakındır.Bu yakınlık, dil üzerine çalışmalar yapan dilcilere ak-
rabalığı düşündüren ve araştırmaya iten somut sebeplerden sayılabilir.Yalnızca Türk
dilciler değil, Japon dili üzerine araştırma yapan dilciler de bu konuyla ilgilenmişlerdir.
Japoncanın dünya dilleri arasındaki yerini ilk kez inceleyen Katsuki Fujioka, Japon-
canın ilk olarak Ural-Altay dilleri ile akrabalığı meselesinin ciddi olarak araştırılması
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
gerektiğini savunmuştur.Fujioka’ya göre Japonca ile bu diller arasında pek çok ortak
özellik bulunuyor.Ural-Altay dillerinin en belirgin özellikleri Japon dilinin içinde de
mevcuttur.Altay dillerinin birkaç özelliği şunlardır:
1. Ünlü Uyumunun bulunması
2. Eylem eklerinin çokluğu
3. Dilsel cinsiyet ayrımının bulunmaması
4. Adlarda belirli belirsizlik edatlarının olmaması
5. Öntakı yerine sontakı bulunması
6. Soru edatlarının azlığı
7. bağlaçların azlığı
8. Söz başında (r)ünsüzünün bulunmaması
9. Adılların Hint-Avrupa dillerinden farklı biçimde çekimlenmesi
Bu gibi örnekler, Japon dilinin Ural-Altay dil ailesi içinde olduğu savını güçlen-
dirmektedir. Türkler dünya üzerinde geniş coğrafyalara yayılmışlar ve bunun sonucu
olarak da kendisi ile soy bakımından yakınlığı olan veya olmayan pek çok milletle ve
dille temasa geçmişlerdir. Bu yakınlık sonucunda Türkçe ile bu diller arasında karşılıklı
etkilenmeler olmuştur, Türkçe temasta oldukları bu dillere kelimeler vermiş ve başka
dillerden de kelimeler almıştır.
Özellikle Arapça ve Farsça en çok ortak kelimenin kullanıldığı dillerdir.Bunun yanı
sıra,Japonca gibi çok uzak gibi görünen bu dilin aynı mana ve ses benzerliğinde keli-
melere sahip olması benim araştırmalarıma göre bu bir tesadüf olamaz.Öyle ki, Çin,
Sanskrit ve Slav dillerinden de Türkçeye birçok kelime girmiştir. Ancak tüm bu saydığı-
mız dillerle Türkçenin yapıca ilişkisi yoktur. Bunun yanında Fin-Ugor, Moğol, Tunguz,
Kore ve Japon dilleri için aynı şeyi söyleyemiyoruz. Bu dillerin bazılarıyla Türk dilleri
arasında önemli benzerlikler vardır. Özellikle Türkçe ve Moğolca arasındaki benzerlikler
dikkat çekicidir.
Aynı dil ailesi içinde olduğuna dair bu kadar güçlü kanıtlar bulunan bu dillerin,
aynı kelimeleri kullanıyor olması da bir tesadüf değil,geçmişten günümüze uzanan
toplumlar arası etkileşimin bir göstergesidir. Bütün diller incelenirken sadece günün
koşullarına ve coğrafi konumuna göre değerlendirme yapmak, o dili kısır bir döngü
içine sokmaktır.Türkler, yüzyıllar boyu farklı milletlerle bir arada yaşamış ve farklı
coğrafyalarda kültürlerini, dillerini yaymışlardır.Bir dil içinde aynı gramatik yapı, ses
ve mana benzerliği taşıyan kelimeler bulunması ,dil akrabalığı meselesini düşündüren
en önemli işaretlerdir.Bütün bu tarihsel bilgiler ışığında 20.yy’ın başından itibaren
Türkiyeli Türkologlar Türk dilinin geçmişten günümüze kadar uzanan gelişimini en
ince ayrıntısına kadar incelemeye başlamışlar ve bu dönem araştırmaların geliştiği bir
dönem olmuştur.Sadece Türkiyeli Türkologlar değil,20.yy da dünyanın birçok ülkesinde
Türkoloji ile ilgili araştırmalar giderek artmaya başlamıştır.Japonya ve ABD’de Türk-
oloji çalışmaları yapan kurum ve kişilerin sayısında büyük bir artış yaşanmıştır. Dille
ilgili başlıca inceleme alanları fonetik, fonoloji, gramer (morfoloji, sentaks), etimoloji,
semantik, filoloji ve diyalektolojidir.Stilistikte son zamanlarda önemi artan alanlardan
biridir.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Prof.Dr.Ahmet Bican Ersilasun’un ‘Türk Dili Üzerine Yeni Yaklaşımlar’ adlı ma-
kalesinde Türk dilinin başka dillerle olan akrabalığı meselesi farklı bir açıdan incelen-
miştir. Ersilasun makalesinde Avrasyatik Dil Ailesine dikkat çekmektedir.Bu makale-
deki bilgiye göre; Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde 1980’den sonra gelişen bazı yeni
akımlarda dünya dilleri daha geniş ailelere ayrılmakta ve hatta bütün dillerin aynı kökten
çıktığı ileri sürülmektedir. Joseph Greenberg’in ortaya koyduğu geniş ailelerden biri
de Avrasyatik Büyük Ailesi (Eurasiatic Macrofamily) adını taşımaktadır. Bu teoriye
göre Avrasyatik büyük ailesi içinde yedi dil ailesi vardır: Hint-Avrupa, Ural, Altay,
Gilyak, Kore-Japon-Aynu, Çukça, Eskimo-Aleut (Greenberg 2000). Görüldüğü gibi
Türkçenin içinde bulunduğu Altay ailesi de Avrasyatik büyük ailesinin bir koludur ve
diğer ailelerin içindeki diller de Türkçenin uzak akrabaları kabul edilmektedir.Bu bil-
giye de dayanarak diyebiliriz ki, ana çerçeve içinde zaten bu iki dil, dil akrabalığına
sahiptir.Kuramsal Altay dilinden ilk olarak Japoncanın, ardından Korecenin ayrıldığı
düşünülmektedir.Türkologlar dilin tarihsel gelişimini tamamlama meselesini tam olarak
çözümlemiş değildir.Ana hatlarıyla belirlenen tasnifler kabul edilmekle beraber, tarihsel
dönemler arasındaki geçiş ve köksel bağlar tarihlendirme meselesi, bugün halen araş-
tırılmakta ve tartışılmaktadır.
Dil,gelişen değişen ve büyüyen canlı bir olgudur.Sosyal yaşam,kültür,coğrafya
değişen yaşam koşulları, bu olguya beslenmesi için gıda sağlayan kaynaklardır Bu
kaynaklar,dilin öz benliği korunup saklanmak şartıyla, hangi tarih ve koşulda olursa
olsun dil üzerinde muhakkak güçlü bir etki yaratmakta ve dili zenginleştirmektedir.
Türk dili ve Japon dili, bu uzak, aralarında herhangi bir yakınlık olduğu ilk bakışta
akla gelmeyecek olan diller,aslında aynı dil ailesinin birbirine uzak akrabalarıdır.
REFERENCES
1. Türk Dünyası El Kitabı (Osman Nedim Saba)2Cilt, Dil Kültür Sanat,Ankara, 2002
2. Altay Dilleri Teorisi, Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Yayını:6, Istanbul, 1983.
3. Türk Dilleri Araştırmaları (Talat Tekin)1992, Simurg Yayıncılık.
4. http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/ESKI TURK DİLİ
5. http://www.mainboard24.com
6. http://www.abercilasun.com
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
which are mapped on to each other. The Theme-Rheme thematic structure and Given-New information
structure.
Theme and Rheme is also called Active and Passive Alternative. It means that, the topic/ theme of
the sentence is called Active Alternative , and rheme is called Passive Alternative. In contrast to rheme,
theme gives information about previous talking or life experience to speaker.
We encounter using of subject as a rheme in literature. Logical stress and Intonation helps us to find
out rheme in a sentence . That is why we can understand the rheme in speaking more than writing.
Generally speaking, there some elements which can help us to distinguish Theme from Rheme: word
order, intonation, auxiliary verbs , lexical repetition.
Key word: theme, rheme, intonation, word order, auxiliary verbs.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Ingilis dilində remalaşdırıcı qayıdış əvəzlikləri içərisində daha çox işlənən şəxs
bildirən qayıdış əvəzlikləridir.
The men themselves snow covered in their exposed position.- Sığınacaqsız olan
adamlar özləri də qara bələnmişdilər.
There is / are
Bu ifadə Azərbaycan dilinde vardir mənasini verir.Buna görə də “there” sözü yer
zərfliyi mənasını bildirməyərək,ifadənin düzəldilməsi üçün formal vasitədir.Yesperin
“there is /are” ifadəli cümlələri mövcudiyyet menali cumlələr adlandırır.Buna görə də
there is/are ifadəli sintaktik birləşməsi ilə işlənən mübtəda həmin mənanın hesabına
rema vəzifəsini daşıyır.
Tərkibinde 3 üzv olur:
There is phone in my car.
1. There formal sözündən sonra is/are – tema;
2. Mübtəda –rema;
3. Yer zərfliyində - tema
There was a little pause before answer. Cavabdan qabaq yüngül bir süküt çökdü.
Qoşa bağlayıcılı birləşmələr
Ingilis dilində korrelyativ qoşa bağlayıcılardan either...or, both...and, neither...nor;
Azərbaycan dilində sayca nisbətən çox məna cəhətdən qarşılıqlı olan gah-gah da, ya-
ya da, ister-isterse de,hem-hemde,ne-ne de birlikdə işlənən mübtədalar rema ifadə edir.
Ingilis dilində neither...nor bağlayıcısının işləndiyi cümlənin xəbəri təsdiq forma-
sinda olduğu kimi , Azərbaycan dilində də deyil,yaxud sözləri işlənmir.
Both horn and lights were signals of dangerously for pressure.
Həm səs,həm işiq siqnallari həyat üçün təhlükəlidir.
İnkar əvəzlikləri
None, noone, nobody, nothing, any, anybody, neither, Azərbaycan dilində hec kim,
hec kəs, heçnə, heç bir şey mürəkkəb quruluşlu inkar əvəzlikləri cümlənin mübtədası
kimi xüsusi vurğuyla deyilərək inkarlığı qüvvətləndirir və rema vəzifəsini daşıyır.
Nobody goes on that kind of journey without baggage.It doesn’t make any sense.
Hec kim belə uzaq səfərə yüksüz çıxmır.Hec ağila batan işə oxşamır.
Məlumdur ki,ingilis dilində inkar əvəzlikləri ilə ifadə olunan mübtəda yalnız təsdiq
formasında olan xəbərlə uzlaşır.Ingilis dilindən fərqli olaraq,Azərbaycan dilində inkar
əvəzlikli mübtəda inkarda ifadə olunan xəbərlə uzlaşır.( Ilyish B.A. The structure of
Modern English .1965)
Hər dildə oxşar cəhətlər:
1. Rema ifadə edən mübtəda isim,şəxs,qeyri-muəyyən və qayıdış əvəzlikləri substan-
tivləşmiş sifət və sayla ifadə oluna bilər.
2. Mübtəda- rema söz sırasının pozulması,yəni inversiya.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
idioms to other languages is important and difficult issue in linguistics. The main
reason of wrong translation of idioms is the choosing it wrongly from the context,
other reason is the wrong understanding of translator. John Saied defines an "idiom"
as words collocated that became affixed to each other until metamorphosing into a
fossilised term .This collocation—words commonly used in a group—redefines each
component word in the word-group and becomes an idiomatic expression. Moreover,
an idiom is an expression, word, or phrase whose sense means something different
from what the words literally imply. The idiom "beating around the bush" means to
hint or discuss obliquely; nobody is literally beating any person or thing, and the bush
is a metaphor. When a speaker uses an idiom, the listener might mistake its actual
meaning, if he or she has not heard this figure of speech before. Idioms usually do not
translate well; in some cases, when an idiom is translated into another language, either
its meaning is changed or it is meaningless. As defined by The New International
Webster’s College Dictionary, an idiom is an expression not readily analyzable from
its grammatical construction or from the meaning of its component parts. It is the part
of the distinctive form or construction of a particular language that has a specific form
or style present only in that language. Random House Webster’s College Dictionary
seems to agree with this definition, even expanding it further, stating that an idiom is
an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual grammatical rules of a
language or from the usual meanings of its constituent elements. There are idioms
which mention different colours and people will recognize them as translations of their
own language, but often enough other words are used in the different languages. Some
of the common ones use the colours blue, green and red and are groups of words that
combine a preposition with the colour such as "out of the blue" or a verb and a prepo-
sition such as "He saw red." Since the idiom is supposed to give you a meaning which
is far from the meaning of the key word or object that creates it, new learners have
difficulties being able to image that colours have anything to do with something that
is not a refection of a light wave frequency. When the student sees that he "sees red"
in his language that is often a good beginning point for the person to see that there
may be other similar idioms. In the meantime he will likely absorb other idioms and
their expressions.at the end of my speech I want to say that there are other idioms he
may know from popular English songs which uses "feel blue," for example. if the learner
has a musical ear he might take advantage of his ability to perceive other idioms in
the future. he can also learn that colours have been associated to certain emotions, as
blue is associated with sadness and red with anger. green with envy and white with
fear as in "white as a ghost." Others like yellow may be just stated in a simple sentence
with the present of be, as in "you're yellow," mean you are a coward. Here I want to
show some colour idioms and their translations.
Idioms with “Black”- things look black – the works goes wrong / bad
Black looks – looking angry-When I started to tell the story,
Carol gave me a really dirty look
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Black as hell (night, pitch, my hat)-very dark ( gecə qara cücə qara)-The streets
was black as hell.
Black as sin (thunder, thundercloud) black as sin (thunder, thundercloud) – ba-
şının üstünü qara bulud almaq- Like black as sin , she was sitting infront of the window.
To know black from white – ağı qaradan seçmək- I am already at the age of to
know black from white idioms with “White”
As white as a ghost- qorxudan rəngi ağarmaq- My sister became as white as a
ghost when she saw the man at the window as white as a sheet- solğun- I felt
terrible this morning and in the mirror I looked as white as a sheet.
As white as the driven snow- ağappaq-The fur on the dog was as white as the
driven snow.
Idioms with “blue”- cry oneself blue in the face –ürəyi partdıyana kimi qışqırmaq-
She cried till blue in the face
Look blue –mısmırıqlı olmaq- Today she looks blue, because of bad marks
Blue in the face –əsəbdən göyərmək- He argued with her until he was blue in
the face.
Make the air blue –deyinmək- When I entered to the house he began make the
air blue
to drink till all's blue – içkinin küpünə girmək- Her father everytime drinks till
all`s blue
Once in a blue moon – ayda ildə bir dəfə- I saw him once in a blue moon
To look through blue glasses-pessimist person- My mother is the kind of person
who everytime looks through blue glasses
Blue chip company –company with high quality- This company is really blue
chip company
Idioms with “Green”- green with envy –hirsindən bozarmaq- Mr.Smith began
to be greeen with envy
Green wound – new wound that is not recovered- Her wounds is still green
To look through green glasses –to be jealous- My grandmother everytime looks
through green glasses
To get the green light – to be free everywhere
Green-belt area -the protecting area surrounding the city
Grey matter -başın yaxşı işləməsi
The grass is always greener on the other side-believe that life is beautiful in
other place
Idioms with “Red”- to have a red face –utancından qıpqırmızı olmaq
Be in the red –borc içində batmaq
see red –become very angry
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Red-letter day –memorable day- It was a red-letter day when she finally received
her graduation diploma.
Red tape –bruocratics
Catch (someone) red-handed –iş üstündə yaxalamaq
In the red -pik nöqtəyə çatmaq
Like a red rag to a bull / Like a red flag to a bull -kimisə cin atına mindirmək
Red carpet treatment - treat someone with great respect
Idioms with “Yellow”- To be yellow / yellow bellied- ağciyər olmaq
A golden opportunity- an exellent chance
Have a yellow streak- be coward
REFERENCES
1. The Oxford Companion to the English Language(1992) pp.495–96.
2. Jackendoff, R. (1997). The architecture of the language faculty. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
3. Mel’čuk Igor A. (1995). Pharisees in language and phraseology in linguistics. In Martin Everett,
Erik-Jan Vander Linden, André Schenk & Rob Schrader (eds.), Idioms: Structural and Psychological
perspectives, 167–232. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
4. Saied, John I. (2003), Semantics. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 60.
5. Saied, John I. (2003), Semantics. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
6. Gibbs, R. W. (1987), "Linguistic Factors in Children Understands of Idioms." Journal of Child Lan-
guage, 14, 569–586.
8. http://www.baidak.com/english-idioms-colour
9. http://www.english-at-home.com/idioms/idioms-using-colour/
10. http://www.learn-english-today.com/idioms/idiom-categories/colour-idioms.htm
11. http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/idioms-colour.htm
12. http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-HUAI199906020.htm
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
K.Qorbaçeviç isə məsələyə bir balaca başqa yöndən toxunur. Alim dilin lüğət tər-
kibinin zənginləşməsində məna dəyişməsini norma kimi xarakerizə edir:»Öz inkişafında
dil yeni sözlərin yaranması yolu ilə deyil, daha çox mövcud leksik vahidlərin məna
dəyişməsi yolu ilə gedir»(5,117).
Maraqlı və dolaşıq fikirdir. Əslində, ekstra və intralinqvistik təsirlərin nəticəsində
dilin leksik qatında gedən dəyişmələr, xüsusilə leskik tərkibində baş verən yenilənmələr
məhz ümumilşləkləşməyə, neologizm və arxaizm anlayışlarının meydana gəlməsinə,
bu və ya digər sözün xəlqiləşməsinə, aktiv və passiv leksikanın yaranmAsına və s.
məsələlərin əmələ gəlməsinə zəmin yaradır. Dilin leksik vahidləri məhz bu müstəvidə
inkişaf edir və yeni sözlərin yaranması da bütün bu proseslərlə üzvi surətdə bağlıdır.
N.Cəfərov yazır:»XVII-XVIII əsrlərdə milli ictimai təfəkkürdə baş verən yeniləşmə
ədəbi dilin leksik normasına daha çox təsir edir, klassik üslubla folklor üslubu arasın-
dakı dialektik münasibət lüğət tərkibininin funksional imkannlarını da müəyyənləşdirir:
folklor üslubu bir qayda olaraq xalq dilinin leksikasına dayanır» (2,64)
Doğrudan da, bu dövrdə, ictimai-siyasi şərait dilimizə və nitq mədəniyyətimizə,
təfəkkürümüzə xüsusi formada təsir edir. Dilimizin leksik normasıına, lüğət tərkibinə,
şer və təhkiyə üslubuna, yazı xəttinə, təfəkkürünə və s. ciddi təsir göstərən yeniləşmə
folklorun adi danışıq dilinə yaxınlaşması ilə müşahidə olunur.
Azərbaycan dilinin leksik normaları kütləvi informasiya vasitələrində özünü daha
aydın şəkildə göstərir. Leksik səviyyədə mətbuat dilinin lüğət tərkibi ədəbi dilin leksik
tərkibinə təsir edən mühüm vasitədir. Müstəqil mətbuatın dilinin lüğət tərkibinə ağırlıq
gətirən amillər, əsasən, bunlardır: bəzən lazımi əhəmiyyət daşımadan Türkiyə türkcə-
sindəki sözlər qəzet dilinə ağırlıq gətirir.Məs.: uyu («Yeni Müsavat», 23 avqust 2000),
törən (yenə orada), ilginc («Xalq qəzeti», 31 oktyabr), mücadilə, sayqı («Yeni Müsavat»,
1 noyabr) və s. bu tipli sözlər teleradio aparıcılarımızın da dilində işlənir və işlək
xarakter daşıyır.
Dialektlərlə bağlı məsələlər də leksikada mühüm yer tutur. Ədəbi dilin qaydalarına
zidd olsa da, ümumxalq dilinin(təbii ki, normanın) formalaşmasında mühüm və müs-
təsna rol oynayan dialektlər leksikaya mühüm təsirini göstərir:»Müasir Azərbaycan
dilinin lüğət tərkibində nəzər çarpan normalaşma meyllərinin biri də dialekt leksikası
ilə ədəbi dil leksikası arasında qarşılıqlı əlaqənin qüvvətlənməsi nəticəsində son illər
mətbuat dilində ədəbi dilin lüğət tərkibinin dialekt sözləri hesabına zənginləşməsi pro-
sesinin aktivliyi ilə seçilir. Bu işdə mətbuat orqanları ilə yanaşı, kütləvi informasiya
vasitələri və bədii ədəbiyyatın da rolu böyükdür.(3,119).
Bədii ədəbiyyatda leksik normaya əməl olunması da vacib məsələlərdən sayılma-
lıdır. Xüsusən, şairlər, ədiblər, yazıçılar, söz xiridarları sözün bədii yükünü salmadan,
ucuzlaşdırmadan əsərlər yaratmalıdırlar. Akademik Ağamusa Axundov bu məsələyə
belə münasibət bildirir:»Rəsul Rza Peterburqu təsvir edərkən də lazım olan rəngləri –
sözləri bacarıqla seçir, təsvir olunan obyekti oxucuların gözü önünə gətirir:
Payızın dumanları Məşhur operettalar
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Azərbaycan dili hazırda müstəqil, suveren azad ölkənin, dövlətin dilidir. Bu dil öz
imkanlarından müstəqil şəkildə istifadə etməklə yeni anlayışları bildirən sözlərin for-
malaşdırılmasına tamamilə qadirdir. Müstəqillik dövründə ədəbi dilin şifahi qolu, real
inkişaf imkanları əldə etmişdir. Xüsusən, son dövrlərdə şifahi ədəbi dilin yazılı ədəbi
dilin normalarına yaxınalşması müşahidə olunur. Ədəbi dilin bu iki qolu bir-birinə nə
qədər bağlı olsa, onun informasiya keyfiyyəti o qədər də çox olar, onun anlaşma səviy-
yəsi yüksələr.
ƏDƏBIYYAT
1. A.Axundov. Dilin estetikası. Bakı, Yazıçı, 1985, 224 s.
2. Cəfərov N.Azərbayjan türkjəsinin milliləşməsi tarixi, Bakı,1995, 207 s
3. Məmmədova S. Kütləvi informasiya və dil. Bakı, Elm və Təhsil,2009 , 128 s
4. T.Yaqubova.Azərbayjan mətbuat dilində alınmalar.Bakı, MBM, 2008, 152
5. К.Горбачевич. Изменение норм русского литературного языка. Ленинград, 1971, 270 с.
6. Ефимов А. История Русского литературного языка. М. 1967. С.10
7. Калинин А. Лексика русского языка.москва, 1971. С 12.
8. Петров Н.Функциональное развитие и нормализация чувашского литературного языка в со-
ветскую эпоху: Автореф. Дис.док. филол.наук. Баку, 1982, 38 с.
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I. Sintaktik konversiya
“Sintaktik konversiya bütün nitq hissələrinə aid olub, hər hansı nitq hissəsinə daxil
olan sözün heç bir dəyişikliyə uğramadan başqa nitq hissəsinin yerində işlənməsini
nəzərdə tutur. Məsələn, Anıldı yaz günü, əridi soyuq” (S.Vurğun) cümləsində “soyuq”
sifəti yalnız sintaktik cəhətdən təcrid olunaraq isim yerində işlənmişdir. “Bu evdən köç!
Bu meyvədən dad!”-cümləsində “köç” və “dad” isimləri sintaktik cəhətdən felləşmiş-
dir”(3,68).
“Sintaktik cəhətdən konversiyanın 10-dan yuxarı müxtəlif modeli vardır. Bu növ
konversiyanın ilk mərhələsi sayılır.”(4,146)
Sintaktik konversiyanın aşağıdakı növlərindən bəhs etmək istərdik:
1. Substantivləşmə. Substantivləşmənin səbəbini Azərbaycan dilçiləri prof.Musa
Adilov və prof.Ə.Cavadov belə izah edirlər:“Əvvələn, dildə hər bir söz başqası ilə o
qədər qaynayıb-qarışır, birləşmə o qədər adi, işlək və mexaniki olur ki, bu sözlərdən
biri (və ya bir neçəsi) asanlıqla ixtisar edilir. Digər tərəfdən, substantivləşən sözlər
daha çox insanların daxili və xarici əlamət və keyfiyyətlərini bildirdiyindən adətən belə
birləşmələrin ikinci tərəfləri çox ümumi mənalı - adam, şəxs, insan kimi sözlərdən iba-
rət olur ki, bunu söyləməyə o qədər ehtiyac qalmır. ... Substantivləşmə hər hansı bir
üslubla əlaqədar və ondan asılı deyildir”(2,52)
1. Odur bax! ... Şir kimi atılır suya, Sənin and içdiyin o gənc qəhrəman. (S.Vurğun)
Yuxarıda göstərilən cümlələrdə sifətin müvafiq sintaktik mühitə düşərək isimləş-
mişdir. Sifətlərin substantivləşməsi səbəblərini izah edərkən B.Məmmədov yazır:
“Azərbaycan dilində bəzən substantivləşmiş sifətdə bu morfoloji əlamətlərin heç biri-
nə təsadüf edilmir. Bu, əlbəttə, sifətin öz qrammatik mənasını dəyişməzdən əvvəl təyin
etdiyi ismin morfoloji əlamətsiz işlənməsindən irəli gəlir. Buna görə də bu növ subs-
tantivləşmiş sifətlər təkdə, adlıq halda işlənir: O gündən ziyafət başlandı. Naxoş gəldi,
sağaldı getdi. Çolaq gəldi, ayaqla getdi. Gənc yerindən sıçrayıb Ninninin dalınca getdi.”
(7, 36-40)
Beləliklə, sifətin substantivləşməsi müxtəlif dərəcədə olur: 1) sifət kimi, demək olar
ki, işlənməyən isimləşmiş sifətlər (ölü, diri, yağış və s.); 2) həm sifət, həm də isim kimi
işlənən substantivləşmiş sifətlər(cavan, qoca, xəstə və s.); 3)yalnız mətn daxilində
substantivləşən sifətlər (yaxşı, pis, uzun və s.).
Sifət kimi say da substantivləşir, cümlədə başqa nitq hissəsinə çevrilir: Beşincilər
təhsildə və idmanda yüksək göstəricilərinə görə fərqlənirdilər.
Daha çox rast gəlinən konversiya hadisələrindən biri də feli sifətin substantivləş-
məsidir. Məsələn: 1)Şirin bir xatirə tək qalacaqdır dünyada, Sevərək yaşayanlar, sevi-
lərək ölənlər. (S.Vurğun);
Qeyd edək ki, -an,- ən formantlı feli sifətlərin substantivləşməsinə daha tez-tez tə-
sadüf edilir. B.Məmmədov haqlı olaraq göstərir ki, “substantivləşməni doğuran sə-
bəblərdən biri sözün qrammatik mənasının dəyişməsi və nəticədə yeni sözdə yeni anla--
yışın ifadəsi olsa da, sözə qənaətin, yığcamlığın da bu işdə az rolu yoxdur”(8, 67-72)
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
ləri qəbul edir. Sifətlər aid olduğu sözün qarşısında heç bir formal əlamət daşımır. Hal-
buki konversiyaya uğramış, yəni isimləşmiş sifətlər hal, kəmiyyət, xəbərlik şəkilçiləri
qəbul edir, eləcə də artikllərlə işlənir. Məsələn, 1) Yadın köhnəsi də dilin əzbəri, Ənənən
çiyninə niyə yük oldu?! (B.Vahabzadə); 2) O da insan kimi hiss edib duyur, Yaxşını-
yamanı üzdən oxuyur(S.Vurğun). Burada substantivləşmiş yadın və yaxşı-yamanı
sözləri müvafiq olaraq yiyəlik və təsirlik halda işlənmişlər.
Yeri gəlmişkən qeyd edək ki, sifətlər kimi, feli-sifət və saylar da konversiyaya
uğradıqda müxtəlif hal şəkilçiləri qəbul edə bilər. Məsələn, 1)Yaz ilham deyəni, ürək
deyəni; 2) Otuzdan adladıqca gündə otuz min kərə, Başımı yellədirəm hədər keçən illərə
(B.Vahabzadə).
Maraqlıdır ki, Azərbaycan dilində sıra sayı funksiyasında çıxış edən ilk, son və
axır sözləri də substantivləşərək hal şəkilçisi qəbul edir. Məsələn, Yüz illər ötsə də,
unutmaz ürək, Vətənin ilkini, andın ilkini (S.Vurğun).
Yeri gəlmişkən qeyd edək ki, ilk, son və axır sözlərinin hansı nitq hissəsinə aid
olması ilə bağlı mübahisəli fikirlər mövcuddur. Belə ki, “Azərbaycan dilinin izahlı lü-
ğəti”ndə ilk sözü sifət kimi təqdim və izah olunur. Lüğətdə yazılmışdır: “İlk. Sif. 1)
birinci, əvvəlinci, ən əvvəl olan, ən qabaq (son qarşılıqlı) - ilk uşaq, ilk təəssürat, il
əsər...; 2) başlıca, əsas, ən vacib, ən mühüm. Elimin olsa da aslan ürəyi, Ehtiyatdır
igidin ilk bəzəyi (A. Şaiq)(1).
Bu sözlər semantik baxımdan da say, sıralanma mənasında çıxış edir və sintaktik
mövqedə təyin olur. Sayların cümlədə təyin funksiyası daşıması isə təbiidir.
Konversiya zamanı sifət, feli sifət və sayların mənsubiyyət kateqoriyasının mor-
foloji göstəricisini qəbul etməsi də müşahidə olunur. Məsələn, Köhnəsinə çatmamış
təzə arzular gəlir(B.Vahabzadə).
Göründüyü kimi, substantivləşmə zamanı sifət, feli-sifət və saylar əsasən III şəx-
sin təkinin mənsubiyyət şəkilçisini qəbul edir.
Azərbaycan və digər türk dillərində təkdə olan sözlər cəm şəkilçisi qəbul etməklə
isimləşə bilir. Məsələn, Sazında eybəcər səslər uyduran, Saxta xallar vuran cavanlar
da var (B.Vahabzadə); Bir söyüd altına yığışdı qızlar, şairi görməyən o vəfasızlar (S.
Vurğun); Salon böyük, gələnlərin sayısa min-min, Divar boyu ayaq üstə duranlar da
var (B.Vahabzadə);
Uzaq, yaxın, axşam, gündüz, səhər, gecə, sabah kimi zərfləri də kəmiyyət şəkilçisi
qəbul edərək substantivləşir. Məsələn: Mən sahili olmayan dənizlər istəyirəm, axşam-
ları olmayan gündüzlər istəyirəm (B.Vahabzadə).
Nəticə etibarı ilə demək istərdik ki, morfoloji-sintaktik konversiya sintaktik konver-
siyaya nisbətən daha geniş yayılmışdır və burada konversiya dərəcəsi daha yüksəkdir.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
1. Azərbaycan dilinin izahlı lüğəti. II c., “Elm” nəşriyyatı, Bakı,1980
2. Adilov M., Cavadov Ə. Azərbaycan dilində substantivləşmə. Azərbaycan SSR EA Xəbərləri (ədəbiy-
yat, dil və incəsənət seriyası), 1966, № 2,
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Language learning is a difficult task which requires a long period of time and effort
to understand and produce. With the advent of communicative language techniques,
learners communicating in the target language became as the focal point in language
classrooms. However, it should not be neglected that the learner has to have sufficient
vocabulary knowledge as well as structural and cultural knowledge in order to comprehend
the message and in order to express himself. Therefore, vocabulary teaching has a sig-
nificant value in language teaching. Without grammar very little can be conveyed, but
without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. Nevertheless, memorizing long lists of
words is not the best way to develop and to enlarge vocabulary knowledge because of
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
the fact that it is not a natural way of learning and students are not able to internalize
the subject matter.
Consequently, communicative techniques such as games and drama activities that
give students an opportunity of using the words in meaningful learning conditions can
be helpful. Vocabulary cannot be taught. It can be presented, explained, included in all
kind of activities, but it must be learned by the individual. The vocabulary we understand
and the vocabulary we can use varies in nature and in quantity from one person to
another even in our native language. Consequently, teachers can help their students by
giving them ideas on how to learn vocabulary and some guidance on what to learn. It
should also be stressed that passive vocabulary knowledge of learners as well as active
vocabulary knowledge should be taken into consideration. Not all of the words a learner
hears during an instructional period need become a part of active vocabulary. Some
words in the target language will possibly remain passive; that is, we will be able to
understand them when we hear or read but will not use them in speaking or writing.
Vocabulary, as a subsystem of language, followed grammar during the days when the
structural linguists and video-lingualism were at their most popular days. In video-lingual
method depended on the idea that learners should concentrate on mastering the basic
sentence patterns of the language and when they mastered all these patterns, they could
use new vocabulary. 1
Vocabulary teaching is one of the most important key concepts in English language
teaching classes. Nevertheless, in previous years, language teaching programs were
prepared to teach basically the grammar. It was believed that after the students had
mastered the grammar, they should be taught most words. Therefore, language teachers
gave little attention to techniques for helping students learn vocabulary. And the language
study was done as a word memorization with long lists of words. Lots of strategies are
used to teach vocabulary today. A teacher may use them in an integrated way according
to his students` needs, abilities and levels.
The model which has been used in teaching process is based on the principles of
John Dewey`s “Learning by doing”2. The aim of this study is to increase the vocabulary
success level of the students. The objectives of teaching process and activities can be
summarized as follows:
1. Increasing vocabulary comprehension and vocabulary retention of the students
through the use of body language and facial expressions.
2. Activating students abilities in the classroom through physical activities such as
miming and role-play and increasing their motivation and acquisition level
through learning by doing principle.
3. Encouraging students to take part actively in their own learning process.
4. Encouraging students to use and to practice the words which they have been
taught.
Miming and the play have provided more permanent learning because of the fact
they have been able to do and to see while learning.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
END NOTE
1. Sarıçoban, Arif. The Teaching of Language Skills. Ankara: Hacettepe-Taş 95, 2001
2. Paul, Ekman and Wallace, Freisen, Unmasking the Face: A Guide to Recognizing
Emotions from Facial Clues, Los Altos, Malor Books, 2003
REFERENCES
1. Alvino E. Fantini, New Ways in Teaching culture, 1997
2. Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman Publications, 2001
3. Maley Duff, Drama Techniques in Language Learning, 1987
4. Nelie McCaslin, Creative Drama in the Classroom and Beyond, 2006
5. Paul, Ekman and Wallace, Freisen, Unmasking the Face: A Guide to Recognizing Emotions from
Facial Clues, Los Altos, Malor Books, 2003
6. Ray L. Birdwhistell, Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication, 1970
7. Sarıçoban, Arif. The Teaching of Language Skills. Ankara: Hacettepe-Taş 95, 2001
8. Susan Holden, Drama in Language Teaching, 1981
9. Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Newyork: Heinle Heinle Publishers, 1999
COLOUR TERMS
Chinara Quliyeva
Postgraduate student
Qafqaz University
qcinare@bk.ru
ABSTRACT
We have different terms to define colours; e.g: hue. Hue is somewhat synonymous to what we usually
refer to as "colors". Red, green, blue, yellow, and orange are a few examples of different hues.
So we differentiate them within Berlin and Kay’s eleven basic color categories white, black, red,
yellow, green, blue, brown, grey, purple, pink, orange. If a language has only two colors – and all languages
have at least two colors – they are always white and black; if a language has three colours, the one added
is red; if a fourth is added, it will be either green or yellow; when a fifth is added, it will then include both
green and yellow; the sixth added is blue; the seventh added is brown; and if an eighth or more terms are
added, it or they will be purple, pink, orange, or gray (Brown 1991: 13-14). The basic colors are black and
white, plus the primary colours, red, blue, yellow and green. But the value is a measurement of the brightness
of a colour. The brighter a color is, the higher is its value. For example, a vivid yellow is brighter than
dark blue, therefore its value is higher than that of the blue.
These are terms to describe how a color varies from its original hue. If white is added, the lighter
version of the color is called a tint of the color. On the other hand, if black is added the, darker version of
the color is called a shade of the color.
Key terms: basic colour terms, hue, value, tint and shade
Today every natural language that has words for colors is considered to have from
two to twelve basic color terms. All other colors are considered by most speakers of
that language to be variants of these basic color terms. Italian and Russian have twelve,
distinguishing blue and azure(goy). That doesn't mean English speakers cannot describe
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
the difference of the two colors, of course; however, in English, azure is not a basic
color term because one can say bright sky blue instead, while pink is basic because
speakers do not say light red.
Color words in a language can also be divided into abstract color words and des-
criptive color words. Abstract color words are words that only refer to a color. In
English white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, brown, and gray are abstract color words.
These words also happen to be 'basic color terms' in English as described above, but
colors like maroon(tund qirmiz) and magenta(moruq rengi0 are also abstract though
they may not be considered 'basic color terms', either because they are considered by
native speakers to be too rare, too specific. Descriptive color words are words that are
secondarily used to describe a color but primarily used to refer to an object or pheno-
menon. "Salmon", "rose", "saffron", and "lilac" are descriptive color words in English.
Colors in some languages may be denoted by descriptive color words even though other
languages may use an abstract color word for the same color. The word "orange" is
difficult to categorize as abstract or descriptive because both its uses, as a color word
and as a word for an object, are very common and it is difficult to distinguish which
of the two is primary.
The study shows that many color terms due to economical and cultural changes
were borrowed from French and Latin. Much of the color vocabulary of a particular
language is to a considerable degree the product of culture (McNeill 1972: 24, Lyons
1999:55). Different cultures have different terms for colors. Cultural color associations
can differ widely. Western brides consider a white dress to be traditional, and in Anglo-
American culture, wearing "something blue" is equally traditional. In some Asia/Pacific
countries, however, it is customary for brides to wear red. We wear black to funerals;
in India it is common to wear white.. Christians think of heaven as white or blue – in
the Koran, the term for "greenness" is found as inhabitants of paradise. For the Chinese,
the color red is strongly associated with good luck, an association most Westerners
don't have. Not only does the mother tongue determine how we see, observe, notice,
and classify colors, but also the state of technology, industryColors are used in very
different ways in different color idioms across languages. Let's just take green as an
example. In English alone, "he is green" can mean, depending on the context: 1. He is
inexperienced 2. He is envious 3. He is environmentally aware.
A comprehensive list of such color idioms used in English and many other languages
has been compiled..E,g:
• in the black - successful or profitable
• once in a blue moon - to occur extremely rarely or only once in a life-time.
The world we live in is a world of color. Our eyes can perceive everything. At last I
can say that colour terms are in everywhere.
REFERENCES
1. Brent Berlin and Paul Kay (1969) Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution
2. Giordano Beretta and Nathan Moroney, 2008. “Cognitive Aspects of Color.”
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
When we say the origin of compound words it is usually intended the expanding
and enriching of language vocabulary system. Of course, the creation of the new words
is the main function of compound words.
Though the formation of compounds in the language system is connected with
following stage of the mentality, there is no any information about exact history of
compounds in literature linguistics. But it doesn’t mean that the linguists didn’t pay
attention to the issue of the formation of compound words, on the contrary to it, this
subject has been analyzed by linguists in different times. The subject of the formation
of compounds has been investigated not only by English linguists but also German,
Russian and other linguists.
In English linguistics L.V. Arnold, O. Jespersen, H. Marchland, H. Sweet, B. Ilyish,
V. Vinogradov and others made different investigations on the origin of compounds
and their way of using. Let us look through the thoughts of some linguists.
A prominent English linguist H. Sweet in his book “A new English Grammar,
Logical and Historical” he mentioned detailed information about compounds. He wrote
that “Compounds or complex words consist of joining of the two words and for their
form and logic they are equal to simple words” [1.24]
H. Sweet also mentioned that “If the complex words don’t have special meaning,
it is impossible to distinguish them from word-combination. In complex words structural
parts are more closely connected to each other than in word-combinations”. [1.26]
V.Vinogradov mentioned 2 methods of forming compound words: I - turning the
word to the word-combination and II – compound words forming on the word-building
models affermed in the language system. Vinogradov calls the first method as “sin-
tactical method” and the second one as “Syntactic morphological method”.[2.13]
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3. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24114395/Non-Linguistic-Communication
4. http://jobsearch.about.com
5. http://aiic.net/ViewPage.cfm/page1662.htm
ABSTRACT
M. Fuzuli one of the nice presented poets - polyglots of the Azerbaijan people which successfully
wrote and created in three languages of the east-on Azerbaijan, persian and on arabian languages.
M. Fuzuli's creativity had deep influence on development medieval a Turkic literary language in
general. M. Fuzuli's creativity has ennobled level of the Azerbaijan literary language on high boundaries.
M. Fuzuli has created literary school which has exemplified and others turkic peoples.
Key words: Days, time, harm, joyful, separation, equal, to rebuke, to upbraid.
Development of Azerbaijan literary language and he has played the strong part in
the history of development of the mother tongued poem. It is necessary to say that he
occurs from necessity of to reimburse definite demand of each word in the dictionary
structure of the language and it is used from him.
Research of a literary language of valuable monuments of verbal art of Azerbaijan
XVI centuries allows a rich material to find out history, specificity of formation of
dictionary fund (3,465), lexical structure of literary Azerbaijan language, to track process
of assimilation of loans.
During glance at the vocabulary of modern literary language we see loanwords
adjoining with own national words. So events in the lexicography informing that people,s
gets the economic and cultural relations between other nations.
The turkic “Divan” of Fuzuli most valuable treasury literary-art language of XVI
century.
The analysis of language of products of M. Fuzuli, in particular their dictionary
structure and character of use of loans in a context of dictionary language gives an
interesting material for reflexions. Specificity of use by the poet of loans, originality
of its approach to this problem is found out. Some of words used in “Divan” by Fuzuli
are not existing in modern literary and people׳s languages. So that, some of these words
are met in written monuments before and after XVI century.
The poet it is masterful used polysemantism, having given to a verse additional
expressiveness and beauty. For the products the poet always preferred words, earn the
citizenship right in native Azerbaijan language (5,12).
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
In M. Fuzuli's language of means poetic graphics, being used in the primary value,
or being enriched by additional value, serve deepening of understanding of all verse in
its part. For example: Ruzigarım xoş keçirdi kaş Kim dövran dönüb, Oldu əhvalım xərab,
ol ruzigarım qalmadı (Days I perfectly spent, it is a pity, time has changed, the Harm
became me, alas, days of that of a trace does not remain.)
Words «ruzigar» are meant by""life", but speaking« Ruzigarım xoş keçirdi» the
enamoured means days of meetings, appointments to a beloved. The bitterness of
separation expressed here a combination« ol ruzigarım qalmadı », that is, a trace of
those days does not remain, deepens the information that former joyful days are not
present more (1,142).
In "Divan" of Fuzuli the word "ten" in modern literary Azerbaijan language is used
already in two values: "beraber" - "equal" and "danlamaq", "mezemmet etmek" - "re-
bukes", to "reproach" (2,400). For example: Let urub qalibi-fersudemi geh hebs qılır,
Geh serasimevü üryan buraxır sehraye (I.267). (That I smother tired to me breaking
off, it captivates, poor, naked, in desert it expels). A word "üryan" in "Divan" XVI
centuries it is used by the poet in value "naked", "nude". In a modern literary language
it is used not independently, and in a combination to an auxiliary word "lüt" also with
value "naked" in shape "lüt-üryan".
Researches show, that M.Fuzuli's literary influence took place also on creativity
of national writers which were engaged in record of folklore genres of time. M.Fuzuli's
huge influence and on «Оghuzname» which has been written down in the end of XVI
- the beginning of XVII centuries is observed in this connection by us is revealed some
parallels about which speech will go.
Parallel nouns: dush (dream), iye//issi (owner), tanuq (witness), ün (voice).
Parallel verbs: önmək//önülmək (to recover, become better), saqınmaq (to be protec-
ted, preserve itself), savmaq (to be given), səgritmək (to dance, force to dance).
Lexical parallels in "Divan" and in «Оghuzname» show M. Fuzuli, that these words
were active lexical units in public Azerbaijan language of XVI century. As show re-
searches, great M.Fuzuli as national sings, in the poetic creativity attached huge signi-
ficance to the words full from live national language. Communication of these parallels
that «Оguzname», a folklore genre, also contained numerous national elements. For
this reason the use of lexical parallels in "Divan" of M.Fuzuli and in «Оghuzname» is
a natural case.
REFERENCES
1. Alizade S. Shah beytler. Bakı: Elm, 1995, 171 s
2. Axundov A. Azerbaycan dilinin izahlı luğeti. Bakı, 2005, 451 s.
3. Azerbaycan edebi dili tarixi. I cild. XIII-XVI esrler. Bakı: Şerq-Qerb, 2007, 478 s
4. Mir Celal. Fuzuli senetkarlığı. Bakı: Maarif, 1994, 249 s
5. Hacıyev T. Fuzuli : dil senetkarlığı. Bakı: Genclik, 1994, s.4-69
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
The adoption of Indian words, among which there were some Turkic borrowings,
became one of the ways for the words of the Turkic origin to penetrate English. Addi-
tionally, several words of Turkic origin penetrated English through East European
languages like Russian and Polish. German, Latin, Spanish, Italian, French, Hungarian
and Serbo-Croatian were also intermediary languages for the Turkic words to penetrate
English, as well as containing numerous Turkic loanwords themselves (e.g. Serbo-
Croatian contains around 5,000 Turkic loanwords, primarily from Turkish).
In the nineteenth century, Turkic loanwords, generally of Turkish origin, began to
penetrate not only through the writings of the travelers, diplomats and merchants, and
through the ethnographical and historical works, but also through the press. In 1847,
there were two English-language newspapers in Istanbul – The Levant Herald and The
Levant Times, seven newspapers in French, one in German and 37 in Turkish. Turkish
contributed the largest share of the Turkic loans, which penetrated into the English
directly. This can be explained by the fact that Turkey had the most intensive and wide
connections with England. Nevertheless, there are many Turkic loans in English, which
were borrowed by its contacts with other peoples – Azerbaijanis, Tatars, Uzbeks,
Kazakhs and Kirghiz.
Most of the Turkic loans in English carry exotic or ethnographical connotations.
They do not have equivalents in English, do not have synonymic relations with pri-
mordial words, and generally are used to describe the fauna, flora, life customs, political
and social life, and an administrative-territorial structure of Turkic regions. But there
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
are many Turkic loans, which are still part of the frequently used vocabulary. Some
Turkic loans have acquired new meanings, unrelated to their etymology.
To conclude, the words of the Turkic origin began penetrating English as early as
the Middle Ages, the Turkic loanwords found their way into English through other
languages, most frequently through French. Since the 16c, beginning from the time of
the establishment of the direct contacts between England and Turkey, and Russia, in
English appeared new direct borrowings from Turkic languages. German, Polish,
Russian, Serbo-Croatian, French, Arabic, Armenian, Afrikaans, Hungarian, Yiddish,
Indian, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Malayan, to a different extent, took part in the process
of the transfer of the Turkic words into English. The main language from which the
borrowings were made, was Turkish. Let’s look many examples, which words entered
English from Turkish.
• Altilik-from Turkish altılık. A coin, originally of silver and equivalent to 6
piasters, formerly used in Turkey
• Araba-from Russian arba, which is from Turkish araba. A carriage used in Tur-
key and neighboring countries.
• Arnaut-from Turkish arnavut, "an Albanian". An inhabitant of Albania and neigh-
boring mountainous regions, especially an Albanian serving in the Turkish army.
• Bairam-from Turkish bayram, literally "a festival"
• Baklava-from Turkish baklava
• Bashaw-from Turkish başa, a variant of pasha
• Bashi-bazouk-from Turkish başıbozuk
• Bashlyk-from Turkish başlık, "a hood", from baş, "a head"
• Kasseri-from New Greek kaseri, from Turkish kaşer, kaşar
• Kavass-from Turkish kavas
• Dey-from Turkish dayı, literally "a maternal uncle"
• Dolma-from Turkish dolma, which means "filled" or "stuffed"
• Cafeneh-from Turkish kahvane, kahvehane "a coffee shop, café", from kahve
"coffee" + hane "house"
• Caique-from Turkish kayık
• Shawarma-ultimately from Turkish çevirme, which literally means "turning"
• Shish-from Turkish şiş, which literally means "a skewer"
• Tavla-from Turkish tavla, a version of the board game backgammon
REFERENCES
1. I.V.Arnold, lexicology of English, Moscow, 1986.
2. Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff, Oxford Dictionary, 1973.
3. В.А.Серебников,Об относителъной самостоятелъносты развития системы языка’, М.1968, с.11
4. Ч.Х.Бакайев, Ролъ языковых контактов в развитии языка курдов СССР, М.1977, с.3
5. Robert. K. Barnhart, Dictionary of Etymology, 1988.
6. Web site: (Prince, John Dyneley (1931). Surviving Turkish Elements in Serbo-Croatia. http://www.
jstor.org/pss/593448. Retrieved 2008-10-21
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
İngilis dilində işlənən modal fellər demək olar ki, “to”suz və məsdər formasinda
işlənirlər. Bu felləri işlənmə yerinə və ən əsası isə mənalarına daha çox fikir vermək
lazımdır. Bu fellər bəzi hallarda biri digərinin yerində işlənə bilir. Məsələn: can modal
feli bacarıq, qabiliyyət bildirir və onu be able to ilə əvəz etmək olur. Vasitəli nitqdə
could işlənir. be able to bütün zamanlarda işlənə bilir. Must modal feli məcburiyyət,
vaciblik bildirir və have to forması must-ın yerinə digər zamanlarda işlənir. Həmçinin
may modal felinin yerinə vasitəli nitqdə might işlənir. Məsələn: she said she could speak
Turkish. The teacher said that you might do tasks. Need feli həm modal fel kimi, həmdə
əsas fel kimi işlənir. Modal fel kimi işləndikdə sualı və inkarı özü ilə düzəlir. Əsas fel
kimi işləndikdə isə felin sonunda s, ed işlənir, sual və inkarı do, did ilə düzəlir. Məsələn:
I need go there. Need I go there? I don’t need to go there. (Galiniskaya M., English
Grammar for Pedogogical Institutes, 1953) 1
Alman dilində cəmisi altı modal fel var. Bunlar wollen, mögen, müssen, sollen,
können felləridir. Bu dildə işlənən modal fellər ingilis dilində işlənən bəzi modal fellərlə
təxminən eyni məna ifadə edir. Məsələn: wollen feli alman dilində istəmək mənasındadı,
can feli də ingilis dilində eyni mənanı ifadə edir. Işlənmə yerləri isə fərqlidir. Modal
fellərin əsas fellərdən fərqi odur ki, modal fellər hərəkət bildirmir, sadəcə hərəkətə
münasibəti bildirir. Məsələn: Mən alman dilini öyrənirəm. Ich lerne deutsche Sprache.
Bu cümlədə «öyrənmək» (lernen) əsas feldir və hərəkət bildirir. Yəni nə etdiyimizi
bildirir. Mən alman dilini öyrənmək istəyirəm. Ich will deutsche Sprache lernen, cüm-
ləsindəki «istəmək» feli, yəni «wollen» feli hərəkəti deyil, hərəkətə münasibəti bildirir.
Mögen modal felindən əmələ gələn və istərdim kimi başa düşülən möchten feli də bu
fellər sırasına daxil edilir, daha çox wollen felini yerində işlənir, yəni onu əvəz etməklə
daha çox etika, nəzakət və felin arzu formasını bildirir. Fellərin şəxsə görə dəyişilməsi
zamanı möchten feli də modal fellərin şəxsə görə dəyişilməsi qaydasına tabe olur. (de/
grammatik/verben/modalverben) 6
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Alman dilində modal fellər sual sözsüz və sual sözlü olmaqla iki yerə ayrılır. Tər-
kibində modal fel olan sual sözlü sual cümlələrində 1-ci yerdə sual sözü, 2-ci yerdə
modal fel, sonra qalan cümlə üzvləri və nəhayət cümlənin sonunda əsas fel məsdər
formasında yazılır. Məsələn: will ich in Baku Deutsch lernen?-sual sözsüz sual cüm-
ləsi. Wer will in Baku Deutsch lernen? - sual sözlü sual cümləsi. Alman dilində işlənən
bəzi modal fellər şəxslərə görə dəyişdikdə kökdən dəyişir. Alman dilində işlənən modal
fellər hərəkət bildirmir, sadəcə hərəkətə münasibət bildirir. Şəxslərə görə dəyişən modal
fellərin birinci və üçüncü şəxsin təkində şəxs sonluğu qəbul edilimir. Yəni birinci və
üçüncü şəxsin təki eyni formada olur. (www.canoo. net/services/OnlineGrammar) 7
Azərbaycan dilində İngilis dili və Alman dilindən fərqli olaraq modal sözlər adlanır.
Çünki modal sözlər köməkçi nitq hissəsinə aid bir termindir. Məsələn:Sözsüz, qələbə
gec-tez bizim olacaqdır. Azərbaycan dilindəki modal sözlər bunlardır: təsdiq bildirən
modal sözlər, güman və şübhə bildirən modal sözlər, nəticə və ümumiləşdirmə bildirən
modal sözlər, sıra və ardıcıllıq bildirən modal sözlər, fikrin mənbəyini bildirən modal
sözlər, təəssüf bildirən modal sözlər, bənzətmə və müqayisə bildirən modal sözlər.
Modal sözlər quruluşuna görə sadə və mürəkkəb olurlar. Azərbaycan dilində işlənən
modal sözlərin hamısı ayrı yazılır. (Hüseyinzadə M., Müasir Azərbaycan dili Morfolo-
giya, 2007 ) 2
Azərbaycan dilində işlənən modal sözlər söylənən fikrə aid müəyyən münasibət
ifadə edir. Modal sözlər cümlə üzvlərindən vergüllə ayrılır. Cümlənin əvvəlində, orta-
sında və sonunda işlənə bilir. Müasir vəziyyətinə görə modal sözləri iki qismə ayırmaq
olar: 1. Əsas nitq hissəsi ilə omonim olanlar- görünür, deyəsən, demək, deməli, şübhəsiz,
olsu ki, müxtəsər, demə. Məsələn: yenə hər guşədə bar tazə görünür. 2. Yalnız modal
söz kimi işlənənlər- görünür, demək, deməli, müxtəsər, görəsən, demə. Azərbaycan
dilində işlənən modal sözlər feli və ismi modal sözlərə ayrılır. Feli modal sözlər görü-
nür, deyəsən. Olsun ki, demə. Ismi modal sözlər təəssüf ki, dogrusu, düzü, əlbəttə, hə-
qiqətən. (Nağısoylu M. Zeynallı M., Azərbaycan dili, 2008) 4 , (M.Ə.Sabir, Müasir
Azərbaycan Ədəbiyyatı) 3
Hər üç dildə işlənən modallar bir-birindən fərqləndikləri kimi qismən oxşarlıqları
da var. Ingilis dilində işlənən modal sözlər Alman dilində işlənən modal sölərlə mənaca
oxşayirlar ancaq, Azərbaycan dilində işlənən modal sözlər bu iki dildə işlənən modal
fellərdən mənaca fərqlənir. Cümlədə işlənmə yerləri də fərqlidir. Ən əsası fel və söz
olaraq, işlənmə yerlərinə görə, mənalarına görə, sadə və mürəkkəbliyinə görə bir-birindən
fərqlənirlər.
REFERENCES
1. Galiniskaya M., English Grammar for Pedogogical Institutes, 1953
2. Hüseyinzadə M., Müasir Azərbaycan dili Morfologiya, III hissə, 2007
3. M.Ə.Sabir, Müasir Azərbaycan Ədəbiyyatı
4. Nağısoylu M. Zeynallı M., Azərbaycan dili, VIII nəşr, 2008
5. Palmer, F.R., Mood and Modality, Cambridge University Press, 2001
6. deutsch.lingo4u.de/grammatik/verben/modalverben, January 14
7. www.canoo.net\ Modalverb.html, January 14, 15
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TYPES OF EPONYMS
Khatira Ahmedova
Postgraduate student
Qafqaz University
khatiraahmadova@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
There are so many ways of expanding the general vocabulary. Affixation, compounding and conversion
are the major sources of the great expansion of the vocabulary in the late modern period, but there are also a
number of minor ways in which words have been acquired. [ 2 ]
One of the minor sources of word-formation in the late modern period is to create common nouns
from the names of people or places. This way of word formation is termed as eponym. An eponym is the
name of a person or thing, whether real or fictitious, after which a particular place, tribe, era, discovery,
or other item is named or thought to be named. Most eponyms originate from a person's surname: ampere,
for instance, from the French physicist André Marié Amperé. Many eponymous words come from literary,
biblical or mythological sources: scrooge (a miser) - from Dickens's "A Christmas Carol"; cereal- from
Roman goddess of grain and agriculture, Ceres; as old as Methuselah, from the age of the Old Testament
petriarch.[ 2 ]
Created about a century ago, the term eponym is a coinage from two Greek words, epi, "on" or "upon",
and onama, "a name". One who is referred to as eponymous is someone who gives his or her name to
something. Some eponymous words are still capitalized like a proper noun, so those not capitalized are
most clearly eponyms. The important, defining property is that the word does not refer exclusively to the
person or place named by the proper noun, as does Marxism or Christian, but is used to refer to a general
category, as do quisling, boycott and fuchsias. [ 1 ]
Key words: eponym, eponymous, name, proper noun, place.
There are thousands of eponyms in everyday use in English today. Studying of them
develops an interesting insight into the rich heritage of the world’s most popular language
and its development. The greater part of these eponyms comes from world history and
literature.
Eponyms are roughly divided into 5 groups :
1. Product eponyms: These eponyms include brand names which has fallen into
general use. The commonplace products and services of today become the household
word of tomorrow. Kleenex, for example, is a brand of facial tissues, yet the word is
used today to refer to facial tissues of any brand. Xerox is a brand of photocopy machine;
that word, too, has been since adopted to refer to any brand of photocopy machine and,
moreover, also employed as a verb to describe the act of photocopying. More surprising
examples include escalator, heroin, and zipper. In the United Kingdom (but not in the
United States), biro and hoover are eponymous terms for pens and vacuum cleaners,
respectively. In Azerbaijani language, for instance, pampers has become an eponym
for diaper.[ http://www.rinkworks.com/words/eponyms.shtml ]
2. Historical and Geographical Eponyms: Common nouns deriving from geog-
raphical names describing names where certain things were found, produced, sold, are
sometimes called geographical eponyms. For instance, angora - 1. fabric or wool from
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
the hair of the angora goat or rabbit; 2. long-haired variety of cat, goat, or rabbit. (An-
gora (= Ankara) in Turkey) [ 4 ]
Historical figures lend their names to ideas associated with them: The words boycott,
chauvinism, quisling, and sandwich all derive from personal names. For instance,
chauvinism -super patriotism of the fanatically mindless sort, lately expanded to include
blind loyalty to or a blinkered view of any group or issue. Named for Nicolas Chauvin, a
French soldier wounded seventeen times while serving under Napoleon. Retired with
honors, Chauvin did not stop singing Napoleon's praises and the glories of France, and
he was ridiculed for his unbridled boasting. [ 1 ]
Famous people have also been associated with items or components of clothing,
or material, for example, bloomer, cardigan, raglan, etc. Cardigan - James Thomas
Brudenell (1797-1863), who became the seventh Earl of Cardigan upon his father's
death, and for whom the cardigan sweater was named because he was frequently seen
wearing that collarless sweater with buttons down the front, was the sole heir to a for-
tune and a famous English name. [ 1 ]
Various groups of people are associated with proper names for locations. These
include bohemian, lesbian, and philistine. Lesbianism is the practice of homosexuality
by females. On the island of Lesbos in the Aegean Sea during the earlier half of the
sixth century lived the Greek poet Sappho. She became the leader of a group of women
whose behavior was characterized by strong homosexual feelings. Hence from the name
given this manifestation we have sapphism, an eponymous derivative from her name,
and lesbianism, an eponymous derivative from her birthplace. [ 1 ]
3. Literary Eponyms: Fictional characters often evoke such strong qualities that
their names are assigned to those qualities. People who exhibit qualities of literary
characters are associated to them by being called for instance, a Casanova, a Romeo,
or a Svengali,etc. Azerbaijani language is also rich in such kind of literary eponyms.
For example, Majnun from " Leyli and Majnun " is an eponym for someone who has
deep affection.Other examples include Koroglu, Haji Gara and so on.
Storytellers with a noticeable quality have given their names to literary criticism
for the purposes of analogy, as in Dickensian (suggesting melodramatic poverty,
eccentric characters, or joyfulness), Homeric (epic), and Proustian (effecting personal
memories).
4. Scientific Eponyms: In science and technology, discoveries and innovations
are often named after the discoverer or popularizers as in the cases of Rudolf Diesel,
Alessandro Volta, “Alzheimer’s disease” and James Watt. For example, Celsius is a
scale and unit of measurement for temperature. It is named after the Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years
before his death. Eponyms role is great in fixing the names of discoverers and inventors
in history. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsius]
5. Mythological Eponyms: One of the sources inspiring eponyms is mythological
characters. For instance, fauna - all animals taken together. This word has been taken
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
from the name of Faunus, the Roman god of pastures and forests. [http://www. alpha-
dictionary.com/articles/eponyms/eponym_list_f.html]
It is always interesting to study the origin of words. By defining the origin of words
it is possible to get much information not only about the language but also about its
history.
REFERENCES:
1. " A New Dictionary of Eponyms "; Morton S. Freeman. 1997,p1
2. " The English Language. A Historical Introduction" ; C.Barber, Joan C, Beal, Philip A. Shaw; Second
edition, p.251
3. " Молодой учёный " Ноябрь, 2011 г. Том I; № 11 (34)
4. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2007)
5. http://users.tinyonline.co.uk/gswithenbank/eponyms.htm
6. http://wordcraft.infopop.cc/eponyms.htm literary
7. http://www.dailywritingtips.com/5-types-of-eponyms/
8. http://www.alphadictionary.com/articles/eponyms/eponym_list_f.html
9. http://www.rinkworks.com/words/eponyms.shtml
ABSTRACT
In the world everything changes with time. Human society changes, too. Language as a social phe-
nomenon - the most important means by which people communicate with each other - changes, too. But
language changes rather slowly. From year to year, even from generation to generation, we may hardly
notice any change in any language at all. All living languages change with time. It is fortunate that they do so
rather slowly compared to the human life span. Many language changes are revealed in written records.
All languages are continually changing – their sounds, their syntax and their meaning. This gradual
alteration is mostly unnoticed by the speakers of a language. English has undergone great, fundamental
changes in its development. A speaker of Modern English would find Old English unintelligible, because
it is quite different from what he speaks. The works of Chaucer or Shakespeare shows how much English
has changed in short time. Old English did not look like Standard English of today.
Key words: Old English, Middle English, Modern English, period, change.
The division of English into Old English (119-1066), Middle English (1065-1500)
and Modern English (1500-present) is marked by the dates or events in the English
history which profoundly influenced the English language. This division is really some
what arbitrary. So, according to Victoria Fromkin, the history of English and the changes
that have taken place in the language reflect non-linguistic history to some extent, as
suggested by the following dates:
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firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly,
the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the Earth's surface, and the English
language adopted foreign words from many countries. Since the seventeenth century
with the policy of expansionism and colonialism carried out by the British colonialists.
English was widely spread to many parts of the world, such as America, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand and some other countries. English in the post-Renaissance
period has become a world language.
REFERENCES
1. Jean Aitchison. Linguistics. 2005
2. Victoria Fromkin. Robert Rodman. Nina Hyams. An Introduction to Language. 2003
3. Adrian Akmajian. Richard A. Demers. Ann K. Farmer. Robert M. Harnish. 1995
Dil cəmiyyətdə formalaşdığı üçün ictimai hadisə sayılır və insanlar arasında ünsiy-
yət yaratmaq,fikri ifadə etmək üçün əvəzsiz rol oynayır.Deməli, bir millətin toplum
kimi yaşaması üçün lazım olan başlıca şərtlərdən ən əsası ana dilinin mövcudluğudur.
Ana dili adicə bir söz deyil,ürəklərə hərarət gətirən,insanı öz keçmisinə bağlayan,
gələcəyə səsləyən mənəvi xəzinədir.Təsadüfi deyil ki, məşhur rus pedoqoqu Uşinski
dilin varlığını belə qiymərləndirmişdir. Bir millətin var-dövlətini, torpağını alsan məhv
olmaz, ancaq dilini alsan fövt olar, məhv olub gedər.
Dilin mövcudluğunun maddi bazası sayılan insan cəmiyyəti də inkişaf tarixi bo-
yunca milli sərhədlər çərçivəsində qalmayaraq,bu çərçivədən kənara çıxır.Məhz bu
səbəbdən millətlər arasında ünsiyyətə ehtiyac duyulur.Müxtəlif dil daşıyıcıları olan
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good-better-best
bad-worse-worst
little-less-least
many(much)-more-most dur.
Bəzi sifətlərdə vardır ki,onların müqayisə və üstünlük dərəcəsi iki şəkildə olur.
Far-farther,further-farthest,furthest
Near-nearer-nearest,next
Late-later,latter-latest,last
Old-older,elder-oldest,eldest
Beləliklə,araşdırmalarim nəticəsində dəqiqləşdirdim ki, dillər morfoloji quruluşla-
rına görə nə qədər oxşar olsalarda, hər birinin özünəməxsus fərdi quruluşları vardır.
Biz Azərbaycanlı tələbələr də məhz öz ana dilimizin fonetik, leksik, semantik və mor-
foloji quruluşlarını o qədər mənimsəməliyik ki, digər dilləri də onun əsasında şüurlu
surətdə dərk edib gündəlik həyatımızda istifade edək. Axı, öyrəndiyimiz nəzəri mate-
rialları praktiki surətdə tətbiq etməsək onda öyrəndiklərimizin nə mənası var?
Əgər biz öyrənməsək və öyrətməsək vətənimizə necə xidmət etmiş olariq?
Ona görə də öyrəndiyimiz dili sevməliyik ki, sevdirə bilək.Xalqımızın, dilimizin
necə qədim,zəngin və mədəni olduğunu bütün dünya ölkələrinə çatdıra bilmək üçün
bu əsas şərtdir.Məhz bu səbəbdən və bu nöqteyi-nəzərdən biz Azərbaycanlı tələbərə
daha çox çalışmaq lazımdır.
REFERENCES
1. M.Hüseynzadə Müasir Azərbaycan dili 1973
2. L.G.Alexander Longman English grammar 1997
3. Oruc Musayev.İngilis dilinin qrammatikası 1979
4. Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics K.Allan 2009
5. Azərbayan SSR Elmlər Akademiyası 2 cild 1973
6. www.encyclopedia.com 27.03.2012.
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the educator should not be teaching a system of a language, but rather a speech activity in its productive
form, not by itself, but as a means of interpersonal and intercultural communication.The process of teaching
languages should be built on the process of forming communicative competence in people.
Key words: communication, speech, teaching, language.
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told by a companion. In general, there are few people who have the ability to actually
listen. According to various sources, only 4-10% of us have the talent of a good listener.
With faster pace of life our attention span has shortened. To dedicate 7-9 minutes to a
short video, presentation, or article on the internet is now considered an enormous
amount of time, so generously dedicated.
During the process of teaching communication, teachers should be considered is
the inability of people to listen well and absorb information. Lectures and lessons must
be exciting and intriguing to the students; they must be interactive. Statistics show that
traditional views on the process of communication are distant from reality. For example,
according to some studies, only 7% of the information is transmitted by means of words
during the interpersonal communication.2 38% of the content of the message is trans-
mitted by various means of intonation. The remaining 55% of the speech is transferred
through facial expressions, gestures, and various body movements. Clearly, these indi-
cators of the communication process must be taken into account in process of teachinga
language.
The success of learning the skills of communication is dependent on the teacher’s
pedagogical skills. The communication process must be emotionally comfortable, and
personally-enriching. Only through such a teaching approach can the students gain
confidence in their communicative competence. It is no accident that modern methodo-
logical literature stresses creativity, which is manifested through cooperation of teachers
and students, and not the old authoritarian approaches that fail to engage the students
and therefore fail to educate them.
In general, to ensure successful communication, it is necessary to pay attention to
the following provisions:
- Any communication should start with a smile, and in a good mood;
- Everyone needs to learn to listen to others. No wonder they say that those who
know how to listen have more friends;
- Students should not be ashamed of their mistakes and mistakes of their peers
- It is important to experiment with speech, using nice words, good manners of
communication observed in other people.
Most of us simply want to be heard and understood –being understood is happiness.
In order to make people happy you must teach them to communicate. The process of
teaching languages should be built on the process of forming communicative competence
in people. This requirement applies equally to the process of learning the mother tongue
and foreign languages.
Language is the primary means of communication between people. It is hard to
imagine a society without a language, however, the problems of formation and develop-
ment of communication skills, in the process of learning a language, is given a special
attention only recently.
Modern linguistics define language as an opportunity, speech as a product, and
communication as an activity. Therefore, when teaching a language, including mother
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tongue,it is important to teach the skills of using all opportunities that the language can
offer; while the process of teaching should be built on the process of teaching the skill
of communication.
The objectives of language teaching have evolved in the recent decades and can
be presented in the chronological order:
- Learning the language, i.e. grammatical structure of a given language;
- Training of speech - ability to speak in different situations with a variety of topics;
- Learning to communicate – the ability to verbally react to the surrounding reality
and express one’s opinion on a given subject.3
Nowadays, the system of language teaching has experienced positive changes due
to the widespread introduction of new pedagogical and information technologies.
The ongoing changes in the education system must concentrate on the ultimate goal
of language teaching. Therefore, the aim of language teaching should not be a system
of a language, but rather a speech activity in its productive form, not by itself, but as a
means of interpersonal and intercultural communication.
A person studying any language, eventually turns into a linguistic individual. His
main indicators may take the form of communicative skills. Given that these qualities
can vary in different people, we can present them as the following indicators.
1. Linguistic skills related to compliance with the rules of grammar, orthopedic and
stylistic norms of the language.
2. Social indicators of native speakers are shown in communication with different
interlocutors. In this case, it is necessary to choose the right words, tone, intonation
and other language features; depending on where and with whom communication
is taking place.
3. The physical situation in which communication is taking place dictates its own terms:
limited time, the presence of various types of interference (noise, long distance
between the speakers, presence of outsiders), make their impact on the result of
communication and require the speakers to choose the most appropriate language,
and sometimes non-verbal communication.
4. National and cultural indicators of ability to communicate in the target language
is manifested in a variety of compliance requirements associated with the traditions
and customs of the carriers of the language. This indicator, when applied to the
native language, can be manifested in the form of high tone. With respect to the
second language, it may be satisfactory in exceptional cases. It should be noted
that lacking the possession of the national-cultural level of language often leads to
confusion when there is a dialogue between speakers of two different languages.
5. A person fluent in the language must know not only the lexical meaning of words,
but also plunge into the "world" of these words. This means that a good native
speaker needs to know a number of words meaning the same notion, and all of the
concepts expressed in one word.4
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
In conclusion, I would like to say that a person possessing the above indicators, in
the process of communication; can be considered a linguistically free person. Raising
such a person should be set as the core purpose of language teaching.
END NOTE
1. http://spot.colorado.edu/~craigr/Communication.htm
2. http://www.skillsyouneed.co.uk/IPS/Interpersonal_Communication.html
3. http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/Alternative%20methods/communicative_language_teaching.htm
4. http://answers.yourdictionary.com/language/what-is-communication.html
REFERENCES
1. W. Littlewood (1981) Communicative Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press. An intro-
duction to the principles of communicative language teaching, with practical examples.
2. J. Harmer (1983) The Practice of English Language Teaching (Chapter 8: Communicative activeties),
Longman. A description of various kinds of communicative activity, with examples of exercises.
3. http://spot.colorado.edu/~craigr/Communication.htm
4. http://www.skillsyouneed.co.uk/IPS/Interpersonal_Communication.html
5. http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/Alternative%20methods/communicative_language_teaching.htm
6. Passov E.I. Communicative foreign language education. — Мinsk, 2003.
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volving both wh – words and infinitive construction in original texts is "how" with the percentage of 53%
and the least one is "where" with the percentage 11%.
Key words: Translation, Translator, Linguistics, Complex Sentences, Nominal Clauses.
Introduction
Translation is an activity of increasingly vital importance in the educational, political,
economic and cultural fields of human endeavors. Translation is a complex process
beset by several difficulties and many problems, yet at the same time it has a wide scope
with almost unlimited applications and prospects. Newmark defines translation as the
attempt to produce approximate equivalence or respectable synonymy between two
chunks of different languages on various levels of which two main ones are thought
and linguistic form. Newmark adds that translation is partly an exercise in the art of
writing as well as a field of comparative applied linguistics (1988,p.26). Newmark
believes that grammatical meaning is more significant, less precise, more general and
sometimes more elusive than lexical meaning (ibid). Basically, it will have attained
this fact that syntactic differences existing among languages may cause problem in
translation. Here it seems necessary to mention some characteristics of the Azeri lan-
guage generally, which differ from English and should be considered in order to produce
an acceptable translation. The Azeri language which is also known as Azeri, Azeri
Turkish and Azerbaijani, is the Republic of Azerbaijan's official language, though some
dialects of the language are spoken in several parts of Iran. The Azeri language can be
heard in parts of eastern turkey, northern Iraq, and in southeastern area of the Republic
of Georgia. Worldwide, there are about 27 million native speakers of this language.
The Azeri language is derived from the Oghuz family of language and linguistically,
it is most closely related to Turkish, Persian and Arabic. As part of the Oghuz family
of languages, it was brought from central Asia by Seljuk Turks and in the Middle East
it was greatly influenced by the vocabulary and grammar of Persian and Arabic.
Eventually, it replaced Tat, old Azeri and Middle Persian in Iran and became the most
dominant language in a multi – lingual area by the 1500s. Regarding the grammar of
Azeri, it can be said that it is an agglutinative language and frequently used affixes and
specifically suffixes - Most of them indicate the grammatical function of the word.
Word order in Azeri is generally subject – object – verb as in Korean and Latin but
unlike English. In more complex sentences, the basic rule is that the qualifier precedes
the qualified; this principle includes, as an important special case, the participial mo-
difiers. The definite precedes the indefinite. It is possible to alter the word order to
stress the importance of a certain word or phrase. The main rule is that the word before
the verb has the stress without exception. Moreover as Azeri is a pro–drop language,
the subject may not be mentioned in the sentence. This research focuses on the analyzing
of English complex sentences with nominal subordinate clauses which involve both
wh – interrogative clauses and infinitive construction and their translation in Azeri
language. The importance of this research is showing some methods for translating of
these sentences into Azeri language, due to existing syntactic peculiarities and differ-
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
rences between languages which may cause some problems in the process of translating.
The underlying assumption of this research is that the translator must have enough
knowledge and information about the structures of English and Azeri while translating
these sentences in order to translate effectively. Since Azeri language does not have
such complexity-packaged constructions, Azeri learners, and translators find it difficult
to cope with these structures which are widely used in English writing. To this end
English fictions are studied to identify those structures in English and their Azeri
equivalents. In this relation the following research questions have been formulated:
How are English nominal clauses involving subordinate wh – interrogative clauses
translated into Azeri?How are English nominal clauses involving both subordinate wh
– interrogative clause and infinitive construction translated into Azeri? Are these struc-
tures translated as complex sentences in Azeri language? What are the most frequent
wh –interrogative words found in original texts?
Translation and Translator
Translation deals with language. As language is a means of communication, so
does the function of translation. Nida (1981, p.12) states that translation means com-
munication because it has three essential elements to form a process of communication.
The three essential elements are source, message and the receptor, and these elements
must be found in all communication activities. So, it can be said that translation is the
medium of the source language and target language. We transform the meaning in
source language in the form of target language by translation, so the renders in the
target language understand the meaning in the source language. Successful translating
involves one of the most complex intellectual challenges known to mankind. Moreover,
in our present world, the need for extensive, accurate and effective communication
between those using different languages, gives the translator a position of new and
strategic importance (Nida, 1964, p. 155). Therefore translating from one language into
another language is a complicated task. There are many factors that should be considered
in the process of translation in order to make translation result be appropriate to be
comprehended. Based on Catford's idea (1965) translation is the replacement of textual
material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another
language (target language). Larson (1984) believes that translation consists of studying
the lexicon, grammatical structure which appropriate in the receptor language and its
cultural context,i.e."translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language. The
closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first interms of meaning and
secondly interms of style". Newmark says that translation is rendering the meaning of
a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (1988, p.73).
In translation, the translator possesses a satisfactory knowledge of the source lan-
guage. He must understand not only obvious content of message but also, the subtleties
of the meaning, the significant emotive values of words, and stylistic features which
determine the flavor of the message. Even more important that knowledge of the resources
of the language is a control of the receptor language. (Nida, 1964, p.150).
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Therefore, a translator must have reliable knowledge and experience in this field.
As a communicator, moreover, the knowledge and skills related to all communicators
have to possessed. He has to access the target language knowledge, text type knowledge,
source language knowledge, subject area (real world) knowledge and cultural knowledge
(Bell, 1991, p.36).
Generally, in translating, it is important to ensure the surface meaning of the two
languages in translation, are approximately similar and at the same time to ensure that
the structure of the source language preserved as well as possible but not so closely
that the target language structures will be seriously distorted.
Linguistics
Many researchers have still doubts about the importance of linguistics in translations
studies which is also reflected in the majority of scholarly papers devoted to the subject.
The linguistic relevance of information structure in the case of translation is even more
evident if Azeri and a language such as English are involved. Azeri is a free word order
language, as mentioned in introduction, in which grammatical structure is largely
determined by the articulation in theme (logical subject) and rheme (logical predictate),
whereas English does not permit much variation in word order, and syntactic structure
is defined in terms of grammatical subject and grammatical predicate. This fact alone
has important consequences for the theory and practice of translation. In addition, some
word order variation in Azeri language is due to a second type of articulation (which
may, but need not coincide with the first one), which concerns information structure
proper, i.e. distribution of known and new information in the sentence and its structural
consequences. So linguistics plays an important role in the investigation of the joint
functioning of two languages, i.e. "the translational behavior of languages". Dynamic
contrasts are differences in encoding strategies characteristic of different languages;
which become manifest only when these languages clash in the process of translation
and also, information structure is one such domain where drastic dynamic contrasts in
encoding may be encountered. The linguistic description of contrasting structures is
indespensable for adequate translation. Regarding the recognition of the importance
of context, it is quite clear that we normally do not translate sentences in isolation but
sentences which are part of a larger text or discourse. Klaudy points out research into
the translational behavior of languages and the decision making and problem solving
strategies behind translational operations may result in a systemic translation oriented
description of various language pairs. It is an adequate description of the linguistic
structure of languages. In addition to descriptive and theoretical linguistics, translation
studies may also profit from insights gained in sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics.
klaudy (1981) argues that the translator mediates not only between two languages but
also between two cultures. He must thus have certain ideas about the source language
society and the target language society, which need not always be very explicit. Socio-
linguistics attempts to reveal the relationship between language and society independently
of translation and provide scientifically well – founded descriptions of this relationship.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
In this way, sociolinguistics may contribute to the clarification of the basis of the trans-
lators' decisions. Psycholinguistics may offer an explanation of how the translation
process works. Klaudy reports, among other things, on experiments which have tried
to find out whether or not it is possible to listen and speak simultaneously. Some of the
results seem to indicate that simultaneous interpreters do not listen and speak at the same
time, but they alternate between these two activities, using the pauses of the speaker
as well as their own pauses (ibid).
In sum, then, socio – and psycholinguistics, too, are important branches of research
for translation studies. As translators, we must not only know what we are doing but
also why we are doing something in the way we are doing it (ibid).
Therefore, the importance of linguistics in translation studies is obvious and clear.
Complex Sentence
Complex sentences are widely used in English writing and specially literary works.
Since in literary work the writer expresses himself in many kinds of sentences and
making complex sentences is more challenging of the very large variety of clauses
signals to choose from many combinations.
Complex sentences can be used to judge whether a work is written in a good way
or not. By which, the accuracy and variety of the work can be known. Complex sentences
are the best means of eliminating choppy sentences and giving accuracy of literary
work. It will not be satisfied until he has at down the number of simple or compound
sentences and increase the number of complex sentences. (Fauzanah, 2009, p.15).
To make his writing more accurate and everything equal, a writer will build his
main idea into part of the sentence and tuck the detail into clause, in other words, he
writes more complex sentences. Moreover, the using of more complex sentences in
work, does not show the dullness of the sentences because of the variety of the sentences
in its paragraphs and subordinate clauses, on the other hand, expresses the relations of
the writer's ideas.
Complex Sentences in English
In English, sentences are either simple or multiple. A simple sentence consists of
a single independent clause. A Multiple sentences contains one or more clauses as its
immediate constituents. Multiple sentence are either compound or complex. In a com-
pound sentence the immediate constituents are two or more coordinate clauses therefore,
the clauses of a compound sentence provide classic instances of a paratactic relationship
that is they have equivalent function. (Quirk et al, 1985, p.987). In a complex sentence,
one or more of its element, such as direct object, adverbial and etc are realized by a
subordinate clause. A complex sentence is like a simple sentence in which it consists
of only one main clause, but unlike a simple sentence, it has one or more subordinate
clauses functioning as element of the sentence. Subordination is an asymmetrical relation:
the sentence and its subordinate clauses are in a hypotactic relationship that is they form
a hierarchy in which the subordinate clause is a consistent of the sentence as a whole
(ibid).
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clauses (Tabeli Mürəkkəb cümlə). Like English, in Azeri also, there is one main clause
(Baş cümlə) and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses (Budaq cümlə). For
example: Mən bilmirəmki, o sizin suallιnιza necə cavab verdi.
I do not know how he answered your
Semantically,based on the meaning of wh –words used in subordinate clauses, the
are categorized; such as; time subordinate clauses (zaman budaq cümlə) or reason su-
bordinate clauses (səbəb budaq cümlə) and etc.
It is necessary to mention that in Azeri instead of wh –interrogative words used in
subordinations, some words and combinations are used and called connective words
(bağlayιcιlar).
Syntactically connectives classified into two groups: coordinate connectives (Ta-
besiz bağlayιcιlar) and subordinate connectives (Tabeli bağlayιcιlar). In contrast to
compound sentences, in which coordinate connectives are used like və (and), ya (or),
Lakin (but) and so on, in complex sentences subordinate connectives are used, such as
hara (where), necə (why), kimi/ kimə (whom), kim (who) and etc. Therefore, in subor-
dinate wh – interrogative clauses, in Azeri, wh –words, are replaced by subordinate
connectives or tabeli baglayιcιlar (Rosta mova, 2010).
Research Method
The purpose of this study is to investigate and analyze Azeri translations of English
subordinate wh – interrogative clauses and infinitive wh – clauses. This research deals
with the analysis of data in order to study Azeri translations of English complex sen-
tences, subordinate wh –interrogative clauses, wh – words used in subordinate clauses,
infinitive used in subordinate wh – interrogative clauses. Moreover, finding the most
frequent "wh –words" used in these two types of structures in original texts.
Materials
The material chosen for analysis are English fictions which involve the novels of
"For whom the Bell Tolls" written by Hemingway, "400 subjects in English" written
by vitalyevna, "Life essays" written by Gurbanov, "The Alchemist" and "By the River
Piedra I Sat Down and Wept", written by Coelho and Joyce's Dubliners (short stories).
200 subordinate wh – interrogative clauses, which 100 sentences involving infinitive
constructions, along with their translations into Azeri taken from Hajiyev (2006), vi-
talyevna (2006), Gambarov (2010), Qojabayli (2006), Aslanlι (2011) and Nijat (2011)
have been analyzed.
Procedures
The data classified into two main categories: subordinate wh – interrogative clauses
and infinitive wh – clauses.
Subordinate wh – interrogative clauses translated as simple sentences
involving verb combinations.
* I don’t know even what alchemy is.
Mən kimyagərlyin nə demək olduğunu belə bilmirəm.
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Suffixes like acaq, əcək, dιq, dik, duq, dük, acaq, əcək ,… are a number of participle
making suffixes. In the sentence, "Döyüşdə özümü necə aparacağιmɪ bilmirəm".
acağ in "aparacağιmɪ" named as participle making suffix. The word regarded as
particple or Feli sifət.
The last verb combination is verb – noun combinations.
They are also made by adding some suffixes such as
- a-a- , -ə-ə, -ar, iyi, and ets. These combinations functioning both as the verb and
noun, such as: cavan oğlanιn ona dediyi şeyi başa düşürdü".
verb - noun
It should be noted that "participle" (Feli sifat) is the most frequent construction
found in Azeri translation of subordinate wh – interrogative clauses and subordinates
consisting both wh – words and infinitive construction. Generally it can be concluded
that these complex sentences are translated as simple sentences and there is a tendency
in Azeri, that is using of simple sentences involving verb combinations.
These structures are used for translating of majority of English sentences such as
complex sentences. Regarding the subordinates involving both wh-words and infinitive
construction, which have the obligational sense, it should be said that in Azeri translation
of these structures, the meaning of them has not been considered and majority of transla-
ted sentences do not express the obligational sense. For example the sentence "I learned
how to care for sheep" translated as "Qoyunlara baxmağι bilirəm", which should be
translated as " Qoyunlara necə baxmaliyəniyə, bilirəm", because the suffix "mal" in the
verb "baxmaliyəniyə" shows the obligation sense in Azeri. Another important point in
Azeri translation of these complex sentences, is that unlike English, subordinate clauses
come before main clause and the verb of subordinate clauses translated as verb com-
bination and the verb of main clause regarded as the main verb of the sentence. In
addition, the infinitive construction is not translated as infinitive in Azeri. Based on
findings of this research, it has been translated as verb combinations specially verb
conjunctions form (Feli bağlama).
As mentioned earlier, in translation, translator is transferring meaning of the source
language in the form of target language. Moreover paying attention to the structure of
the source language is necessary, and should be preserved as well as possible but not
so closely that target language structures will be seriously distorted. Therefore trans-
lation is always more than simply writing in the sense of putting words to paper. It is
suggested that in the literature of translation studies, in translation classrooms even in
language learning classes, students and learners compare and contrast translation with
their originals. It is useful for language learning, translation, education, lexicography,
finding equivalents for source language expressions, terms, structures and so on. It is
hoped that the results of the research may be used as additional information for the
teachers, especially in teaching English grammar and translation courses. Also, the results
may help Azerbaijanian translators, English learners and translator trainees for being
able to provide the translation of English subordinate wh- interrogative clauses and
subordinate involving both wh- clause and infinitive construction.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Table 5. The frequency of wh -words in subordinates involving wh-clause and infinitive in original texts.
Percentage Total wh - words
53% 53 how
23% 23 what
13% 13 when
11% 11 where
REFERENCES
1. Aslani, A. (2011). By the river, Piedra I sat down and wept. (pp.5 – 96). Baku: Ghanun Publication.
2. Bell,R.(1991).The Nature of translation.Frunkfort am Main:Peter Lang.
3. Catford, J.C. (1965). A Liguistic theory of translation. (pp. 33-75). An essay in applied linguistics.
Oxford: Oxford University.
4. Fauzanah, R. (2009). A Translation analysis of complex sentences in novel "The Scarlet Letters"
and its translation. Research paper for B.A degree. Indonesia: Muhammadaiyh University of Surakarta.
5. Gambarov, V.A. (2010). Life Essays. (pp.33 – 148). Baku: Mushfigh Bricjhali Publication.
6. Habibli, R. (2008). Azeri Language. Baku: Baku state University Publication.
7. Hajiyev, H. (2006). For Whom the Bell Tolls. (pp. 27 – 290). Baku: Avrasiya Press.
8. Klaudy, k. (1981). Translation and information structure. (pp. 42 – 46). Murica: Edutec, CAM.
9. Larson, M.L. (1997). Meaning – based translation. (pp . 36-41).
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Etymology - is the study of the origin of words, including an account of their ori-
ginal meaning, form and subsequent linguistic history. The word “etymology” is derived
from a Greek word “etymologia”: “etymon”-“truth” and “logos”-“word, science”. [5,101]
There is no language in the world that its word-stock would have consisted only
of purely native words. Etymologically the vocabulary of English language is far from
being homogenous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed
stock of words. The words that have been inherited from the language, or dialects, of
the Anglo-Saxon invaders of Great Britain in the fifth century A.D. are called native
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
words and are to be distinguished from borrowed words, those that have entered English
vocabulary from other sources, such as Latin and Greek. [1, 21] Borrowed words or
loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns
of the receiving language. The number of the borrowings in the vocabulary of the lan-
guage and the role played by them is determined by the historical development of the
nation speaking the language. In English vocabulary the borrowed stock of words is
considerably larger than the native stock of words. In fact native words comprise only
30% of the total number of words1 and 70% of them are borrowed ones. [6]
English itself belongs to the German languages group and it has “borrowed” a lot
of words from Roman and Greek languages groups. When analyzing borrowed words
one should distinguish between two terms - source of borrowing and origin of borrowing.
There is certain confusion between these two terms. So when describing the words as
Latin, French or Scandinavian borrowings we point out their source but not their origin.
The term “origin” of the word should be applied to the language the word may be traced
to. Thus the French borrowing “table” is Latin by origin. (Latin “tabula”). The Latin
borrowing “school” came into Latin from the Greek language (Greek “schola”), so it
is described as Greek by origin.
In many cases a borrowed word, especially one borrowed long ago is practically
indistinguishable from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis. But
there are certain structural features which enable us to identify some words as borro-
wings and even to determine the source language. For example, it is already established
that the use of sk (sc) group in a word, usually indicates Scandinavian origin: sky, skill,
skin, ski, skirt, to scowl, to scare, to bask. [3, 38], [4, 117]. Another way of distinguishing
a borrowed word is through analyzing the affixes in it.
Affixation has been one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout
the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of
speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
French affixes
The suffix -ance arrogance, endurance, hindrance, etc.
The suffix -ence consequence, intelligence, patience, etc.
Nouns The suffix -ment appointment, development, experiment, etc.
The suffix -age courage, marriage, passage, village, etc.
The suffix -ess tigress, lioness, actress, adventuress, etc.
Adjectives The suffix -ous curious, dangerous, joyous, serious, etc.
Verbs The prefix en- enable, endear, enact, enfold, enslave, etc.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Suffixation: The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part
of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the
same part of speech, e.g. educate v – educatee n, journal n-journalist n.
Prefixation: Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to
the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. The main function of prefixes
in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, e.g. happy-
unhappy, head – overhead.
We can recognize words of Latin and French origin by certain suffixes, prefixes
or endings. The two tables below will help us in this2.
Here is a list of some more affixes’ origin:
Origin of suffixes:
a. Native (Germanic): -er teacher, -ful careful, -less painless, -ly swiftly, -dom freedom,
-ed educated, -en shorten, -hood priesthood, childhood, -ing king (O.E. word),
meeting, -ish childish, -ness darkness, -ship friendship, -teen seventeen, -ty ninety, -
ward upward;
b. Romanic: -tion attention, -ment development, -able/-ible terrible, moveable, -age
package, -ance/ence reference, attendance, -ate cultivate;
c. Greek: -ist taxist, -ism capitalism, -ize organize;
Origin of prefixes:
a. Native (Germanic): un- unable, unrest, unhappy, over- over-nice, over-time, over-
feed, under- underestimate, to underlie, to undergo, to understand, undercoat, with-
withdraw, up- uphold, bе- behind, to behead, to become, fore- to forecast, to forestall;
b. Romanic: in- inactive, co-coexistence, ex- expresident, re- rewrite, en- enlarge;
c. Greek: sym- sympathy, hyper- hypertension, dis- dissyllable, poly- polysemantic,
anti- antisocial, a- atypical.
END NOTE
1. http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/etymology.htm
2. Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова, Лексикология Английского Языка English
Lexicology, Издательский дом "Дрофа”, Москва, 1999, ст. 39.
REFERENCES
1. Charles W. Dunmore, Studies in Etymology, Focus Books, Focus Information Group, Inc., Newburyport
MA 01950, 1993.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
2. Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова, Лексикология Английского Языка English
Lexicology, Издательский дом "Дрофа”, Москва, 1999.
3. Н. Н. Амосова, Этимологические Основы Словарного Состава Современного Английского
Языка, Издательство Литературы на Иностранных Языках, Москва 1956.
4. А. А. Реформатский, Введение в Языковедение, Издательство “Просвещение”, Москва 1967.
5. http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/etymology.htm
ABSTRACT
This article deals with the relationship between cohesion and coherence and its importance in discource.
An awareness of cohesion and coherence in all texts is a very important skill for language learners, students
to develop.
A text is cohesive if its elements are linked together. Cohesion can be thought of as all the grammatical
and lexical links that link one part of a text to another. Cohesive devices also include transitional words
and phrases ,repetition of key words and use of reference words. It means that for language learners it is
too important to understand cohesitive devices in a text. Otherwise in some occasions we can see some
misunderstanding .
A text is coherent if it makes sense. When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, discourse
can be understood easily and it will be coherent. It should be clear that cohesion and coherent are not the
same things. However, a text may be cohesive (linked together), but incoherent and this incoherentness
can lead some misunderstanding. The problem here is not so much that we cannot understand what is being
said but we cannot see the point of saying it.
The general point to be made is that no matter how many cohesive devices are used or the extent to
which it is interpreted as coherent, discource will always depend on contextual realities that readers are
familiar with in the particular socio-cultural world they live in. That is why in written discourse ,writers
should always “keep their readers in mind”.
Key words: discourse ,textual connections, cohesion, coherence, contextual realities.
An awareness of cohesion and coherence in all texts is a very important skill for
language learners,students to develop.
Text processing has always occupied a prominent place in discourse research. On
the one hand ,text researchers are interested in the mechanism of textual cohesion. On
the other hand, they propose hypothesis to explain assumptions of coherence in the
mind of the reader. Text discusses cohesion as the setting up of meaning relations across
sentences by means of a set of linguistic devices which links sentences together.[2,10]
Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of discourse together. In other words, if a
paper is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
paragraph.Cohesion can be thought of as all the grammatical and lexical links that link
one part of a text to another. This includes use of synonyms, lexical sets, pronouns,
verb tenses, time references, grammatical reference, etc. For example, 'it', 'neither' and
'this' all refer to an idea previously mentioned. 'First of all', 'then' and 'after that' help
to sequence a text. 'However', 'in addition' and 'for instance' link ideas and arguments
in a text.
Cohesive devices also include transitional words and phrases, such as therefore,
furthermore, or for instance, that clarify for readers the relationships among ideas in a
piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough to make discourse cohesive. Re-
petition of key words and use of reference words are also needed for cohesion. For
example:
Tony Blair was on his way to Bucharest…The Prime Minister astonished his ad-
visers by suddenly announcing on the airplane that he was going to promise Romania
early membership of the European Union in return for its continued asking.[4,43]
Here he is identified as having a referential link to The Prime Minister and Tony
Blair. Let’s consider another pronoun ,its, as it occurs in the second part of this text. Its
encodes the semantic features of singular and non-human and these features are to be
found in Romania, the European Union ,and even in memberhip of the European Union,
so it could be linked linguistically to any of these three. Here the cohesive devices helps
us. The appropriate connection corresponds most closely with the reader’s contextual
knowledge of the world. The identification of connections that are linguistically sig-
nalled, like these between a pronoun and a noun phrase, enables us to recognize the
cohesion of a text.
It means that for language learners it is too important to understand cohesion con-
nections in a text. Otherwise in some occasions when writers use minimal pro-norms,
we can see some misunderstanding:
Unfortunately in the weeks to come autumn leaves will create a dangerous hazard,
especially to the elderly when they fall and become a soggy mess on the pavement.
Here the pronoun they copies only the semantic feature of plurality. There are two
plural noun phrases in the text which are linguistic candidates for co-textual linkage;
autumn leaves and the elderly. Here if we do not think about cohesion not paying
attention to the previous mention one-autumn leaves, we can call up a fanciful,comic
context which sets up an anaphoric connection with the pronoun and the elderly,so
that it is they who fall and become a soggy mess on the pavement.
As we have seen, how far texts are made cohesive depends on the judgement of the
producers of the texts about what meanings they can assume .Cohesive devices are only
aids to understanding and can only be effective to the extent that they enable readers
to construct meaning that makes contextual sense to them.In other words to the extent
that the cohesion in the text enables them to derive a coherent discourse from it.
Coherence can be thought of as how meanings and sequences of ideas relate to
each other. Typical examples would be general>particular; statement>example; problem
> solution; question> answer; claim> counter-claim.[1,29]
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along
easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. The
cohesive devices link parts of a text together. It is important to note ,however they link
parts of the texts together so that new content is understood in relation to the context
that has been established in the reader’s mind by what has been said before .
The process may seem complicated but actually it is not really, so long as you
prepare things in advance and know what has to be done in what order. Some of the
things you need you may already have but others, of course, you may need to get. They
are not always readily available and when they are they can be quite expensive. But the
find result will make all the effort and cost worthwhile. [78,5]
It follows from this that it is possible for a text to be cohesive but incoherent. Here
we have a text that is co-textually well connected with cohesive devices.The trouble is
that the reader cannot key the text into a context so as to make sense of it.We cannot
tell what this text is supposed to be .The problem here is not so much that we cannot
understand what is being said but we cannot see the point of saying it and so we find
it incoherent as discourse , though it is as text.
Good writers are able to "keep their reader in mind". Keeping your reader in mind
does not guarantee coherence, but it would seem to be a prerequisite because discourse
will always depend on how far it can be related to contextual realities.
So, finally, we can come to such kind of conclusion that for texts being cohesive
and coherent is very important. Inspite of the fact that we can have such texts that lack
of cohesion or coherence, they are not considered well organized.
REFERENCES
1. Bublitz W., Lenk U. and Ventola E. Coherence in spoken and Written Discourse. John Benjamins,
1999, 300 p.
2. Halliday M.A.K., Hasan R. Cohesion in English. London, 1976, 374 p.
3. McCarthy M. Discourse Analysis for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006, 213 p.
4. Widdowson H.G. Discourse Analysis. Oxford University Press, 2007, 136 p.
5. Yule G. Pragmatics. Oxford University Press, 1996, 138 p.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
as well as pidgins and English-lexified creoles. Also, as in an increasing number of countries English is
becoming an element of core education, a near-universal basic skill, native-speaker norms are losing both in
relevance and in reverence. This unique linguistic phenomenon has immediate consequences for the lan-
guage classroom which is the subject of this present paper.
Keywords: English, power, status, diversity, young.
Historically, English originated from the fusion of languages and dialects, now
collectively termed Old English which were brought to the eastern coast of Great Britain
by Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) settlers by the 5th century – with the word English being
derived from the name of the Angles. A significant number of English words are cons-
tructed based on roots from Latin, because Latin in some form was the lingua franca
of the Christian Church and of European intellectual life. The language was further
influenced by the Old Norse language due to Viking invasions in the 8th and 9th centuries.
Today the spread of English so unprecedented that the "non-native English-speakers"
worldwide outnumber native ones 3 to 1. In Asia alone, the number of English users
has topped 350 million - roughly the combined populations of the United States, the
UK and Canada. There are more Chinese children studying English - about 100 million -
than there are Britons (that's nearly twice as many) Some scholars maintain that you
cannot actually count the number of words in the language because it is impossible to
say exactly what a word is, talking rather of memes and other linguistic constructs, are
afraid that Global English is just another form of cultural Imperialism. One possibility
of its phenomenal growth could the plethora of localized “lishes”, such as Chinglish,
Hinglish (a Hindi-English hybrid) and Spanglish (an English-Spanish hybrid) branching
from English, they become mutually unintelligible tongues sharing a common root,
much as Latin did in Medieval Europe.
Many linguists agree that if the lishes splinter, Hinglish will likely become the most
prominent offshoot by virtue of sheer numbers, giving Indian primary ownership of the
language
GLM (Global Language Monitor) take the classic view of the language as understood
in Elizabethan England, where a word was ‘a thing spoken’ or an ‘idea spoken’. Others
say that English is undergoing a rebirth unlike any seen since the time of Shakespeare,
when English was emerging as the modern tongue known to us today. (Shakespeare,
himself, added about 1700 words to the Codex.) English has emerged as the lingua
franca of the planet, the primary communications vehicle of the Internet, high technology,
international commerce, entertainment, and the like.
There are different ways in which English as a means of communication is evolving,
developing into literally separate languages, yet which are still understandable by those
who speak any version of English. The beauty of English is that from the earliest times it
has been able to incorporate and adapt words from other languages," said Jeremy But-
terfield, editor-in-chief of Collins Dictionaries. "Already we probably can't get through
the day without using words derived from Indian languages. At least 26 new words of
joint Hindi and English derivation - have found their way into the dictionary.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
could be met with giggles - or blank stares. British or American business execs who
jabber on in their own idiomatic patois, without understanding how English is used by
non-natives, might lose out on deals.
Technology also plays a huge role in English's global triumph. Eighty percent of
the electronically stored information in the world is in English; 66 percent of the world's
scientists read in it, according to the British Council. "It's very important to learn English
because [computer] books are only in English," say many Gujarati students, learning
English in coaching classes. New technologies are helping people pick up the language,
too: students can get English-usage tips on their mobile phones. English-language
teachers point to the rise of Microsoft English, where computer users are drafting letters
advised by the Windows spell check and pop-up style guides
The world is changing. Inevitably, so are our words. Ten years ago, no one had
heard of “H1N1″, “Web 2.0″, “n00b”, or talked about “de-friending” someone on
“Twitter” or “Face book”. Now these are part of people’s everyday vocabulary. The
English language is going through an explosion of word creation. New words are coined
– some, like “n00b”, may not even look like words; old words take on new meanings
– “twitter” today bears little relation to the Middle English twiteren. According to the
Global Language Monitor (GLM), in 2009 the English language tipped the scales with
a vocabulary of one million words. .
GLM, the San Diego-based language watcher, publishes annual lists of top words
and phrases by tracking words in the global print and electronic media, the Internet,
blogs, and social media such as Twitter and YouTube. Each year’s list reflects major
concerns and changes taking place that year. For instance, from the 2009 list, we have
to acknowledge the fact that technology is reshaping our ways of living (twitter, web
2.0). We need to face up to the after-effects of a “financial tsunami” (stimulus, forec-
losure), a pandemic (H1N1), the death of revered pop icon (MJ, King of Pop) and the
debates over “healthcare reform” and “climate change” that mark the year.
The extinction of most languages is probably unstoppable. Television and radio,
both blamed for homogenisation, may, paradoxically, prolong the life of some by narrow-
casting in minority tongues. And though many languages may die, more people may
also be able to speak several languages: multilingualism, a commonplace among the
least educated peoples of Africa, is now the norm among Dutch, Scandinavians and,
increasingly, almost everyone else. Native English-speakers, however, are becoming
less competent at other languages: only nine students graduated in Arabic from uni-
versities in the United States last year, and the British are the most monoglot of all the
peoples of the EU. Thus the triumph of English not only destroys the tongues of others;
it also isolates native English-speakers from the literature, history and ideas of other
peoples. It is, in short, a thoroughly dubious triumph. But then who's for Esperanto?
Not the staff of this newspaper, that's for sure.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.webpronews.com/the-globalization-of-english-2005-03
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
2. http://inclusionparadox.com/as-more-of-the-world-speaks-english-who-is-a-native-speaker
3. http://www.languagemonitor.com/no-of-words/globalenglish/chinglish
4. http://www.economist.com/node/883997
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
aydın, vasitəsiz, implisit isə inkarlığın gizli, imalı və vasitəli ifadəsidir. Gizli inkar
komponentlərin tədqiqi hər hansı mətnin və ya fikrin incə məna çalarlıqlarını diqqətə
almağa məcbur edir. Burada sözün leksik-semantik mənası, sintaktik, morfoloji quru-
luşu əsas rol oynayır.
Qeyd edək ki, implisit kateqoriyanın xüsusi aşkar markeri olmadığı üçün dildə müs-
təqil ifadəsi mümkün olmur. Lakin bunu da demək olmaz ki, dildə aşkar bir inkar kom-
ponentin olmaması implisit inkarlığın ifadəsini çətinləşdirir. Əksinə, digər eksplisit
komponentlər kimi xüsusi bir formaya malikdirlər, lakin inkarlığı birbaşa deyil, vasitəli
yolla və gizli, təsdiqlik prizmasından təqdim etmiş olurlar.
İmplisit inkarlıq vasitələrinin ifadə variantlığı, geniş mətn daxilində onların digər
inkarlıq komponentləri ilə əlaqə və təsir vəziyyətləri ümumən təsdiq və inkarın müx-
təlif məna incəliklərinin, məntiqi və emosional-ekspressiv çalarlıqlarının fərqləndiril-
məsində əhəmiyyətli rol oynayır, ünsiyyət prosesində həmin yarusda funksional-seman-
tik və üslubi variativlik imkanlarının zənginliyini aşkara çıxarır. A.Ligeza implisit in-
karı “inkarın pozitiv təqdim edilməsi, inkarın təsdiq çaları” adlandırır.[2, 61]
İmplisit inkarlıq ifadə vasitələrini aşağıdakı kimi təsrif etmək mümkündür:
1. Privativ sözlər – (privativ sifət, isim, zərf və s. bold, empty, scarcely, rarely, hardly;
kar, keçəl, subay, kosa; сухой, глухой, пустой)
2. Privativ fellər – (refuse, deny, omit, reject, fail, lack, postpone, ignore; susmaq,
imtina etmək, rədd etmək, inkişafdan qalmaq, dirənmək, itmək; oтсутствоватъ)
3. Privativ frazeoloji vasitələr-(Dash me if I do, like hell, like devil, God knows, skate
on thin ice, fall at a first hurdle, cut it out, go haywire; Sənə nə?, O hara, oğurluq
hara?, Bu nədir, sənin dediyin nədir?, Sənə nə düşüb?(=Bunun sənə dəxli yoxdur?)
4. Ritorik suallar – (Who cares? (= Nobody cares), What do I care? (= I care nothing),
What difference does it make? (= It makes no dofference/ It doesn’t make any
difference), What’s the good of doing it? (= There isn’t any good of doing it),
What right do you have? (=You don’t have any right), Who can make the sun rise
in the West and set in the East? (= No one can); Sən elə bilirsən o bizim yaxşı ol-
mağımızı istəyir? (= istəmir), Kim bilir neçədir dünyanın yaşı? (= Heç kim bilmir.)
Qeyd edək ki, sual cümləsində, ritorik sualda inkarlıq elementi olduqda təsdiq ifadə
olunur. Dil faktları təsdiq edir ki, sual cümlələri ilə implisit inkarlığın ifadəsinin inten-
sivliyi başqa dillər üçün də xarakterikdir [3, 9]. “Wouldn’t you like to be a star?” “Who
wouldn’t?”, Bəs yazın gəlişi şeir deyilmi?
A.T.Əmirov implisit inkarın indikatorlarını linqvistik və ekstra-linqivistik olaraq
iki yerə bölür. Fikrimizcə, bu indikatorları verbal və qeyri-verbal da adlandırmaq olar.
Ekstra-linqivistik implisit inkarlığa mimika, gest, əl-qol hərəkətləri (başını yırğalamaq,
qaşlarını qaldırmaq, çiyinlərini çəkmək vəs.) daxildir ki, bu həm də paralinqivistikanın
tədqiqat obyektidir.
“It is impossible”, I said at last. “A well-known man like Hector Blunt.”
Poirot shrugged his shoulders. “Who knows? At last he is a man with big ideas…
(A. Christie)
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Yuxarıdakı cümlədə onun danışmadan əvvəl çiyinlərini çəkməsi ifadə edəcəyi cüm-
ləyə mənfi sema yükləmişdir.( Who knows?- Nobody knows.)
Bu haqda daha bir şeyi də qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, implisit indikatorları kontekstual-
situativ indikatorlar da adlandırmaq olar ki, bunlar implisit inkarlığın ümumi-universal
indikatorlarıdır:
1. - Do you love him?
- I loved him. (= I don’t love him now.)
- Is he your husband?
- He was my husband. (= He is not my husband at the moment)
2. - Mənə bir siqaret ver.
- Siqareti atmışam. (= Artıq siqaret çəkmirəm)
A.T. Əmirov linqvistik implisit inkarlıqdan danışarkən onun leksik-semantik, fra-
zeoloji, morfoloji və sintaktik xarakteristikasını göstərməyə çalışmışdır.
İmplisit inkarın leksik-semantik indikatorlarını öyrənərkən sual və təsdiq konstruk-
siyaları dərindən nəzərdən keçirmək lazımdır. İngilis dilində good, much, a lot, swell,
excellent, well və s. kimi ironiya əmələ gətirən sözlərin iştirakı maraq doğurur. Məsələn,
A lot you know about Physics! (= You don’t know anything about Physics), Well she
speaks English! (= She doesn’t speak English well), Çox tez gəlmisən! (= vaxtında
gəlməyibsən)
İmplisit inkarın əsas indikatorlarından biri də leksik təkrarlardır. Leksik təkrar da-
nışanın eşitdiyinə reaksiyasının ekspressiv çalarlığını əks etdirir. Məsələn,
- If you need any help, inform me, please.
- Help? From you….(= You never help anyone)
- Are you going to change your mind?
- Me? Change my mind? (You won’t catch me doing a U-turn.)
- Bu dərmanı içdikdən sonra bəlkə rahat yatasan.
- Yatmaq? Mən.... (=Yata biləcəyimi düşünmürəm).
Göründüyü kimi, eksplisit inkarlıqla müqayisədə implisit inkarlıq vasitəli, gizli
yolla ifadə olunsa da bu tip implisit inkar indikatorların köməyi ilə daha rəngarəng ifadə
variantlığı, məntiqi və emosional-ekspressiv çalarlıqlar meydana çıxır.
İmplisit inkarlığın leksik indikatorlarından biri də mətn daxilində müqayisədir.
- We need to do housework.
- Am I your mule? Do you want to make me an ass of yourself? (=I am not your
mule/ I don’t want to work like an ass)
- Mən sənin atanın nökəriyəm? (= Atanın nökəri yoxdur)
Bu tip sual cümlə strukturlarının ifadə etdikləri mənaları onların hərfi mənalarından
çox fərqli olub nisbətən frazeoloji xarakterə malikdir.
- Why is she still waiting there?
- How do I know? (= I don’t know)
- Bu qapı niyə yenə bağlıdır?
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
İngilis dilində even if, even when, even while, though, although bağlayıcıları ilə
düzələn güzəşt budaq cümləli tabeli mürəkkəb cümlələrdə həm baş, həm də budaq cümlə
təsdiqdə gəlməklə ekspressiv inkarlıq ifadə olunur, qətilik semantik şərti və kontrast
düşüncəsi sintaktik formanı bütövlükdə inkar hökmün ifadəsinə tabe etdirir. Məsələn:
Although the sun was shining, it was cold. (= it was not hot/ The sun was shining/
I expected it to be warm), Jim has to go to work although he is ill. (= Jim is ill, I expect
he doesn’t have to go to work), We’ll have a great time even if it rains (= It may rain,
but it won’t stop us); Qadın çox xəstə olsa da bütün işləri özü görürdü. (= O, xəstə idi.
Onun bütün işləri görməsi mümkün deyildi.)
Göstərilən tabeli mürəkkəb cümlə quruluşlarında ifadə olunan aktual informasiya
haqqında danışılan iş, hal, hərəkətin icra olub-olmamasını, baş tutub-tutmamasını müəy-
yən şərtə bağlamaq deyil, məhz bunların icra olunma, baş tutma imkanını emosional
şəkildə inkar etməkdir.
Ümumiyyətlə, vasitəli ifadə tipləri emosional səciyyə daşıyır ki, bu da ümumən
dildə ekspressiv təsdiq və inkar hökmlərin, eləcə də ekspressiv təhrikin ifadə variyasi-
yalarını daha da genişləndirir.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
1. Fodor D.J, Fodor A.J, Garrett M.F The Psychological Unreality of Semantic Representation in the
Block N. Readings in philosophy of psychology, Volume 2, 1981, 242
2. Ligeza A. Logical foundation for rule-based systems, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2006, 61
3. Danec Fr. The Relation of Centre and Peripheru as a Lanquage Universal. Travaux linquistiqnes de
Pragne, 2. Les problemes du centre et de la peripheru du sustems de la langue – Prague, 1966
4. Амиров А.Т Имплицитное отрицание в современном английском языке: Автореф: дис.. канд.
филол. наук- М.1981, 32
5. Abdullayev S. Müasir alman və Azərbaycan dillərində inkarlıq kateqoriyası, Maarif, Bakı-1998.
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There has not been any study done so far with regard to the lexicology of Nâbî Divan. We hope
that this study will fill in the existing huge gap on this subject.
Keywords: Nâbî, Divan, poet, literature.
XIII. yüzyıldan başlayarak XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar büyük bir değişik-
liğe uğramadan devam etmiş olan Divan Edebiyatı, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde
oluşmuştur. İslam kültürüne bağlı olarak gelişen bu Edebiyat, Arap ve Fars Edebiyat-
larından etkilendiğinden dolayı yazılan eserlerde Arapça ve Farsça kelimelere sıkça
rastlanmaktadır.
Dîvân Edebiyatı en parlak dönemini XVI. ve XVII. yüzyıllarda yaşamıştır. Bu
Edebiyatın en lirik şairi olan Fuzûlî ile “Sultânu’ş-şuarâ” lakabıyla anılan Bâkî, XVI.
yüzyılın en meşhur şairlerindendir. Kaside ve hiciv ustası Nef’i, Gazel tarzının üstadı
Şeyhülislam Yahya Efendi ve “hikemî ekolü”nün kurucusu büyük şair Nâbî ise XVII.
yüzyıla damgasını vuran şairlerdendir.
Edebiyatımızda “hikmetli söz söyleme üslûbu” olarak da kabul edilen, insanları
düşünmeye ve düşündürmeye yönelten “hikemî üslûb”un en önemli temsilcisi Nâbî
olmuştur. Bu yönüyle Nâbî, gerek yaşadığı dönemde ve gerekse daha sonraki donem-
lerde birçok şair tarafından övgüyle anılmış ve takipçileri olmuştur.
Divan Edebiyatı ve bu edebiyat bünyesinde yazılmış eserler Tanzimat Edebiyatının
ortaya çıkması ve Batı hayranlığının başlamasıyla arka plana itilmiştir. Eserlerdeki sanat
anlayışı ve Arapça, Farsça kelimelerin fazlalığından dolayı bu edebiyata “Yüksek Zümre
Edebiyatı” ya da “Saray Edebiyatı” denilerek sadece belli bir zümreye aitmiş gibi
gösterilmeye çalışılmıştır.
Osmanlı imparatorluğu döneminde şair ve yazarlar eserlerini Arap alfabesi ile ya-
zıyorlardı. 1928 yılında Latin alfabesinin kabulü ile birlikte bu kıymetli eserlerden daha
fazla okuyucunun istifade etmesi için Latin alfabesine çeviriler yapılmaya başlanmıştır.
Nâbî, manzum ve mensur tarzda eserler yazmıştır. En önemli manzum eseri Türkçe
Dîvânı'dır. Bu Dîvân'ın 1841 Bulak'ta ve 1875 İstanbul'da olmak üzere eski harflerle
basılmış iki ayrı baskısı bulunmaktadır. Ali Fuat Bilkan yaptığı doktora çalışmasında,
Nâbî Dîvânı adı altında eski yazıyla kaleme alınmış orijinal nüshaları karşılaştırarak
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Latin alfabesine çevirmiş ve 1997 yılında 2 cilt halinde "Nâbî Dîvânı" adlı eserini ya-
yınlamıştır. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı'nın bilim ve kültür yayınları arasında bulunan bu
eser sayesinde Nâbî'nin şiirleri daha geniş bir okuyucu kitlesinin hizmetine sunulmuştur.
Yaklaşık altı yüz yıllık bir mazisi olan Divan edebiyatı her ne kadar Arap ve Fars
edebiyatlarından etkilenmiş olsa da kaynağını İslâm kültüründen alarak gelişmiş ve
kendine has tarzıyla bünyesinde yüzlerce şair ve yazar yetişmiş, kütüphaneler dolusu
eserler yazılmıştır. Her ne kadar belli dönemlerde değişik çevreler tarafından kötüle-
mek maksadıyla adına “ Saray Edebiyatı” ya da “Yüksek Zümre Edebiyatı” şeklinde
adlandırılıp sadece belli bir zümreye ait gibi gösterilmiş olsa da herkesin faydalanacağı
tarzda büyük bir marifet ve sanat özelliği taşıyan eserler kaleme alınmıştır. Nasıl ki
Halk edebiyatının kendine has bazı özellikleri varsa, Divan edebiyatının da kendine
has özellikleri bulunmaktadır. XIII. yüzyıldan başlayarak XIX. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar
uzun bir zaman dilimi içerisinde İstanbul merkezli olarak özellikle Anadolu toprakla-
rında gelişen Divan edebiyatında manzum olarak yazılan mesnevi, gazel, kaside, rubâi,
tuyuğ, terkib-i bend gibi nazım çeşitlerinin yanında tarihler, hikâyeler, tercümeler ve
biyografik eserler de mevcuttur. Bu denli geniş bir alanda eserler yazılan bu edebiyatı
sadece sarayda yaşayan belli bir zümreye aitmiş gibi göstermek doğru olmaz.
Divan edebiyatındaki şairlerin mesleklerine ve makamlarına baktığımızda padişah-
lardan, vezirlerden, eyalet valilerinden tutun da demircilere, ipekçilere, kunduracılara
kadar değişik kademelerden insanların olduğunu görmekteyiz. Yani halkın en alt taba-
kasından devletin en üst kademesine kadar değişik meslek gruplarından şairler olmuştur.
Divan şairleri sadece saraylarda değil kahvehanelerde, meyhanelerde, şuara mec-
lislerinde bir araya gelerek hünerlerini gösterirlerdi. XVI. yüzyılın meşhur şairlerinden
olan Zâtî’nin mesleği remilcilikti. Aynı zamanda şiir yazarak da para kazanıyordu.
Beyazıt camisinin avlusunda açtığı dükkânı ise şairler için uğrak yeri olmuştu. Yine
XV. yüzyıl şairlerinden Enverî okuma-yazma bilmeyen Divan edebiyatı şairidir. Yâni
Divan edebiyatı sadece belli kesime has, anlaşılmayan, yüksek zümreye hitap eden bir
edebiyat değil; genel olarak o dönemde toplumun her kesimini içine alan geniş bir alana
yayılmış bir edebiyat türü olma özelliğini göstermektedir.
Halk edebiyatında şiirler hece vezni ile yazılırken, Divan edebiyatında aruz vez-
niyle yazılmıştır. Tabiî ki sanat yapma anlayışı ön planda olduğu için Arapça ve Farsça
kelime ve terkipler daha fazla kullanılmış, süslü ve mecazlı ifadelere daha fazla yer
verilmiştir. Ayrıca Divan edebiyatının teşekkül ettiği dönemde Arapça bilim dili, Farsça
ise kültür ve sanat dili olarak kullanılmaktaydı. Medreselerde Arapça ve Farsça öğre-
tiliyordu. Yazılan eserlerde edebî sanata ve mânâya önem veriliyor, daha önce kullanıl-
mamış orijinal ifadeler kullanılmaya gayret ediliyordu. Edebî sanat yapma gayesi ön
plana çıkınca yazılan eserler halkın konuşma dilinden uzak kalıyordu.
Divan edebiyatının meşhur şairlerinden olan Nâbî, XVII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında
yaşamıştır. Onun yaşadığı bu dönem Divan edebiyatının zirvede olduğu bir dönemdir.
Çok küçük yaşlardan itibaren şairliğe kabiliyeti olan Nâbî, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun
ilim ve sanat merkezi olan İstanbul’a kilometrelerce uzakta olan Urfa’da dünyaya gelmiş
olsa da bu yeteneğini göstermek ve geliştirmek maksadıyla daha genç yaşlarda İstan-
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bul’un yolunu tutmuştur. Yeteneği sayesinde kısa zamanda sarayda kendine yer bulmuş
ve nâmı etrafa yayılmaya başlamıştır. Padişahlara ve vezirlere sunduğu methiyelerle
onların hoşnutluğunu ve itibarını kazanmış, iltifat görmüştür.
Nâbî, kendine has olan “hikemi üslubu” ile de farklılık göstermektedir. Boş konuş-
mayı, boş ve faydasız şeyler yazmayı sevmediği gibi ona göre her söylenilen söz insan-
ları düşündürmeli ve onlara öğüt verme gayesiyle söylenmelidir.
Nâbî’nin dikkat çeken en önemli özelliklerinden bir de şahit olduğu toplumsal olay-
lara sessiz kalmamasıdır. (Kontantamer, 1984:84) Yeri geldiğinde imparatorluğun en
üst makamlarında bulunan şahısları isim vermeyerek usta kalemiyle eleştirmiş ve in-
sanları yanlış tutumlarından dolayı uyarmıştır. Oğluna nasihat etme tarzında “Hayriyye”
adlı eserinde bunu en güzel şekilde ifade etmiştir.
La'net ol devlete kim ola gıdâ
Eşk-i çeşm-i fukarâ subh u mesâ (Pala, 2003:116)
(Gıdası, sabah akşam fakirlerin gözyaşı olan o devlet ve ikbale lânet olsun!)
Yaşadığı dönemde mahkemelerde hüküm veren kadıları ve aldıkları rüşveti eleş-
tirmiştir.
İlmi yok ekseri bî-mezheb ü dîn
Çeşmi mahsûlde vü rüşvetde hemîn (Pala, 2003:170)
(Kadıların birçoğunda ilim olmadığı gibi bunların dini ve mezhebi de yoktur.
Gözleri daima kazançta ve rüşvettedir.)
Nâbî’nin eserleri, sanatsal olma özelliğinin yanında o dönemde yaşayan insanların
sosyal yaşantılarını, gelenek ve göreneklerini, kültürlerini, ekonomik düzeylerini ve
aralarındaki ilişkilerin seviyesini açıkça göstererek dönem hakkında kesin ve kalıcı
bilgiler vermektedir. Dîvânda yer alan 156 tane tarih de yaşadığı dönemde meydana
gelen önemli olayları göstermede tarihi bir belge niteliği taşımaktadır.
Her şairin örnek aldığı, etkilendiği şairler olduğu gibi Nâbî de “Sebk-i Hindi” tar-
zında şiirler yazan Sâîb-i Tebrîzî, Molla Câmî ve Şevket-i Buhârî gibi şairlerden etki-
lenmiştir. (Üzgör, 1978:18)
Nâbî’nin kullandığı “hikemî tarzı”ında olduğu gibi “Hint tarzı”nda da mânâya önem
ve verilir. Az sözle çok şey anlatma amaçlanır. Nâbî, klasik şiirimizin en güçlü bir tem-
silcisi ve kendisinden sonra gelenlere en çok tesir eden üstad bir sanatçıdır. (Karahan,
1987:71)
Nâbî’nin etkilendiği şairler olduğu gibi Nâbî’den etkilenen şairler de olmuştur.
Bunların başında, Sadrazamlık makamına kadar yükselen Râmî Mehmed Paşa, Sâbit,
Nâzîm, Samî, Râşid, Seyid Vehbî, Hâmî, Münîf, Çelebizâde Âsım, Koca Râgıp Paşa,
Sümbülzâde Vehbî, Şinâsi ve Ziya Paşa gelmektedir.
Nâbî, genç yaşlarda doğduğu memleketinden ayrılarak geldiği ve hayatının üçte
birini geçirdiği İstanbul’a ömrünün son yıllarında tekrar gelerek burada vefat etmiş ve
İstanbul’da defnedilmiştir.
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Daha önce Orhun ve Uygur alfabelerini kullanan Türkler, İslâmiyeti kabul ettikten
sonra Kur’an’ın da Arapça olmasının tesiriyle Arap alfabesini kullanmışlardır. İslâmi-
yetin Türkler arasında hızla yayılması sonucunda dînî terimler başta olmak üzere Arap-
çadan Türkçeye kelime girişi hızlanmıştır. Ayrıca İran’la olan ilişkiler sonucunda Fars
edebiyatının da tesiriyle Farsçadan binlerce kelime Türkçeye girmiştir.
Özellikle Selçuklu devleti zamanında Arapçanın ilim dili, Farsçanın da edebiyat
dili olarak kabul edilmesi sebebiyle Türkçe ihmal edilmiştir. Fakat Selçukluların yıkıl-
masıyla Anadolu’da kurulan Beylikler zamanında Türkçeye önem verilmiş ve halk ara-
sında yaygınlaşmasına çalışılmıştır.
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde gerek ilim yuvalarında Arapçanın ve Farsçanın
okutulması ve gerekse şairlerin eserlerini yazarken Arapça ve Farsça kelime ve tamla-
malardan aşırı derece istifade etmeleriyle bu dillerden Türkçeye binlerce kelime girmiştir.
Osmanlının son dönemlerine kadar kelime girişi devam etmiştir.
Bu dönemde Türkçeye önem veren, onun güzelliklerini ve üstün yönlerini sade ve
anlaşılır dilde yazmış oldukları eserlerinde gösteren şair ve yazarlar olmuştur. Bu şairler
arasında Nâbî de bulunmaktadır. Fakat Nâbî, her ne kadar sade ve anlaşılır yazmaktan
yana olsa da döneminin gerektirdiği bazı sebeplerden dolayı bu düşüncesini birçok
yerde uygulayamamıştır. Meselâ, gazellerini anlaşılır tarzda yazdığı halde kasidelerinde
ağır ve süslü ifadeler kullanmıştır.
XIII. yüzyıl Türk edebiyatı şairi Yunus Emre’nin Dîvânında Arap ve Fars kökenli
kelimeler %53, Türk kökenli kelimeler %47; XVI. yüzyıl Divan edebiyatı şairi Bâkî’-
nin Dîvânında ise Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimeler % 77, Türk kökenli kelimeler %23
oranındadır. XVII. yüzyıl Divan edebiyatı şairi Nâbî’nin Türkçe Dîvânında Arap ve
Fars kökenli kelimelerin Türkçe kelimelere göre çok daha fazla kullanıldığını görmek-
teyiz. Nâbî’nin on binden fazla farklı sözcük kullandığı Türkçe Dîvânındaki kelimelerin
%85’ini Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimeler, %15’ini ise Türk kökenli kelimeler oluştur-
maktadır. XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren ise mahallileşme ve Batıya yönelme neticesinde
Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimeleri kullanım oranı düşmüştür.
Dilde kullanılan kelimeler zaman içerisinde fonetik ve morfolojik yönden değişime
uğrayabilmektedir. Nâbî Dîvânında kullanılan Türk kökenli kelimelerin büyük bir ço-
ğunluğu değişmeden günümüz Türkiye Türkçesinde de kullanılmaktadır. Mesela; ne,
başka, biraz, şimdi, böyle vb. Ancak belli bir değişime uğramış kelime sayısı da az
değildir. Örneğin Nâbî Dîvânında (ND); altun, barmak, ana, degül, yohsa, içre, yalunuz,
gice, yir, vü, kapu, içün, kendü, bellü, canum, çünki, kimün kelimeleri günümüz Tür-
kiye Türkçesinde (TT) altın, parmak, ona, değil, yoksa içinde, yalnız, gece, yer, ve,
kapı, için, kendi, belli, canım, çünkü, kimin şeklinde kullanılmaktadır. Ayrıca fiillerin
kök ve eklerinde de değişim olmuştur. ND. itdükçe, atdı, aldatdı, geçdi, düşdi, dimek,
giçse, idelüm, virdüm, getürdi, viricek, urmışdı, kalmasun, çevürdi, bitürdi, bastun,
bakup, irüşüp, göçdi, bozdı, oldı, dökilen, görüldi, düşmiş, bulınmaz vb. Bu kelimeler
TT. ettikçe, attı, aldattı, geçti, düştü, demek, geçse, edelim, verdim, getirdi, verecek,
vurmuştu, kalmasın, çevirdi, bitirdi, bastın, bakıp, erişip, göçtü, bozdu, oldu, dökülen,
görüldü, düşmüş, bulunmaz.
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CONFERENCE MATERIALS
LITERATURE
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
XVIII əsrdə Amerika ədəbi jurnallarında Şərq nağıllarının çapı bu tarixi mənzərədə
Şərqə marağın ilk qaranquşları olmasa da, amerikalıların Şərq ölkələrinə səyahəti, xü-
susilə bir sıra tanınmış yazıçıların (Mark Tven, Herman Melvillin) yaradıcılığında hind
fəlsəfəsi ilə mükaliməsi unudulmamalıdır.
Uilyam Counzun Şərq tədqiqatları Amerika ədəbi-mədəni düşüncə tarixində mühüm
rol oynamışdır. Xüsusilə, XIX əsrdə Amerika ədəbiyyatında Şərqə marağın, bu ədəbiy-
yatda Şərq motiv, süjet və obrazların bədii inikası bir sıra tanınmış yazıçıların yaradı-
cılığında ifadəsini tapması monoqrafiyada təhlil və şərhlərlə təqdim edilmişdir.
Amerika ədəbiyyatının böyük yazıçısı Vaşinqton İrvinqin yaradıcılığında Şərq möv-
zusu ilə tədqiqatçı alimin fakt və təhlil materialı aydın elmi dildə ifadə olunmuşdur.
Eləcə də Edqar Allan Ponun hekayələrində Şərq (onun 25 hekayəsindən 20-ci Yaxın
Şərq mövzusundadır-Ş.X.) mövzusunun spesifikasının yaradıcı təhlili müəyyən maraq
doğurur.
Hər hansı tədqiqat o vaxt unudulmaz olur ki, o, ədəbi elmi dairənin marağına səbəb
olur, həmin araşdırmadakı problemlər səni düşündürür. Nigar İsgəndərovanın “Amerika
novellası və Şərq” adlı monoqrafiyası düşünmək və ondan bəhrələnmək üçün keyfiyyət
dərəcəsi ilə seçilən, oxucuda məmnunluq hissi doğuran araşdırmadır.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
1. Nigar İsgəndərova. Amerika novellası və Şərq. Bakı: 2011 (rus dilində).
2. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Printed in the United States of America, 1986.
3. Quliyev Qorxmaz. XX əsr Amerikan ədəbiyyatşünaslığında aparıcı cərəyanlar. Bakı: 2011.
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desire for spiritual values. E. Dipple points out: «One of Murdoch s primary aims as a novelist is to convince
her reader of the unpredictable, uncontrollable nature of real people in the real world .. . » . 1
Key words: Iris Murdoch, prestigious literary awards, Philosophy, novel, human personality,
spiritual values.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
without having ideas and practical writings on Politics.Sheakespeare has given attention to Polictics is
generally revealed on Richard II and Henry IV.Sheakespeare has brough out the instincts of Politics and
social life .
Key Words: Politics , Humankind, Political Theory.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
zəsində oturmaq mənim həyat yoldaşımın səhvi idi, Buna cəllad Mowbarrinin vicdanı
daxil ola bilər! (5). Hereford Gauntun oğludur, Henry Bolingbroke, Herefordun hersoqu,
Mowbrayi Glaucesterin hersoqunun ölümü sui-qəsdində təqsirləndirmək üzrə döyüşə
çağırır.
Bu çağırışla, siyasi konflikt güclənir, indi Richard Mowbrayin əsl sifətinin açıq
aydın görsəndiyi döyüşə rəhbərlik etməlidir. Richard və onun böyük əmioğlusu, Boling-
broke, Gaunt John varisi və oğlu, ilə aralarında məhəbbət itməmişdir. Richard Boling-
broka qarşı çıxmağa cəsarət etmirdi, çünki Richard Woodstockun ölümünə onu qarış-
dırmırdı. Gənc kralın həlli hər iki antaqonistləri sürgün etmək idi. O Mowbrayini hə-
mişəlik qovur, ancaq Bolingbrokun 10 il məhkum edilməsində siyasi təzyiqlə razıla-
şaraq onu altıya salır (6). Bu qərar əsərdə qanuni olaraq ifadə edilmişdir, bu Gaunt John
və Kralın müşavirəsi üzvləri tərəfindən olan həvəssiz razılaşmadır (124), ancaq bu Ri-
chardın tərəfindən qəti açıq-aşkar olmasa da məqsədəuyğunluq məsələsində aydındır.
Kral ailəsinin müxtəlif üzvlərinin cavabları ləğv edilmiş təşəbbüsün və qovulmanın
seçilməsidir. Woodstockun dul arvadı qan üçün ağlayırdı. Onunku, qan qohumluğunun
bağlanmış hər hansı bir insanın ölümündə günahkarın cinayətə qarşı çıxması üçün
Aeschlusun Erinyes və ya Furiesin tələbatları daxilində əxlaqi intiqamdır. Gloucester
Duches onun qaynını təkid edir:
Ah, Gaunt, onun qanı seninki idi! Bu yataq, bu qucaq,
Bu metal, naxışlıdır sənin öz forman
İnsan yaratmışdı: və baxmayaraq ki, sən ən canlı nəfəs (7)
O həmin çağırış ilə Hamletin əmisi tərəfindən edilən “yaman və qeyri-təbii qətl”
intiqamının onun oğluna inandırılmasında Hamletin atasının xəyalından istifadə etdiyi
intiqam şifrəsi haqqında deyir. Bu şifrə qədimdir: bu həmişə səlahiyyət tərəfindən əhatə
edilmiş vətəndaş cəmiyyəti üçün məsələni qoyur, bu məsələyə dövlət üçün olan intiqam
aid deyildir. Ancaq bu qətlə yetirilmiş xüsusi ailələrdə qisas və əks qisasın qaçılmaz
dövrəsinə gətirib çıxarır. İntiqam şifrəsinin özünəməxsus mənası vardır, və bu çağırışlar
güclü qohumluq əlaqəsinin baş tutmamasıdır. Çağırış və əks-çağırış üçün tələblər vətən-
daş müharibəsinin hərəkətverici qüvvəsi on beşinci əsrdə olmuşdur. Bu qüvvəni Şeks-
pirin akopaliktik şərtlərdə görür.
REFERENCES
1. Bevington, David M. Sheakespeares ideas, Wiley –Blackwell (great minds) 2008 Page 41.
2. Alexsandr, Catherine, Skhakespeare and Politics.Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.2004 Page 34
3. Sabir Mustafa,Ismihan Rahimov(On sozun muellifi) VilyamSekspir,Secilmis Eserleri,Onder
Nesriyyat Baki,2004 Page 4
4. Calderwood,James, Meatadrama in SheakespearesHenriad:Richard II to Henry V,Berkley, University
of California Press ,1979
5. Greenblatt Stephen ,The Northorn Shakespeare (The Tragedy of King Richard the Second) W.W.
Northorn and Company Page 931.2.47-8
6. Greenblatt Stephen ,The Northorn Shakespeare (The Second Part of Henry the 4th )W.W.Northorn
and Company Page 9311.3.140-212
7. Greenblatt Stephen ,The Northorn Shakespeare (The Second Part of Henry the 4th )W.W.Northorn
and Company Page 9311.3.140-212
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Ayten Zeynalli
Undergraduate student
Azerbaijan University of Languages
zeynalli_ayten@mail.ru
ABSTRACT
Vladimir Nabokov was a Russian-born writer who wrote both in russian and, after emigrating to
America, in english, and is one of the great literary figures of the 20th century. He was known to be a great
chess problemist,he wrote several books containing chess references,most notably The Luzhin Defence,
the story of a chess genius descent into madness,which was adapted in a movie in 2000. In 1929, he wrote
“Luzhin’s Defense” which was published in 1930 in Berlin. The plot concerns Aleksandr Ivanovich Luzhin
who learns how to play chess and becomes a world class player. He is later paired against Turati ,a world
class player from Italy, to determine who would face the current world champion. Before and during the
game, Luzhin has a mental breakdown.He later climbs out a window and falls to his death, committing
suicide.The character of Luzhin is based on Curt von Bardeleben,who committed suicide by jumping out
a window in Berlin on January 31, 1924.
I want to analyse this novel not only as a ordinary reader, because “Luzhin Defense” attracted me as
a chessplayer.So, Luzhin is the main character of novel and he is chessplayer.Chess is the game ,but it
becomes the real life of Luzhin. In my opinion, Luzhin is weak – willed person and feels himself so alone in
real life, therefore he wants to live in chess life. Even he comprehends the world as a chessboard. Furthermore,
he can not understand that it is possible to lose the game, but to lose in your real life is horrible. The writer
describes two Luzhin-real life’s Luzhin (Aleksandr Ivanovich) and chess world’s Luzhin. ”Beauty, cruelty
and time” is the main idea of novel. The last line of the novel reads: “The door was burst in. 'Aleksandr
Ivanovich, Aleksandr Ivanovich,' roared several voices. But there was no Aleksandr Ivanovich.” It shows
that death was the only way for Luzhin to save himself .
Key words: Nabokov, Luzhin, chess, Vladimir Nabokovun “Lujinin Müdafiəsi” romanında şahmat
tənhalıqdan xilas yolu kimi.
“Əsl həyat şahmat həyatı gözəl,aydın və macəralarla doluydu və Lujin ləzzətlə hiss
edirdi ki,bu dünyaya ağalıq etmək necə də asandır” sətirlərinin müəllifi, rus ədəbiyya-
tının sirli yazıçısı Vladimir Nabokovdur.
Vladimir Nabokov 1899-cu ildə aprelin 10-da Sankt-Peterburq şəhərində anadan
olmuşdur.Uşaqlığının ən gözəl anlarını Vətənində keçirən Nabokov 1917-ci il inqila-
bından sonra mühacir həyatı yaşamışdır. Əvvəlcə, Berlində yaşamış,faşistlərin hakimiy-
yətə gəlişindən sonra isə ailəsi ilə birlikdə ABŞ- a köçmüşdür. Rus ədəbiyyatında bilinq-
vizmin nümayəndəsi olan V.Nabokov əsərlərini iki dildə qələmə almış,eyni zamanda
A.S.Puşkinin, M.Lermontovun əsərlərini ingilis dilinə tərcümə etmişdir. Qiymətli yara-
dıcılığı Nabokova Nobel mükafatını qazandıra bilərdi, ancaq nədənsə yazıçının “Lolita“
romanı onu bu ali mükafatdan məhrum etdi.
Nabokov yaradıcılığı müəyyən oyun qaydaları üzərində qurulmuşdur və bu oyunun
qaydaları təkcə özünə bəlli idi. Onun şahmat oyununa böyük marağı vardı və bu maraq
məşhur “Lujinin Müdafiəsi “romanında öz əksini tapmışdır. Əsərdə bütün hadisələr
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Lujinin ətrafında cərəyan edir.Lujin melanxolik bir obrazdır. Əsər boyu ruhi- psixolji
sarsıntılar keçirən Lujin böyük şahmatçıdır,onun bütün həyatı bu oyunla bağlıdır. Belə
ki, şahmat Lujinin yaşadığı həyat ,fiqurlar isə onun sevdikləridir. Ümumiyyətlə, Nabo-
kov yaradıcılığında gerçəklik və təxəyyül (oyun) daim mübarizədədir. Əsərin qəhrəmanı
Lujin gerçək həyatda arzuolunmazdır və özgələşmiş cəmiyyətdə təkdir. Bəlkə də bu
tənhalıq onunla real həyat arasında uçurumlar yaradır və o şahmat həyatını seçir. Beləcə
Lujinin həyatı da özü kimi ikidünyalı olur.Çünki romanın əvvəlindən Lujini soyadı ilə
görürük. ” Onu ən çox heyrətləndirən bu oldu ki, bazar günündən etibarən “Lujin” ça-
ğrılacaqdı.”Elə roman da bu cümlə ilə başlayır və yazıçı qəhrəmana ilk cümlədən soyad
maskası geyindirir. Yalnız əsərin sonunda biz Lujinin əsl adını tanıyırıq.”Aleksandr
İvanoviç, Aleksandr İvanoviç“!-bir neçə səs bağırmağa başladı.
Luji dünya çempionu uğrunda italyan şahmatçısı Turati ilə oyundan məğlub ol-
maqdan çox qorxur və bu oyun üçün xüsusi müdafiə kombinasiyası qurur.Lakin oyun
tamam başqa debütlə başladığından bu kombinasiya uyğun olmur və oyun vaxta görə
yarımçıq qalır. Axı, vaxt şahmat dünyasında çox amansız şeydir. Beləcə,yazıçı qeyd
etmək istəyir ki, şahmat bir oyundur ,onunla uduzmaq belə olar.Ancaq gerçək həyatda
məğlubiyyət dəhşətlidir. Real həyatda tək olan Luji bu həyatla mübarizədə yeganə çı-
xış yolunu - müdafiəsini ölümdə görür. Fikrimcə,dünyanı şahmat taxtası kimi təsəvvür
edən Lujin qalib oyunçudur,onun müdafiə mexanizmi həm şahmatda ,həm gerçək hə-
yatda onu xilas etdi. ”Artıq hər iki ayağı bayıra sallanmışdı və yalnız yapışdığı şey nə
idisə ,əlini ondan buraxmaq lazım idi – beləcə xilas olmuş olardı.”
REFERENCES
1. Vladimir Nabokov “The Luzhin Defense”.
ABSTRACT
Shakespeare's uses the themes of Justice and Mercy in the Tempest and the Merchant of Venice in
order to focus the attention of audience on justice and mercy. He wants to define what they are and
expect the audience to take their lesson from them.Sheakespeare correlates the similar endings in both
plays.
Key Words. Justice , Mercy ,Tempest , Merchant of Venice .
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
must look to see if it fulfills the qualifications of mercy in the Holy Books especially
the New Testament. Now that we have firm definitions on what mercy and justice are
in the context of Shakespeare's time, it is possible to see how each of these played a
role in these plays.(1)
In The Merchant of Venice, mercy and justice play an important role in determining
the results of it. It would be fair to say that mercy was given to Antonio and not Shylock.
For Antonio, the other cheek was turned and he was able to be spared the loss of his
life, even though he had entered into a contract in which he put this on the line. On the
other hand, money was not given to Shylock who was also harmed by being forced to
convert. However, when looking at why mercy was given to one and not the other, we
must look at how justice was applied. In Antonio's case, he is a Catholic merchant from
Europe, unlike the prince of Morocco. However, even though Shylock was also a Euro-
pean, he was not a Christian , justice did not apply. However, in context, was justice
served? Of course it was served, for not only was the spirit of it upheld but it was also
carried out how it was meant to be carried out. (2)
In The Tempest, Shakespeare again uses the concepts of justice and mercy in order
to have his audience think about what just and merciful actions were taken. At the end
of the play, when Prospero releases Caliban from his bondage, this action, by definition,
is merciful, but in no way is it just. By releasing Caliban from his control, Prospero has
taken a love thy neighbor as yourself mentality and, this, is merciful. However, when
determining if these actions are just, they are only just if Prospero wanted to give up
his control. In lines 163 - 175 of act four, scene one, Prospero gives up his control over
nature. In these lines we see that Prospero is troubled and in general just worn out, but
we do not see if he wants to do it. (3)When he arrived on the island and imprisoned
Caliban, this was just because Prospero was doing what he wanted to do and was not
harming any other Catholic European in the process. However, this behavior of mentally
imprisoning someone else is and was not merciful. In this play, Shakespeare's views
of justice and mercy again come into conflict when dealing with Prospero and Caliban.
(4)However, by applying the same idea of mercy in this play, as he did in Merchant,
Shakespeare is able to correlate a merciful end in both plays.
REFERENCES
1. Gurr , Andrew ,The Shakespeare Stage ,1574-1642 ,Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ,1996
2. Wells Stanley , The Oxford Shakespeare , OUP .2005
3. Wells Stanley , The Oxford Shakespeare , OUP .2005
4. Lambert Robert ,Houghton Mifflin Company ,1967
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Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613.His early
plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres he raised to the peak of sophistication
and artistry by the end of the 16th century. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about
1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest
works in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known
as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published
in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime. In 1623, two of his former
theatrical colleagues published the First Folio, a collected edition of his dramatic works
that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare's.
Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day. In the 20th century,
his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship
and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are constantly studied,
performed, and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the
world. His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays,
154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been
translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those
of any other playwright.
Shakespeare's dramatic career falls naturally into four successive divisions of in-
creasing maturity. The first of the four periods thus disclosed is that of experiment and
preparation, from about 1588 to about 1593, when Shakespeare tried his hand at virtually
every current kind of dramatic work. Its most important product is 'Richard III,' a me-
lodramatic chronicle-history play, largely imitative of Marlowe and yet showing striking
power. At the end of this period Shakespeare issued two rather long narrative poems
on classical subjects, 'Venus and Adonis,' and 'The Rape of Lucrece,' dedicating them
both to the young Earl of Southampton, who thus appears as his patron. Both display
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
great fluency in the most luxuriant and sensuous Renaissance manner. Probably at about
the end of his first period, also, he began the composition of his sonnets, of which we
have already spoken.
The second period of Shakespeare's work, extending from about 1594 to about 1601,
is occupied chiefly with chronicle-history plays and happy comedies. The chronicle-
history plays begin with the subtile and fascinating, though not yet absolutely masterful
study of contrasting characters in 'Richard II'; continue through the two parts of 'Henry
IV,' where the realistic comedy action of Falstaff and his group makes history familiarly
vivid; and end with the epic glorification of a typical English hero-king in 'Henry V.'
The comedies include the charmingly fantastic 'Midsummer Night's Dream'; 'The
Merchant of Venice,' where a story of tragic sternness is strikingly contrasted with the
most poetical idealizing romance and yet is harmoniously blended into it; 'Much Ado
About Nothing,' a magnificent example of high comedy of character and wit; 'As You
Like It,' the supreme delightful achievement of Elizabethan and all English pastoral
romance; and 'Twelfth Night,' where again charming romantic sentiment is made beli-
evable by combination with a story of comic realism. Even in the one, unique, tragedy
of the period, 'Romeo and Juliet,' the main impression is not that of the predestined
tragedy, but that of ideal youthful love, too gloriously radiant to be viewed with sorrow
even in its fatal outcome.
The third period, extending from about 1601 to about 1609, includes Shakespeare's
great tragedies and certain cynical plays, which formal classification mis-names comedies.
In these plays as a group Shakespeare sets himself to grapple with the deepest and
darkest problems of human character and life; but it is only very uncertain inference
that he was himself passing at this time through a period of bitterness and disillusion.
The theory persistently advocated during the last half century that Shakespeare's
works were really written not by himself but by Francis Bacon or some other person
can never gain credence with any competent judge. Our knowledge of Shakespeare's
life, slight as it is, is really at least as great as that which has been preserved of almost
any dramatist of the period; for dramatists were not then looked on as persons of per-
manent importance. No poet bending his energies to the composition of such master-
pieces as Shakespeare's could. Second, the cipher systems are absolutely arbitrary and
unscientific, applied to any writings whatever can be made to 'prove' anything that one
likes. Third, it has been demonstrated more than once that the verbal coincidences on which
the cipher systems rest are no more numerous than the law of mathematical probabilities
requires. Aside from actually vicious pursuits, there can be no more melancholy waste
of time than the effort to demonstrate that Shakespeare is not the real author of his
reputed works.
In the scientific area his creative works have been used by great pleasure in abstracts,
course works, articles, diplomas up today. Because of modern life his plays are being
reviving in the films. Especially the youngs love his masterpiece “Romeo and Juliet” that
deals with love. The thousand of centures had been already passed and after this will
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be passed, but Shakespeare' s valuable and irreplaceable creativity will be read, lived,
preserved by the world proudly.
REFERENCES
1. Oruch, Jack B., "St. Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in February," Speculum, 56 (1981): 534–65.
Oruch's survey of the literature finds no association between Valentine and romance prior to Chaucer.
He concludes that Chaucer is likely to be "the original mythmaker in this instance."
2. http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf
3. Thomas Weber, "Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor," Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 28–29.
4. David, Deirdre The Cambridge companion to the Victorian novel p.179. Cambridge University Press,
2001.
5. Elleke Boehmer (2008). Nelson Mandela: a very short introduction. p. 157. Oxford University Press,
2008. "'Invictus', taken on its own, Mandela clearly found his Victorian ethic of self-mastery"
6. Beebe, Maurice (Fall 1972). "Ulysses and the Age of Modernism". James Joyce Quarterly (University
of Tulsa) 10 (1): p. 176.
7. The Cambridge companion to Virginia Woolf. By Sue Roe, Susan Sellers. p.219. Cambridge University
Press, 2000.
Introduction
Society is a human community, usually with a relatively fixed territorial location,
sharing a common culture and common activities. There is cultural and institutional
interdependence between members of the society and they are, to some extent, from
other communities and groups1. Sharing a common culture and common activities so-
ciety can be easily affected and changed by the convulsive events such as world wars
and revolutions. After World War II all European countries included England faced
innumerable predicaments and shifts. Labour Party which governed England during the
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
1950s did not meet people’s demands. Having lost the domination on its colonies such
as India and Burma inequality, unemployment, class consiousness still existed in their
governing period. All these conditions which can be seen as ‘predicament’ for society
caused desperation, unwillingness on new generation’s minds which led them dissa-
tisfaction. The plans for postwar secondary education in Britain aimed to remove the
inequalities which remained in the system. The proportion of 'free places' at grammar
schools in England and Wales increased from almost a third to almost half between
1913 and 1937. However, when poorer children were offered free places, parents often
had to turn them down owing to the extra costs involved2. The Education Act which
was aimed to bring equality for lower class people did not work out. Graduated from
universities the youth was unemployed.
Angry young men movement
In this gloomy atmosphere British theatre became a mirror reflecting sociopolitical
events and changes which means society’s attraction on sociopolitical events got more
deeper than before because after postwar period a new sociocultural movement was
born in England ‘Angry Young Men.’ It was based on the disaffection and anger that
a group of writers felt towards society. John Osborne, Arnold Wesker, John Braine,
Kingsley Amis were the pioneers of the ‘Angry Young Men’. One could say that John
Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger first produced in 1956 started the ‘Anger’ move-
ment. Both the ‘Angries’ and their protagonists exhibited the need to voice the ills of
society, to tell the truth at all costs. Angry Young Men became the voice of dissappointed
generation and minority who was aware of hypocrisy of the society. Their main cha-
racters shared really similar characteristics as rebelliousness, criticism and contempt
towards the society in which they lived and also they describe the monotony, mediocrity
and injustice of their lives.
John Osborne
The man who turned anger into art ,John Osborne, changed the face of British
Theatre. His play ‘Look Back in Anger’ was the turning point in postwar British theatre.
He was an 'Angry Young Man' who spent his happiest years in Shropshire3. John James
Osborne was born in London, England in 1929 to Thomas Osborne, an advertisement
writer, and Nellie Beatrice, a barmaid. His father died in 1941, leaving Osborne an insu-
rance settlement which he used to finance a boarding school education at Belmont Col-
lege in Devon. Osborne was expelled after only a few years for striking the headmaster.
After coming back home, Osborne worked several jobs before he found a niche in
the theatre. He began working with Anthony Creighton's provincial touring company
where he was a stage hand, actor, and writer. Look Back in Anger was written in a short
period and was finally accepted by George Devine for production with his failing Royal
Court Theatre. Both Osborne and the Royal Court Theatre were struggling to survive
financially and both saw the production of Look Back in Anger as a risk. After opening
night, the play received mixed reviews, however, Osborne was soon pronounced to be
one of the most promising young playwright's in British theatre.
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In the late 1950s, Osborne was persuaded by Lawrence Olivier, the famous actor,
about writing a play for him. Osborne wrote The Entertainer, a play that metaphorically
explores the decline of the British Empire through the eyes of a failing music hall.
Olivier played the lead role in the production and the play received critical praise. Os-
borne would continue to write for the stage through the 1960s. He produced a number of
critical and commercially successful works including Luther, a play based on the life
of Martin Luther. In 1963, Osborne won an Academy Award for his screen adaptation
of Tom Jones.
Osborne continued to work in the artistic and entertainment worlds through the
1970s and 80s. He wrote plays, but also turned into writing screenplays, television
adaptations, and autobiography. Osborne made several appearances as an actor during
this period. He starred in several popular Hollywood films including Get Carter and
Flash Gordon. Later in life, he received considerable awards for his work including a
Lifetime Achievement Award from the Writer's Guild in Britain. Osborne died at the
age of 65 from complications related to diabetes.
Conclusion
To sum up, before Osborne arrived on the theatrical scene, the British theatre just
composed of melodramas and middle class drawing-room comedies. But in 1956, Os-
borne's play Look Back in Anger shocked audiences and "wiped the smugness off the
frivolous face of English theatre," as John Lahr put it in a New York Times Book Review
article. Osborne's protagonist, Jimmy Porter, caught the angry and rebellious nature of
the postwar generation, a dispossessed people who were clearly unhappy with things
as they were in the decades following World War II. Jimmy Porter came to represent
an entire generation of ‘Angry Young Men.’ Look Back in Anger established Osborne,
the struggling actor and playwright, as a leading writer for theatre, television and film.
It also had a profound effect on British culture. The play threw cold water in the face
of a sleepy popular culture. All manner of writers, actors, artists, and musicians (inclu-
ding the Beatles) soon reflected the influence of Osborne's ‘Angry Young Man.’
END NOTE
1. http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl Online Dictionary of Social Sciences
2. www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transforming ociety/livinglearning/school/overview/edu-
cationalact1944/
3. www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/articles/2005/04/07/great-salopians-john-osborne feature-shtml
REFERENCES
1. Colby, Douglas. As The Curtain Rises: Contemporary British Drama. London: Associated Univ
Press, 1979.
2. Hayman, Ronald. John Osborne. London: Heineman, 1968.
3. Taylor, John. R. Anger and After: A Guide to the New British Drama. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1963.
4. http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl Online Dictionary of Social Sciences
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
5. www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transforming society/livinglearning/school/overview/edu-
cationalact1944/
6. www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/articles/2005/04/07/great-salopians-john-osborne-feature-shtml
ABSTRACT
West…. from which side, which point of view to analyze West? Let’s see ,not impressive side-
technology for nowadays, look to the literature from the past bevel. Lived in Victorian and Elizabethan
period, carrying the West conception form and thoughts of his epoch, without any restrictions – but some-
times as they are, sometimes with exaggerating to the literature was eminent writer – Shakespeare. From
centuries he was recalled, proved himself and precious works which he left behind, have difficulties in
understanding but stating sayings, imagery beauty are inestimable in his work. So, I wont to cite you about
the person who had such kind of values.
Key words: Eminent Shakespeare ,West conception form ,difficult language ,personal precious.
One of eminent writers of world’s literature , who was recalled mostly with his
name, who tried to quote West man’s sentiment to the humanity accurately was forceful
pen user – Shakespeare. Born in England, was neither a genius nor a superman with
special powers. Just born in the village but actually started robust words and could use
precious thoughts. He was an important nominee of word’s literature. In his time “the
globe” was under the pressure of his writings. Saying efficiency, we mean that, actually
W. Shakespeare indicated such kind of points that life truths could find like their
“shadows” in the literature. And this was the most striking feature of Shakespeare .(1)
The English language has changed a great deal over the last few hundred years,
and it is still changing like other languages. Several words in use during those periods
either have different meanings today or have been nearly forgotten. Also Elizabethan
dialect differs slightly from Modern English, but the principles are generally the same.
On those times there were no dictionaries. Although especially grammar issues organized
but they would not appear until the 1700 s. So Shakespeare as a youth would have no
more systematically studied his own language. But he was well – educated conversa-
tionalist in the language from inside . Shakespeare could use words where they fitted.
Maybe that is why Shakespeare is as relevant today as he was in his own time? The best
answer for this question is that: From my point of view he is relevant and important
person for all ages because people die, but words never die. If he left memorable and
unforgettable sayings behind himself, so he would never die. But actually for many
people today, reading Shakespeare’s language is a problem but it is a problem that can
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
REFERENCES
1. Shakespeare William, The Library Shakespeare Really Useful Map Company Ltd.India, 2007, 183-218
2. Shakespeare William, Romeo ve Juliyet , Remzi Kitapevi ,2000, 142
3. Kolcu Ali Ihsan,Batı Edebiyatı ,Akçağ,Ankara 2003,238
4. http://www.william-shakespeare.info/william-shakespeare-dictionary-c.htm
5. http://www.bathcsd.org/webpages/edepartment/shakespearean_terms.cfm
6. http://www.bardweb.net/language.html
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Shakespeare her biri birbirinden farklı komedi ve trajedi türünde eserler kaleme
almıştır. Komedi türündeki eserlerinde benzersiz güldürü yeteneğini ortaya koyarken,
trajedilerinde tüylerimizi diken diken eden bir gerilim yaratmaktadir. Hamlet eseri de
tüylerimizi diken diken eden trajedi türünde bir eseridir. Shakespear eserlerinde daha
çok hadiselerin derinliyine inmiştir.Onun eserlerinde ilk bakişta önemsiz görünen küçük
bir olayın arkasında aslında toplumu ilgilendiren meseleler durmaktadir. Hamlet eseride
sadece intikam alma duygusu üzerine yazılmış gibi gözükse de aslında dönemin sosyal
ve siyasi meseleleri ile bağlı yazdığı bir eseridir. Hamlet hakkında çok sayıda yazılar
yazılmıştır ve bu yazıların çoğu da baş kahramanımız Hamlet karakterinin tahlili üzerine
olmuştur. Karakterimiz hakkında bir birine zıt ve muhtelif fikir söyleyenler olduğu gibi
eserin esas ideasını Hamletin düşünceleri ile iradesi arasında olan zıtlıklarda arayanlarda
olmuştur. Rus yazarı Turgenyev 1860 yılında yazdığı “Hamlet ve Don Kişot” adlı ma-
kalesinde Hamlet’in bencil ve her şeye şüphe ile yanaşan biri, Don Kişot’un ise işgüzar
biri olduğunu yazmıştır. Ona göre Hamlet düşünen insandır lakin fealiyetsizdir. Don
Kişot ise iradelidir, ama, akıllı değil demiştir. Turgenyev şunu da belirtmiştir ki, Ham-
let de Don Kişot gibi kötülüklerin karşısında duran bir karakter olmuştur (Dünya Ede-
biyatı William Shakespear seçilmiş eserleri). Evet, Hamlet toplumda olan haksızlıkları
kanunların ikiyüzlülüyünü saf ve temiz olan duyguların önemsenmediğini insanların
ne kadar alçaldığını ve yalancı olduklarını görür fakat Hamlet bütün bunlara karşı bir-
şeyler yapmak istese de başaralı olamaz. Bunun en önemli nedeni ise karakterimizin
iradesinin zayıf olması ve içinde bulunduğu ikilemlerden kurtulamamasıdır. Hamletin
yaşadığı bu ikilemleri babasının hayaleti ile karşılaştıktan sonraki davranışlarşında
daha da net görmekteyiz. Hamletin cevabını veremediği bir soru vardır ki, o babasının
intikamını almalı mi, yoksa almamalı mı? Hamlet karakterini incelediğimizde yazarı-
mızın,diğer eserlerinde olduğu gibi bu eserinde de kitap karakteri oluşturmak yerine
hemen hemen, günlük hayatta karşımıza çıkabilecek sıradan bir karakter oluşturduğunu
görürüz. Hamletin tam olarak anlaşılamayan bir kişiliği vardır. Bu da onu her çağda
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
yoruma açık bir karakter yapmaktadır. Hamletin en önemli sorunu ise kendi zayıflıkları
olmuştur. Esere dönüp baktığımızda Hamlet, babasının amcası tarafından öldürüldüğünü
öğrendikten sonra acı çekmeye başlar. Hamlet ya bu acıyı çekecek ya da kendini öl-
dürerek bu acıyı dindirecektir. Karakterimizin bu ikilemini Shakespeare “Olmak ya da
olmamak” işte bütün sorun bu dizesiyle dile getirmiştir.
KAYNAKLAR
1. Vilyam Şekspir 1564-1616, Seçilmiş Əsərləri (“Şərq-Qərb”, Bakı-2009).
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
düzgün və yeganə mütərəqqi yoldur. Prof. Şamil Vəliyev (Körpülü) bu haqda yazır:
“... “Füyuzat”çıların Şərq və Qərb, müsəlman və xristian aləminin mədəniyyət və ədə-
biyyatının qarşılıqlı əlaqə və müqayisədə təhlili onların bütöv dünyanı anlamaq istəyinə
əsaslanırdı” (1, 135).
“Füyuzat”çıların Şərq və Qərb əlaqələrinin öyrənilməsində qazandığı uğurlar nə
qədər diqqəti cəlb etsə də, indiki günlərimizdə də ənənəvi tədqiqat prizmasında bu əla-
qələrin daha əhatəli şəkildə tədqiq edilməsinə ehtiyac olduğunu söyləməliyik.
İngiltərədə Şərq ölkələrinə, xüsusilə onun mədəniyyət və ədəbiyyatına hədsiz ma-
rağı ərəb ədəbiyyatının klassik toplusu olan “Min bir gecə”nin XVIII əsrin əvvəllərində
- 1705-1708-ci illərdə anonim “Grub Street” adlı versiyasının ingilis dilinə tərcüməsi
ilə başlanmışdır. Lakin ərəb dilində yazılmış bu sənət abidəsinin Qərbi Avropada tanın-
ması Antoni Qallandın (Antoine Galland (1646-1715)) tərcüməsi ilə əlaqələndirilir.
Antoni Qallandın tərcümə versiyası 1704-1717-ci illər arasında çap olunmuşdur.
Lakin “Min bir gecə”nin ilk mükəmməl tərcüməsinin Con Peynə (John Payne
(1842-1916)) məxsus olduğunu söyləmək lazımdır və onun tərcüməsi çox az nəşr tirajı
ilə 1882-1884-cü illərdə ingilis oxucusuna təqdim edilmişdir. Ser Riçard Börtonun (Sir
Richard Burton (1821-1890)) ərəb erotologiyasının mükəmməl sənət nümunəsi “Min
bir gecə”sinin 1885-1888-ci illərdə tərcüməsi ona tənqidin və maliyyənin böyük uğu-
runu gətirən əsərə çevrildi.
Əvvəla, onu da vurğulamaq yerinə düşər ki, Şərq və Qərb məfhumları heç də coğ-
rafi trayektoriyaları, yaxud coğrafi məkanları bütövlükdə özündə ehtiva etmir. Əslində,
Şərq – İslam, Qərb isə Xristian dünyasını ifadə etmək məramı daşıyır.
Anqlo-Sakson dövrünün VII əsrin əvvəllərində meydana çıxması İslam dini dün-
yagörüşünün, o cümlədən İslamın pərvəriş tapdığı dövrə təsadüf edir. Erkən ingilis ya-
zarlarının nə ölkələrin artıq məlumatlandırıldığı İslam konsepsiyası, nə də sonrakı əsr-
lərdə Qərb yazarlarının sarasinlərə (Orta əsrdə qərblilərin Afrika müsəlmanlarına verdiyi
ad-L.İ.) həsr edəcəyi əsərlərə xüsusi, yaxud fantastik diqqət yetirilmədiyini qeyd edən
İova Universitetinin ingilis dili və ədəbiyyatı alimi Keyti Lavezzo (Kathy Lavezzo)
yazır: “Erkən və indiki günlərimizə gəlib çatan Anqlo-Sakson dövrünün ərəb işğallarının
təsviri Bidin (The Venerable Bede (673-735)) “Genezis” (“Bibliya: Varlıq kitabı”) ki-
tabına dair şərhində səhnəyə çıxdı” (2, 435-436).
Ser Con Mandevillenin (Sir John Mandeville) ilk dəfə 1356-1357-ci illərdə Anqlo-
Norman fransız dilində yazıya aldığı məşhur səyahət əlyazması XIV əsr ingilis ədəbiy-
yatında Şərq ölkələrinin coğrafiyasının, romans və möcüzələri ilə təbii tarixinin yadda
qalan səhifələrinin təsvirini verən təsiredici, cəzbedici əsər kimi dəyərləndirilir. Sonra-
lar bu əsər ədəbi aləmdə qüdrətli ingilis yazarları kimi dünya şöhrəti qazanan Cefri Ço-
serdən Vilyam Şekspirə kimi bir sıra sənət adamlarının yaradıcılığına mühüm və əhə-
miyyətli təsirini göstərmişdir. Ser Con Mandevillenin səyahət kitabı ingilis ədəbiyya-
tında yaranan əfsanəvi səyahət kitabının məşhur janrının prototipi kimi qəbul edilmiş-
dir. Oxucunu Türkiyəyə, Tatar ölkəsinə (orijinalda “Tartary” kimi təqdim edilən bu ölkə
əslində Azərbaycan ölkəsi kimi nəzərdə tutulmuşdur-L.İ.), İrana, Misirə və Hindistana
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
aparan səyahət kitabında Şərq tarixi, coğrafiyası ilə bağlı elementlərin öyrənilib tədqiq
edilməsi ayrıca bir tədqiqat mövzusu ola bilər.
İlk dəfə bu əlyazmanın təxminən 1357-ci ildə Fransada yayımından sonra onun bir
sıra Avropa dillərinə tərcümə edildiyini qeyd edən araşdırıcılar həmin dövrdən “Səya-
hətlər” əsərinin 22 versiyasının indiki günlərimizə gəlib çıxdığını söyləyirlər. Əslində
bu əsər öz dövründə Müqəddəs torpağa-Şərq ölkələrinə çıxan zəvvarlar üçün həm coğ-
rafi, həm də etik məlumatları özündə təcəssüm etdirən bələdçi kitabıdır. Bir faktı da
qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, bu əlyazma Boldenseleli Uilyamın (William of Boldensele),
Pordenoneli Frayer Odorik (Friar Odoric of Pordenone) və Beauvaisli Vincentin (Vin-
cent of Beauvais) əsərləri əsasında tərtib edilmiş bir toplu kimi də dəyərləndirilir.
Qərb təcrübəsinin və dəyərlərinin tənqidçisi kimi Ser Con Mandevillenin kitabı
ekzotikləşdirilmiş Şərqin yenidən sınaqdan keçirilməsi prizmasında bir çox tarixi hadi-
sələrin öyrənilməsi baxımından təəccüblü deyildir. XIX əsrin ortalarında yazılan kita-
bın Avropada qısa müddətdə və geniş şəkildə yayılıb populyarlaşmasının səbəbi təbii
ki, Qərb oxucusu üçün qəribə və ecazkar görünən Şərq dünyasının real görüntüləri ol-
muşdur. İngilis, ispan, daniya dillərində yayımlanan bu səyahət toplusu ən azı iki əsrlik
bir zamanda Şərqə dair mötəbər məlumatların mənbəyi olaraq öz aktuallığını və əhə-
miyyətini qoruyub saxlamışdır. Səyahət ədəbiyyatının qeyri-adi populyarlığı bir də ona
görə yüksək dəyərləndirilir ki, o digər ədəbiyyat jurnallarından fərqli şəkildə birinci şəx-
sin dilindən təqdim edilən mətnin faktiki müşahidəsi əsasında əfsanəvi qəhrəmanın de-
yil, əsl səyahətçinin dili ilə təqdim edilən inandırıcı təhkiyəni özündə ehtiva edir.
Sonrakı dövrlərdə, xüsusilə ingilis romantizmi dövründə Şərq mövzusunda əsərlər
yazmış müəmmalı həyatı və türk dünyasına qarşı qərəzli siyasi mövqeyi və fəaliyyəti
ilə dünyada yaxşı tanınan Corc Qordon Bayron, gözəl və oxunaqlı mahnıların və poe-
maların müəllifi, irland əsilli Tomas Mur, “Min bir gecə” nağılları kimi macəra janrında
yazdığı romanları ilə məşhur olan Ceyms Yustinyan Moriyerin Şərq mövzusunda yaz-
dığı əsərləri ədəbiyyat tarixinin “yaddaş”ına yazılmış, oxucu marağının və heyrətinin
unudulmaz stolüstü kitabı kimi dəyərləndirilmişdir.
XIX əsr ingilis romantizmində Şərq konsepsiyası ayrı-ayrı yazıçı və şairlərin Şərq
dünyasına ictimai-siyasi baxışlarının görüntüləri çevrəsində araşdırılıb tədqiq edilmə-
lidir. Fikrimizcə, Şərq dünyasının Qərb ədəbi arealında bədii əksi verilən mənzərəsində
ruhani dünyamız, tarix və mədəniyyətimiz haqqında deyilən hər sözün, hər obrazın ar-
xasında heyrət və həsədlə yanaşı, tədqiqə ehtiyacı olan o qədər də açıq-aydın görünməyən
“üsyan” və “təhqirlər”in də təhlil və şərh edilməsinə ehtiyac vardır.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
1. Veliyev (Körpülü) Şamil. Füyuzat edebi mektebi. Ankara: Edjat yayınları, 2000.
2. Lavezzo Kathy. Complex Identities: Selves and Others.-The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Litera-
ture in English. Printed in Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 2010.
3. Knolles Richard. The General History of the Turks. London, 1603.
4. Gower Roger. Past into Present. Longman, 1990.
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As antique Greek poetry and the works by Greek philosophers as well as poems
of Ottoman and of an ancient East literature had a vast influence on English literature
and scientific circles. So in British criticism different investigations have been made
on Ottoman poetry and scientific explanations have been rendered in English.
While thinking about investigation of Ottoman poetry, we feel under obligation of
mentioning the names of critics, Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) and George Puttenham
(?1529-1591) who wrote some sharp statements on poetry problems. Those critics faced
with the decline in the English poetry. “The Arte of English Poesie” by Puttenham1
(1589) and “The Defence of Poesie”(1595) by Sidney2 attracts attentions as the charac-
teristic of arguments and trials to return back to poetic traditions of the ancient English
poetry. From this point of view it is important to mention the logical scientific discourses
of Sidney against those are of the opinion that poetry is unnecessary. He wrote: “…
neither Phylosopher nor Histoririographer could at the first have entered into the gates
of popular judgements, if they had not taken a great Passport of Poetry, which in all
Nations at this day, where learning florisheth not, is plaine to be seene, in all which they
have some feeling of Poetry.”3
After such kind of judgments Philip Sidney remind the way that the poetry was
created and developed in Turkey. H noted: “... in benighted Turkey besides their lawe
– giving Divines they have no other Writers but Poets.”4
It is not coincidence that Philip Sidney who created the first scientific work of cri-
ticism in the English literature mentioned such kind of judgments. The extraordinary
poetic samples of literature touched the cords of hearts of people not only in Turkey
but also in other parts of the world.
Prof. Hamid Araslı noted one sided characteristic of works written about Turkic
as well as Eastern poets by European orientalists: “Generally European orientalists
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REFERENCES
1. Sanders Andrew, The Short Oxford History of English Literature, Second Edition, London: Oxford
Univ. Press 1999
2. Araslı Hamid, The life and creativity of Saib Tebrizi; Araslı Hamid, Azerbaijan Literature: history
and problems, (selected works) I volume. Baku: Youth, 1998
3. E.J. Gibb, A History of Ottoman poetry, Volume I, London1958
4. http://www.poetspath.com/Dave_Cope/Puttenham.htm
5. http://www.poetryfoundation.org/learning/essay/237818
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Tess Durbeyfield and her family which belonged to a middle class lived in the town
of Marlott in a state of destitution. Her father`s, John Durbeyfield`s rank was above the
farm laborers. He does not put much interest in working and instead spends time drinking.
One evening his meeting a man upon returning to his home was the first coincidence
in Tess`s life. This man named Parson Tringham makes him aware about the fact that
the Durbeyfield family is the lineal representative of the ancient and knightly family
of the d`Urbervilles who came from Normandy with William the Conqueror.(1,18)
This news suddenly changes Durbeyfield`s view on his family`s lifestyle and decides
that they should be living as their noble ancestors once did. If all the things had gone
as they planned, they should have lived in prosperity and wealth. But the events tended
to other direction.
Being aware of this news John`s wife Joan Durbeyfield says that a man by the name
of d`Urberville lives not far from their home and considers that he might be able to help
them in their hard times. After the death of their only horse, the Durbeyfield family
have to do something to earn for living, but Mr. Durbeyfield refuses to sell the horse
due to his newfound d` Urberville pride. Because this knightly family never sold their
chargers for cat`s meat. (1,45) So, the family decides to send their eldest daughter,
Tess to see if the d` Urberville family would help them, with hopes of Tess marrying
a gentleman and restoring their family`s status. This egoist decision of sending Tess to
the d`Urberville would be the change in her life that would lead to so many other events
for her and would be the beginning of her life`s destruction. Had Tess not been sent to
the d`Urberville home, she would not have met Alec nor would bore his child and her
life would have been completely different.
With hopes of finding work at a diary called Talbothay`s Tess left her birthplace
of Marlott after her son`s death. The people there was unaware of her past because he
told nothing to them about it. After much time, Tess would accept the marriage proposal
of a co-worker named Angel Clare, who was in love with her. She decides to tell him
everything about herself to Angel before getting married him. But she couldn`t tell it
face to face that is why she sat down and wrote a succinct narrative of those events and
put it into an envelope. Despite this letter, Tess`s confession did not reach Angel Clare.
By chance, her letter was not only slipped underneath his door, but also slipped under-
neath his carpet, where he could not see it. Tess did not discover this until her wedding
day, when she decided to tear up the letter and not let him know of her past.
Tess`s life again had been changed by another coincidence. Writing a letter and
putting it under Angel`s door, Tess felt much ease knowing that he would know all of
her past. Now she hoped that despite of every disaster happened to her Angel would
still love her as much as he did before.
Little after their marriage, Tess confesses to Angel of her past. Angel goes to Brasil
to find land where he might be able to start a farm and also think about Tess`s confession
and decide which step to take next. Soon after Angel`s leaving, she decides to leave
Marlott and find work. But due to the time of year, she was forced to go to Flintcomb-
Ash, where she works to death.Tess struggles through the work and finds the courage
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to ask her father-in law for help because of bad condition and lack of money. All this
time there was not any information of Angel, even he did not write any letter to her.
On her way back to the farm, Tess mets Alec who persues her for some time trying to
persuade her in his love. “Remember, my lady, I was your master once! I will be your
master again. If you are any man`s wife you are mine!” (2) The main coincidence is
that during the time d`Urberville is pursuing her, Tess`s mother becomes ill and her
father soon dies.
After the death of Tess`s father, the Durbeyfield family loses its the only shelter.
So, D`Urberville gets great opportunity to move in on Tess. He convinced Tess that
Angel would never come back and by this way he had Tess to get marry him. He then
gives her family a home and money, and he himself lives with them. All of these events
happens just in time because he does return, but it is too late and Tess had already
married.This coincidence of Tess`s father dying at just the right moment for Alec to
marry her and Angel returning only a little after, leads to the murder of Alec. If her
father had not died and Angel had not returned at just the right moment, she would not
have killed Alec and would not have been sentenced to an execution for her crimes.
All of these coincidences had a great impact on Tess`s life and changed it drama-
tically. Each event that occurred by chance left Tess in a predicament where she was
compelled to take control and do something to improve the situation.
REFERENCES
1. Thomas Hardy “Tess of the D`Urbervilles” , 2004.
2. http://classiclit.about.com/od/ttitles/a/aa_tessquote.htm
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Danılmaz bir həqiqət var ki, 60-cı illərin nəsri, və ya yeni nəsr ədəbiyyatı tariximizə
təkcə mövzu, məzmun,qəhrəman, xarakterlər və s. fərqləri ilə deyil, eləcə də janr-üslub
axtarışları, fərqləri ilə yeni bir mərhələ kimi daxil olurlar. 50-ci illərin sonu, 60-cı illərin
əvvələrində ortaya çıxan “yeni nəsr”in ədəbiyyatımızda özünütəsdiq mərhələsi artıq
arxada qalmışdır. Aradan keçən bu müddət ərzində ədəbiyyatımızda bir mərhələ təşkil
edən “yeni nəsr”in tədqiqi ilə bağlı müəyyən tədqiqat işləri də aparılmışdır. Hələ də
mübahisəli olaraq qalan müxtəlif məsələlərə baxmayaraq, tənqidçi və ədəbiyyatşünas-
ların yekdilliklə təsdiq etdiyi kimi, “yeni nəsr” müasir Azərbaycan nəsrinin aparıcı
istiqamətini təçkil edir. Yeni nəsrin yaranması, formalaşması prosesini izah edərkən,
tənqidçi və ədəbiyyatçünasların arasında mübahisələrə səbəb olan fikirlərdən biri “yeni
nəsr”in təkcə zaman, yaxud nəsil, və ya keyfiyyət anlayışları ilə bağlı olduğunun gös-
tətrilməsidir. Tanınmış ədəbiyyatşünas və təngidçi Yaşar Qarayev “Nəsrin yeniliyi”
adlı yazısında yeni nəsrin yaranması prosesində ədəbi nəsliln iştirakını qeyd edir: “Alt-
mış-yetmişinci illərdə qənclər nəsrə dəstə ilə gəldilər və məcbur elədilər ki, həm oxucu,
həm ədəbi–elmi-estetik fikir öz diqqət və marağını onlarda cəmləşdirsin. “Yeni Azər-
baycan nəsri”, “yeni dalğa” ifadələrini də bizim cari leksikonuna elə onlar daxil elədilər.
Həmin ifadələr bu nəslin müasir milli nəsrə gətirdiyi yeniliyi (istər məzmun, ideya,
mövzu yeniliyi, istərsə də forma, yaxud indi deyildiyi kimi, struktur baxımından təzə-
tərliyi) ehtiva və ifadə eləyə bildi.” (3,124).
Başqa bir ədəbiyyatşünas alim, Arif Hacıyev isə o zamankı gənc nasirlərin gördüklə-
ri işi, həmin illərdə rus ədəbiyyatında və ölkənin digər ədəbiyyatlarında baş verən dəyi-
şikliklərə, təmayüllərə cavan yazıçıların sadəcə olaraq reaksiyası kimi qiymətləndirir.(5,8)
Şübhəsiz, hər iki fikirdə təkzib olunmayaz həqiqət vardır. Yeni nəsrin məhz 60-cı
illər ədəbi nəslinin fəaliyyəti ilə bağlamaqda tənqid tamamilə haqlıdır, çünki bəhs olu-
nan dövrdə ədəbiyyatımızda yeniliyin, novatorluğun əsas daşıyıcıları məhz gənclər
oldular və yeni nəsrin ideya-estetik platformasını ərsəyə gətirməyin, müdafiə etməyin
bütün ağırlığı da onların çiyinlərinə düşdü. Buna görə də, “almışıncılar”,adlandırılan
ədəbi nəslin yeni nəsrin təşəkkulündə və formalaşmasındakı önəmli rolu təbii və qa-
nunauyğun sayılmalıdır, lakin bunu mütləqləşdirərək, ancaq bu meyar əsasında konkret
bədii əsər və onun məziyyətləri haqqında mühakimə yürütmək birtərəfliyə mexaniki
qiymətləndirməyə gətirib çıxara bilər. Yeni nəsrin tədqiqində diqqəti cəlb edən məsə-
lələrdən biri də onun zəngin üslublara malik olmasıdır. Bu da səbəbsiz deyil. Dəyişən
ab-hava , mühit özünə yeni yanaşma tərzi ,yeni üslub tələb edirdi. İnsanın daxili-psi-
xoloji aləminə yönələn əsərlərin ənənəvi metodlarla təsviri artıq mümkün deyildi. “60-
ci illər nəsrində həyat materialına münasibətdə baş vermiş dəyisiklikliyi, şübhəsiz ilk
növbədə həyat materialına münasibətdə baş vermiş dəyişikliklərdə axtarmaq lazımdır.
Bu material-real gerçəkliyin özünə yeni münasibət tələb edirdi, bu yeni münasibət isə
yeni yanaşma tərzində, yeni ifadə tərzində və nəhayət yeni yazı manerasında, stilində
reallaşırdı” ( 2,137). Yeni nəsr nümayəndələrini bədii təsvir predmetinə ümumi baxış,
eyni ovqat və dünyaduyumu, gəhrəmanların hiss və duyğularına həssas münasibət bir-
ləşdirir. Ənənəvi ədəbiyyatdan fərqli olaraq, yeni nəsrin qəhrəmanları adi adamlar oldu.
Hər biri mürəkkəb psixoloqiyaya malik bu adamların, təsvir etmə missiyasını isə sovet
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nəsri yerinə yetirə bilməzdi, çünki sosialist realizmi canlı, real insanlardan daha çox
müxtəlif hadisə və epoxal dəyişmələri qələmə alırdı. Bununla demək olmaz ki, yeni
nəsr həmin stereotip və çərçivələrdən birdən-birə çıxdı.
Yeni Azərbaycan nəsrinin üslubları zaman etibarilə çox qisa , məzmunca isə dol-
ğun tarixi inkişaf yolu keçmişdir. Bu yolun elmi-nəzəri tədqiqi fərdi yaradıcılıq xüsu-
siyyətlərinə görə bir-birinə yaxın olan sənətkarların təşkil etdikləri üslub istiqamətlə-
rinin hər birinin novator xarakterinini aşkarlamağa imkan verir. Şübhəsiz, üslub təma-
yüllərin, üslubların novator xarakterini aşkar edərkən onların ənənəyə nə dərəcədə bağlı
olduqları da nəzərə alınmalıdır.Yeni nəsr nümayəndələri ənənəyə əsaslanmaq mənasında
yaşlı nəsil yazıçılarına deyil,daha əvvəlki dövrün ənənəsinə müraciət edirlər (C.Məm-
mədqluzadə, Ə.Haqverdiyev və b.).Bu da yəgin ki, hər iki dövr sənətkarlarının insanın
mənəvi-daxili aləminə olan marağı, şəhsiyyətin mənəvi aləmində baş verən təbədduat-
ları təhlil etmələri ilə bağlıdır. “60-cı illərdə üslub probleminin kəskinləşməsi (əgər belə
demək mümkündürsə) mənəvi xarakter daşıyır, üslubi tendensiyalarda gərginliklə ay-
dın insan mövgeyi nəzərdən keçirilir” (6,164) .
Beləliklə, ədəbiyyatda müasir həyat haqqında artıq köhnəlmiş təsəvvür və ifadə
vasitələri ilə yazmağın mümkün olmaması qənaətinin doğurduğu qüvvəti, səmərəli
axtarış ruhu, yeni vəzifələrə uyğun gələn fərqli, orijinal estetik boyalar tapmaq cəhdi-
nin bədii fikrin inkişafının mahiyyəti və istiqamətini müəyyən etdiyinin şahidi olduq.
Yeni nəsrin yaradıcılıq üslubları bunlardır: intellektual üslub, analitik üslub, psixoloji
üslub, dramatik üslub, lirik-psixoloji üslub, publisistik üslub. Bu yaradıcılıq üslubları
ənənə və novatorluğun qısa zaman kəsiyində çox mürəkkəb qarşılıqlı münasibətlər şə-
raitində yarandığından diqqəti onların hansının daha aparıcı rol oynadığında deyil, on-
ları birləşdirən bədii estetik xüsusiyyətləri müəyyənləşdirməyə yönəltmək lazımdır. Hər
biri öz yazı manerası, stili ilə maraqlı olan “ yeni nəsr” nümayəndələrini həyata ümumi
baxış, dünya duyumunun bənzərliyi, qəhrəmanların hiss və duyğularına həssaslıq bir-
ləşdirir. İlk baxışda problemlərin qoyuluşu tematika baxımından bir-birinə yaxın olan
sənətkarları üslublarına görə məhz həyata, real gerçəkliyə subyektiv, yaxud obyektiv
münasibəti ayırır. Yeni nəsrin üslub istiqamətlərini bu baxımdan müəyyən edən tənqid-
çilər tamamilə haqlıdırlar.
Üslub müxtəlifliyinə, rəngarəngliyinə malik olan yeni Azərbaycan nəsrinin başlıca
üslub təmayüllərindən olan analitik və lirik-psixoloji üslub xüsusiyyətləri bir növ əkslik
təşkil edirlər. Bu üslub istiqamətindən istifadə edən sənətkarlar psixologizmi bütöv bir
sistem səviyyəsində təzahür etdirərək, qəhrəmanların düşüncəli, mürəkkəb təbiətli ol-
duğunu göstərirlər. S.Əhmədovun “Toğana” romanının qəhrəmanı Adilin daim öz-özü
ilə mübahisəsini, dialoqunu ziddiyyətli dolaşıq fikirlərlə dolaşdığını görürük. Bununla
yanaşı, biz onun düşüncələrində bütün yaylaq qonşularının rəftar və davranışlarını,
xasiyyətlərini, onun yaşadığı mühit və təbiətin ümdə cəhətlərini, eyni zamanda bunların
hamısı haqqında onun rəyini öyrənirik. Bədii təsvirə nisbətən təhlilin nisbətən üstünlük
təşkil etdiyi bu cür əsərlərdə müəllif təhkiyəsi ənənəvi nəsrdən fərqli olaraq, bədii struk-
turda çox az, bəzən də əhəmiyyətsiz yer tutur. Anarın “Macal” povestini qəhrəmanı
Fuadın daxili aləmindən başqa əsərdə həm də biz onun vasitəsilə, bilavasitə onun təq-
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dimi, təsviri və təhlili vasitəsilə digər adamlarla, onların arasındakı münasibətlərlə tanış
ola bilirik.
Analitik üslub istiqaməti bir növ əkslik təşkil edən lirik psixoloji üslub istiqamətinə
aid olan yazıçılarin (Ə.Əylisli,İ.Məlikzadənin,Elçinin) əsərlərində psixologizmdən
geniş istifadə olunur. Bu yazıçılar psixologizmdən şəhsiyyətin daxili aləminin açılma-
sında üslubi məqam kimi istifadə edir, lakin bu onların heç də eyni üsluba malik olduq-
larını deməyə əsas vermir.Əgər analitik üslub istiqamətinə daxil olan sənətkarların əsər-
lərində hadisələr, ətraf mühit qəhrəmanın təqdimi və təhlili ilə göstərilsə, müəllif təh-
kiyəsi bir növ “sıxışdırılsa”, lirik-psixoloji təmayüllü nəsr nümunələrində isə qəhrəman
mövqeyində yazıçı “mən”inin özü çıxış edir. Bu zaman lirik psixoloji üslubun tələbinə
uyğun olaraq, məlum məsələdir ki,düşüncəvilik, hissi-emosional fəallıq, daxili aləmin
psixoloji çalarları ,bir sözlə desək, obyektiv həyatın subyektiv təsviri ön plana keçir.
Əgər lirik nəsr üslubunda gerçəkliyə münasibət qəhrəmanın subyektiv qavrayışında
əks olunursa, psixoloji üslubda təsvir olunmuş konkret düşüncənin şüurda əks olunması
nəsrdə qəhrəmanın dünyaduyumunun bütövlüyü və özünəməxsusluğu saxlanılmaqla,
onu “daxildən göstərmək”üçün istifadə olunur. Bu cür fərqli cəhətlər onların üslubi
müqayisəli təhlili nəticəsində daha aydın olur.
Anarın “Macal” povestində qəhrəman hadisələr içərisində təqdim edilməkdən daha
çox, hadisələr qəhrəmanın qavrayışında təqdim olunur, bədii mətn əsasən onun düşün-
cələri əsasında qurulur. Psixoloji nəsrin məhz bu xüsusiyyətindən bəhs edən Baxtin
qeyd edir ki, qəhrəmanı yad düşüncənin tamhüquqlu subyekti kimi təsdiq etmək cəh-
dini Dostoyevski “qəhrəmanı lirik qəhrəman etməyərək”, onun səsini öz səsiylə qarış-
dırmayaraq, duymayaraq, eyni zamanda təsvir olunan psixoloji gerçəkliyi nüfuzdan
salmayaraq onu yad, başqa adam kimi göstərmişdir. (4,19).
Psixoloji üslublu nəsr əsərlərində çox vaxt qəhrəmanların əsl təbiətini əks etdirmək
üçün daxili monoqlardan istifadə olunur. Psixoloji üslublu nəsr əsərlərində çox vaxt
qəhrəmanların əsl təbiətini əks etdirmək üçün daxili monoloqlardan istifadə olunur.
Anarın “Macal” povestinin qəhrəmanı Fuadın daxili nitqinə diqqət yetirək : “Qəribədir,
niyə mən öz içimdə bu qədər mübahisə edirəm, Oqtayla, oqtaylarla, hətta hirslənirəm,
qızıram onlara. Niyə fikrimi bu qədər məşğul edirlər? Niyə mənə elə gəlir ki, Oqtay
da, onun dostları da nə səbəbdənsə özlərini məndən yuxarı tuturlar, məni özlərinə tay
bilmirlər. Halbuki tərsinə olmalıdır məntiqnən” (1,63)
Elçin psixoloji hekayələrində qəhrəmanın özünütəhlil formasından bədii üsul kimi
istifadə edir. Bu baxımdan, onun “Beş qəpiklik motosikl” hekayəsində Sabir Məlikov
obrazı uğurla seçilmişdir. Göründüyü kimi, yeni nəsrin nümayəndələri insanın daxili-
mənəvi aləminin, xüsusən də, şüuraltı proseslərin əks etdirilməsində psixologizmdən
əvəzedilməz vasitə kimi istifadə etmişlər. Bu isə “xarakterlər nəsri” adlanan 60-cı illər
nəsrinin insanı ön plana çəkməsi, insana diqqətin artması ilə bağl ı idi.
Demək olar ki,bu nəsrin qoyduğu problemlərdən, bu problemlərin bədii həllindən
asılı olmayaraq, onların hamısında ümumi bir fon var: insan, nəsrin qəhrəmanı xarici
mühitdə üz-üzə gəldikdə, toqquşanda,o,acizləşir,tənhalaşır. Düzdür, ədəbiyyatın məhz
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
insan problemi ilə məşğul olduğunu nəzərə alsaq, bu cür problemlərin heç də yeni ol-
madığını görərik. Lakin onlar hansı insanı qələmə alıblar? Yeni nəsr nümunələrində
ənənəvi nəsrdən fərqli olaraq, həyatda “baxtı gətirməyə nlər”, mühit tərəfindən qəbul
edilməyənlərdir. Hər birinin öz individual yazı ədası, üslubu ilə seçilən yeni nəsr nü-
mayəndələrinin hamısı üçün mövcud olan ümumi bir üslub var: bu isə həyat materialını
əks etdirməsində psixoloqizmdən geniş istifadə olunmasıdır.
Beləliklə, üslubun təzahür formalarından biri sayılan psixoloqizmdən istifadə olunma
60-cılar nəsrini yaxınlaşdıran, doğmalaşdıran ən mühüm amillərdən biri sayılmalıdır,
lakin bizə elə gəlir ki, Azərbaycan ədəbiyyatında psixoloqizmdən hələ lazımi səviyyədə
istifadə olunmamışdır.
ЯДЯБИЙЙАТ
1. Anar. Macal.B.,Gənlik,1978,264s.
2. Əliyeva N. 60-80-ci illərin Azərbaycan nəsrindəqəhəman və üslub axtarışları. Bakı:Elm,1997,159s.
3. Гарайев Й. Мейар-шяхсиййятдир. Бакы: Йазычы, 1988, 456с. Rus dilində
4. Бахтин М.М. Проблемы поэтики Достоевского. М., Наука, 1973, 318 с.
5. Гаджиев А. В поисках героя. Баку: Язычы, 1981, 128c.
6. Гусев В. Герой и стиль. М.,1983,286с.
James Joyce Augustine Aloysius was an Irish novelist and poet, regarded to be one
of the most effective and influential writers in modernist grade of the early 20th century.
He was born to a middle class family in Dublin, where he studied as a student at
the Jesuit schools Clongowes and Belvedere, then at University College Dublin. From
his early ages, Joyce emigrated to the different parts of Europe, lived in Trieste, Paris
and Zurich. Though Joyce’s fictional creative activity was not beyond Dublin, most of
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his characters resemble family members, enemies, friends from there. As he claimed:
“For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I
can get to the heart of all cities of the world.” (Elman,p505.Citing power, From an Old
Waterford House(London,n.d)p-63-64)
Joyce’s major works are the short- story collection “Dubliners” (1914); novels “A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” (1916) and “Finnegans Wake (1932).But at the
top of his creative activity stands his best known work “Ulysses” (1922), which the
episodes of ancient Greek writer’s-“Homer’s Odyssey” are paralleled with the contras-
ting literary styles. With the appearance of the Ulysses (also T.S Eliot’s poem “The
Waste Land”) 1922 was a key year in the history of English language-literary moder-
nism. In Ulysses, Joyce employs stream of consciousness which is the base of moder-
nism according Sigmund Freud.
Joyce also used in this novel parody, jokes, and virtually other literary technique
to present his characters. The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, 16
June 1904, sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey of Homer in modern Dublin.
And Joyce presented Homer’s characters Odysseus, Penelope and Telemachus in the
image of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom and Stephan Dedalus, parodically
contracted with their lofty models. In this novel we can come across various areas of
Dublin life. Ulysses is a book of privacies and subjectivities, a remarkable number of
its scenes are set in public space-library, museum, bar, cemetery, and, most of all, the
street (www.guardaian.co.ok/books/2009/jun16/jamesjoyces classics). So, the book is
also detailed study of the city. Joyce said that if Dublin were to be destroyed, in some
catastrophe it would be rebuilt, brick by brick, using his work as a model.
The book consists 18 chapters, each covering about one hour of the day, beginning
around 8a.m and ending some time after 2a.m the following morning. But at first glance
much of the book may appear unstructured and chaotic. Joyce once said that he had put
in so many puzzles that it will keep the professors busy for centuries arguing over what
I meant which would earn the novel immortality. (“Hefferman, James A.W. (2011)
Joyce’s Ulysses Chantilly,VA.The teaching company)Each chapter employs its own
literary style and parodies a specific episode in Homer’s Odyssey.
The book is also unusual in the history of modernism for its suggestion that there
need be no conflict between bohemian and bourgeois. At its climax the ad-canvasser
Bloom invites the poet Dedalus home with him for conversation and cocoa. In recording
the dailiest day possible, Joyce teaches us much about the world: how to cope with
grief and loss; how to tell a joke and how not to tell a joke; how to be frank about death
in the age of its denial; how to walk and think at the same time; how to purge sex of
possessiveness; how the way people eat food can tell us who they really are. (Kebard
Declan (2009-06-16)”Ulysses modernism’s most sociable masterpiece”London Guar-
dian.co.ok.retrieved june 28,2011)
Before Joyce, no writer of fiction had so foregrounded the process of thinking. The
soliloquists of Shakespeare and the nineteenth-century novel were aristocrats conside-
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
Since the end of the Second World War the United States of America has been the
most powerful country in the world. American power has included its cultural power,
too. Writing or talking about America means invoking the American Dream, which
remains a major element of the national identity. People believed that American dream
was a part of American history, culture and language so they said: “America was born
out of a dream”. “Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness’- this is the soul and heart
of American dream.
The concept of American dream could enter the national lexicon during the time
of political and cultural upheaval. The true origin of the phrase was first mentioned in
1931, by a historian James Truslow Adams in his book The Epic of America. In the
Preface, when Adams refers to the ‘American dream of a better richer and happier life,
”adding“ that dream or hope has been present from the start” the phrase was first time
used. In the Epilogue, Adams goes into more detail and broadens the scope of the Ame-
rican dream concept, explaining that the most distinctive gift that America has made
to the world is the American dream. It is such a dream of a land where life should be
better, richer and fuller for every man, with opportunity for each according to his ability
or achievement.
All American literature - like all of American life - it often about the American
Dream and Scott Fitzgerald has been identified with the American dream. It was his
subject of matter and it was a subject that had come to fascinate readers. Fitzgerald’s
novels have been based o a concept of class. He is the first American writer seems to
have discovered that such a thing as American class really existed.
Who wants really to understand it, one has to dig into the fresh insides. On the
surface of The Great Gatsby Fitzgerald portrays a romantic love between a man and a
woman, but inside the real meaning is much deeper. Fitzgerald depicts the 1920’s as a
time of decay social and moral values, evidence of this is the greed and the pursuit of
pleasure. Jay Gatsby’s constant parties epitomized the corruption of the American Dream
as the desire for money and worldly pleasures overshadowed the true values of the
American Dream.
The Great Gatsby is an exploration of the American dream as it exists in a corrupt
period, and it attempted to determine boundaries between the reality and illusion. The
illusion seems more real than the reality itself. Embodied all characters in novel, they
threaten to invade the whole of the picture. Here the reality is a thing of the spirit, a
faith in the half-glimpsed, but hardly understood, possibilities in life, the reality is un-
defined to itself. It is inarticulate and frustrated. Nick Carraway, Gatsby’s friend and
also, Fitzgerald’s narrator, says of Gatsby:
“Through all he said, even through his appalling sentimentality, it was reminded
of something-an exclusive rhythm, a fragment of lost words, that I had heard somewhere
a long time ago. For a moment a phrase tried to take shape in my mouth and my lips
parted like a dumb man’s, as though there was more struggling upon them than a wisp
of startled air. But they made no sound and what I had almost remembered was incom-
municable forever.” (F. Scott Fitzgerald “Great Gatsby”, pg.89)
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On the last page of the novel Nick compares the “green breast of the new world”
to the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock. The “green breast of the world” represents
the dreams of the immigrants that came to the new world seeking religious freedom,
opportunity, love, and democracy, along the way instilling universal family values. As
they settled with these goals in mind, they strived and created what is America today.
Gatsby realized that the illusion was there-there where Tom and Daisy, and generations
of small-minded, ruthless Americans had found it-in the dreamless. After this recog-
nition, Gatsby’s death is only a symbolic formality, for the world into which his mere
body had been born rejected the gift he had been created to embody-the traditional dream
from which alone it could awaken into life. As the novel closes, the experience of Gatsby
and his broken dream explicitly becomes the focus of that historic dream for which he
stands. Nick Carraway is speaking:
“Most of the big shore places were closed now and there were hardly any lights
except the shadowy, moving glow of a ferryboat across the Sound. And as the moon rose
higher the essential houses began to melt away until gradually I became aware of the
old island here that flowered once for Dutch sailor’s eyes- a fresh , green breast of the
new world. Its vanished trees, the trees that had made way for Gatsby’s house, had once
pandered in whispers to the last greatest of all human dreams...” (F. Scott Fitzgerald
“Great Gatsby”, pg.330)
Gatsby fades into the past forever to take his place with the Dutch sailors who
had chosen their moment in time so much more happily than he.
REFERENCES
1. Charles D. Hayes “Beyond the American Dream”, USA, 1998, 369 pg
2. Francis Scott Fitzgerald, Ruth Prigozy “The Great Gatsby”, Oxford University Press, 1998, 151 pg
3. F.S. Fitzgerald “The Great Gatsby”, Microcard Edition Books, 1973, 336 pg
4. Hildegard Schne “The American Dream”, Verlag, 2010, 36 pg
5. James Truslow Adams “The Epic of America”, Taylor& Francis edition, 1938, 446 pg
6. Jennifer L. Hochschild “Facing up to the American Dream”, New-York, 1996 , 412 pg.
7. Jim Cullen “The American Dream”, New-York, 2003, 214 pg
8. “The American dream and the power of wealth”, Routledge, 2006 , 231pg
9. http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/fitzgerald/gatsby/gsix.html
10. http://books.google.az/books?id=FV5R6_FgLUAC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq
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realistic point of view with his brilliant novels. “Great Expectations” is Charles Dickens’ thirteen’s novel,
one of the greatest examples that he gifted to the world fiction. In this work, Dickens confronted an orphan
boy, Pip, who could not find himself in society, was absorbed with hopes that the future would be as he
wanted, and believed in possibility of getting anything, with the real face of life; throughout the novel, Pip
steps towards to see the world of truth, to perceive the people around him and the life itself by dint of his
dashed hopes and ruined expectations.
Edgar Johnson, perhaps, the greatest Dickens biographer of our times, called “Great Expectations”
(barring the changed ending, which he thought a flaw) “ the most perfectly constructed and perfectly written
of all Dickens’s works.” 1
Key words: Charles Dickens, Victorian Period, Pip, expectation, hope, illusion, life, identity, society.
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everything, everybody important around him; he is now discontented with his life, way
of living, begins to hope something better. When it is revealed that Pip has inherited a
large sum of money from an anonymous benefactor on the condition that he moves to
London to become a gentleman. He expects Estella to be affected by his becoming a
‘gentleman’ and new life with new expectations will wait him…
But soon Pip considers himself lost even in his most familiar surroundings, because
he could not define his place in community. He realizes that the relation between society
and a person is mutual, it is not just changing your place from one class to another.
Throughout the novel Pip undergoes internal changes that separate him from the ephe-
meral world of great expectations and guides to the eternal world of Truth. For Pip,
the indication of this truth – disappointed expectations, comes gradually, for instance,
when he puts on his new suit, when he sees his new home, when he lunches at his first
London restaurant:
“We went and had lunch at a celebrated house which I then quite venerated, but
now believe to have been the most abject superstition in Europe”. 3
Pip’s expectations are not the only illusory ones. So Dickens didn’t give such a
title to the novel in vain: almost every character in the story experiences disappointed
hopes from time to time. Those characters in “Great Expectations” who dream the most,
hope the most, and plan the most are ultimately wounded by their dreams, hopes, and
plans. The first is Miss Havisham, desolated by her elated expectation as she prepares,
dresses for her wedding; then the crushing of Magwitch’s hope for freedom; Mrs. Joe’s
hopes for benefit from Pip’s connection with Miss Havisham; Biddy’s hope for lifelong
partnership with Pip; Compeyson’s plans to catch Magwitch and gain a revenge; Joe’s
expectation of Pip being a blacksmith and living with him, etc. Likewise, when characters
realize their dreams, they do not find the happiness that they expected, they only find
loneliness and loss. We love what we cannot have and the world of illusions don’t give
them what they want, at times there occurs changes, getting entagled by the life they
see the new facets of life. Even the main figure here, Pip discerns that the contours of
his goal have been changing all this while. He learns that the gap between perception
of a little boy and reality is never bridged; life is a world of great expectations and his
expectations, impressions are nothing more than self-deception.
“Miss Havisham's intentions towards me, all a mere dream; Estella not designed
for me; I only suffered in Satis House as a convenience, a sting for the greedy relations,
a model with a mechanical heart to practise on when no other practice was at hand;
those were the first smarts I had.” 4 - here Pip comprehends that his greatest dream has
only led him to his suffering and this helps him to grow in life and become a wiser. The
ferocity and strength of his love for Estella in spite of her scorn for him is stunning in
light of the fact that he himself ignores the people who love him most in life. But Joe’s
and Magwitch’s love and Herbert’s friendship which are not tied to any of his expec-
tations teach him the valuables of life. Pip’s extreme remorse is obvious, and he looks
back from the assurance of knowledge gained by experience: in the moments of defeat
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
and shame, he accepts that he had been wrong to give up his old happy life for his
‘expectations’.
Fundamentally, this is a novel of hope, not one of despair. G.K.Chesterton points
out that of all Dickens’ novels, “the only book to which he gave the name “Great Ex-
pectations” was the only book in which the expectation was never realized” 5, but he
notes too that the novel’s best moments chronicle the “vacillations of the hero between
the humble life to which he owes everything and the gorgeous life from which he ex-
pects something.” 6
In Pip, Charles Dickens creates a truly evolution of the character from simplicity
through deceptive, ostensible success to an authentic self-reliance. Pip fails as a fortu-
nate orphan but ultimately prevails as a self-made man.
“Great Expectations” is a tale of illusions and an illusoriness of expectations or
assumptions about what the future holds. The world of “Great Expectations” heralds
only one thing: suffering which brings experience…
ENDNOTE
1. Johnson Edgar. Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph. 2 vols. New York, 1952. p.993
2. George Newlin. Understanding Great Expectations: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and
Historical Documents. USA, 2000. pp.3-4
3. Charles Dickens. Great Expectations. Great Britain, 2010. Volume 2, chapter 3, p.166
4. Charles Dickens. Great Expectations. Great Britain, 2010. Volume 2, chapter 20, p.287
5. G.K.Chesterton. Appreciations and Criticism of the Works of Charles Dickens, in Chesterton on
Dickens. San-Francisco, Ignatus Press, 1989. p.383
6. G.K.Chesterton. Charles Dickens, in Chesterton on Dickens. Great Britain, Wordsworth Editions
Limited, 2007. p.172
REFERENCES
1. Charles Dickens. Great Expectations. Great Britain, 2010.
2. G.K.Chesterton. Appreciations and Criticism of the Works of Charles Dickens, in Chesterton on
Dickens. San-Francisco, Ignatus Press, 1989
3. G.K.Chesterton. Charles Dickens, in Chesterton on Dickens. Great Britain, Wordsworth Editions
Limited, 2007.
4. George Newlin. Understanding Great Expectations: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and
Historical Documents. USA, 2000.
5. Harold Bloom. Modern Critical Interpretations: Ch. Dickens’ Great Expectations. New York, 2000.
6. Johnson Edgar. Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph. 2 vols. New York, 1952.
7. http://www.shmoop.com/great-expectations/ 02.03.2012
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Wuthering Heights tells us about the relationship between Catherine Earnshaw and
an orphan boy Heathcliff, who was adopted by the girl’s father. At the beginning of the
novel Heathcliff is introduced as a kind and strong man. He barred for difficulties. But
he heard that his lover was going to get married to a rich man Edgar and on that day
he left home for three years. He did not give any information about his life and I think
that it was his first step towards the feeling of cruelty. Catherine married to Edgar not
for love but for her comfortable life that she dreamt. Both Robert McKibben and John
Hagan who wrote about this play prove that neither Catherine nor Heathcliff are guilty
for their wrong actions.1 Because in the Victorian period good life and marriage were
the main aim for girls.
Some people who don’t get the things they want from life have to accept their troub-
les. Even they want to show themselves as happy people and they put up with their fates.
But people like Heathcliff live with the feeling of revenge. With such feelings he made
his life harder even though he knew that he couldn’t get the previous life and love.
While reading this novel a reader can understand the hero’s sorrow. But when the
hero lives only with the feeling of revenge a reader begin to hate him as in real life. This
feeling even made Heathcliff as a mad man. He is shown as a character of evils.
He got married to the sister of Edgar Linton who was Catherine’s husband. But,
of course, not for the feelings of love but for the revenge. He wasn’t happy himself and
he made some people unhappy who were around him.
Day by day he became cruel and even when he learnt that his lover Catherine got
ill for him, he was happy.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
When Catherine died the author showed Heathcliff’s troubles and he didn’t deny
his cruelty. A reader may think that after losing his lover he can change his character
but he had more aims to revenge. He didn’t forgive her. His wife Isabella also left him
for this reason.
After some period he got information about his son. He was glad for son’s
coming. We can think that he is going to change his life. But it is not so. His aim of
revenge made him so cruel that he used his son to reach his bad aims.
His second aim was to make Catherine’s daughter-Cathy and his own son Edgar
unhappy. He made them get marry in order to get the inheritance of the Catherine’s
family. But even when his son became ill he didn’t give his love to him. He showed
his bloody feelings. A reader both hates and feels sorry for Heathcliff till the end of the
novel.
But Cathy acknowledged her feeling to her cousin Hereton. Hereton also was one
of the heroes who became cruel and careless to Cathy’s feelings. He explains his indif-
ference with his words to Cathy: “When I was in trouble nobody helped me that’s why I
hate everyone around me”.
In real life we can see such facts. When we have difficulties we expect care from
our close friends, parents or lover.
Unlike Heathcliff, Cathy could get her love. She found a way to get Hereton’s heart,
they got married and became happy but at the end of the novel the author showed that
Heathcliff who lived with the feeling of revenge was defeated by love.
People like Heathcliff admit their faults when they are alone. Even he said: “What
will I get if I revenge”. He decided to be free and he stayed alone in his room. Heathcliff
refused to eat or drink something. Finally he died alone in his room. He believed that
he would be together with Catherine after death.” We recognize in them tragedy of pas-
sionate natures whom intolerable frustration and loss have stripped them of their hu-
manity” (Critic Hagan).2 E. Bronte shows that we can solve conflicts with better ways
but not with revenge. Because the result of revenge is hurtful.
At the result, we can see that cruelty and the feeling of revenge give us nothing but
hard life which is far from peace and love. Revenge can take the best things from us.
END NOTE
1. www.123.helpme.com-WutheringHeights
2. www.123.helpme.com-WutheringHeights
REFERENCES
1. Emily Bronte. Wuthering Heights. England, by Cox and Wyman Ltd.1994
2. www.123.helpme.com-wutheringheights
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Shafa Jabiyeva
Doctoral Student
ANAS, Institute of Literature named after Nizami
shefa_cebiyea@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
It was researched the story problem of epic genre of contemporary literature in this article. Especially,
this theme was investigated based on Rafig Tagi’s latest stories. Because, Rafig Tagi’s stories draw
attention to its themes and writing style. And his stories informed us about starting a new stage of this
genre. Specific limits and known schemes belonging to Azerbaijani story is not repeated in these
stories. Reality and unreality, allegory, symbol is striking widely in the stories of this author. Rafig
Tagi’s stories is interesting just because, it is impossible to speak about these prose works with tra-
ditional, standard canons.
Key words: Rafig Tagi, Azerbaijani story, modern period, epic genre.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Əgər yazıçı istedadı və uzun illərin müşahidəsi, təcrübəsi ilə birləşirsə, o zaman ədəbiy-
yatda “kiçik adamlar”ın içindəki böyük iddiaları və onların həyata, dünyaya baxışlarını
oxucuya göstərməyə nail olmaq mümkündür. Rafiq Tağı da bu insanları hekayənin
qəhrəmanına çevirdi və milli ədəbiyyatda yeni, bədii obrazlar yaratdı.
Azərbaycan hekayəsinə məxsus ölçü və kanonlar, məlum sxemlər bu hekayələrdə
təkrar olunmur, reallıqla irreallıq, alleqoriya, simvol, bədii şərtilik, bir sözlə, maraqlı
bədii təsvir vasitələri müstəqillik dövrünün hekayələrində daha qabarıq nəzərə çarpır.
Adını qeyd etdiyimiz bu müəllifin hekayələri həm də ona görə maraqlıdır ki, bu nəsr
nümunələri haqqında ənənəvi, standart ölçülərlə danışmaq mümkün deyil. Və ən başlıcası
bu hekayələrdə müəllif artıq ehkama çevrilmiş donuq təhkiyə tərzindən imtina etmişdir.
END NOTE
1. Rafiq Tağı. Şahzadə Dipendranın məhəbbəti. I cild. Bakı, Adiloğlu, 2005, s.106
2. Yenə orada, s.131
3. Yenə orada, s.131
REFERENCES
1. Cabbarlı Nərgiz. Yeni nəsil ədəbiyyatı. Bakı, Elm, 2006, 374 s.
2. Həbibbəyli İsa. Mirzə Cəlilə qayıtmaq zərurəti // “Ədəbiyyat” qəzeti, Bakı, 1995, 29 dekabr
3. Hüseynov Akif. Nəsr və zaman. Bakı, Yazıçı, 1979, 185 s.
4. Tağı Rafiq. Şahzadə Dipendranın məhəbbəti. I cild. Bakı, Adiloğlu, 2005, 374 s.
ABSTRACT
Great Expectations is one of Dickens's later novels, a work of his artistic maturity. The narrative is
symbolic rather than realistic. It depicts the growth and personal development of an orphan named Pip.
The story is set in England.
The novel was first published in serial form in “All the Year Round” from 1 December 1860 to August
1861. Two chapters were published every week. The narrator of the story is a Pip who aspired to be a
gentleman and win over the beautiful Estella. People waited anxiously every week for the next episode to
arrive in the newsstands. Great Expectations has been filmed several times.
The main character of the novel is Pip. In the beginning chapters Dickens paints an extremely vivid
picture of Pip’s childhood. The reader is able to enter Pip's mind and see the world through the eyes of a
child. This is possible because Dickens understood the thoughts and feelings of children and applied this
to Pip's every thought and action when he wrote the novel. The word "pip" itself refers to a seed from a
plant. Seeds need to be nurtured if they are to grow and flourish. In Dickens' view of childhood, he felt
that children have certain needs: guidance in a nurturing home, to be free from emotional and physical
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
abuse, to have a good education, and to be allowed to use their imaginations. He also shows how little
goodness can bring great expectations to little Pip.
Key words: great expectations, pie, Pip, Estella, Miss Havisham, Abel Magwitch.
The story is set in England on Christmas Eve, around 1812. The first part of Great
Expectations is an account of the childhood of, Pip, the main character of the novel.
Pip is an orphan of about six. He’s adopted by his older sister and her husband Joe
Gargery, a blacksmith. But his sister behaves very rudely to him. So Dickens shows just
how alone Pip is, as he sits on the gravestones of his parent in the churchyard. While
coming back Pip encounters an escaped convict. The convict scares Pip into stealing
him a file to grind away his shackles, from the home he shares with his older sister and
her husband Joe Gargery. Frightened, Pip agrees to help the convict and aids him by
giving him food and cutting his handcuffs. Pip encounters another stranger as he heads
back to the marsh. He is frightened again, and runs home without stopping. Pip goes
home, where his sister's husband Joe reads an advertisement about a Miss Havisham
who is a wealthy spinster and lives in the dilapidated Satis House. She asks Pip's Uncle
Pumblechook to find a boy to play with her daughter. The next day, soldiers recapture
two convicts engaged in a fight and return them to the prison ship. Pip is taken to Miss
Havisham's manor. He begins to visit Satis House where meets Estella. Estella is Miss
Havisham’s adopted daughter. She constantly insults Pip. Miss Havisham hires Pip and
throughout their playtimes he eventually is affected by Estella. Miss Havisham knows
about Estella’s love to Pip. So she pays money to Joe Gargery for teaching Pip the
secret of blacksmith. Joe visits Satis House to finish Pip's papers. But Pip is angry at
the current turn of events. He is devastated by Miss Havisham's decision.
Pip works diligently for Joe at the forge, but continually longs to return to Satis
House. Pip is approached by a lawyer, Mr Jaggers, who tells him he is to receive a large
sum of money from an anonymous benefactor and must leave for London immediately
where he is to become a gentleman. Pip fears Estella could never marry a commoner
like him and so that he accepts a large sum of money from an anonymous benefactor
to become a gentleman. Pip assumes the benefactor is Miss Havisham and so that accepts
a large sum of money. Pip prepares to leave for London feeling guilty about his behavior.
Pip and Jaggers travel to London. In London, Pip meets his roommate Mr. Pocket and
gives anonymous assistance to him. Mr. Pocket tells the story of Miss Havisham: she
got engaged but was left at the altar, causing her to stop all the clocks in the house and
never leave the house again. Pip spends the rest of his time in London learning how to
be a gentleman.
Joe visits Pip in London. Pip is informed of Estella's return to Satis House. Pip
believes Miss Havisham to be his benefactress and visits her and Estella. Miss Havisham
tells Pip that he can find Estella at a party at the palace. News arrives concerning Mrs.
Joe. Pip returns home for his sister's funeral. Joe Gaggery wants him to stay but Pip
refuses. So he has promised to Estella to go to the party with her. At the ball, Pip and
Estella dance, and talk about how Pip is now a fine young gentleman. Estella says that
she has no heart, and cannot love. Because Miss Havisham has raised her to break men’s
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hearts, as revenge for the pain her own broken heart caused her. Pip was merely a boy
for the young Estella to practice on; Miss Havisham delighted in Estella’s ability to toy
with his affections. Right before Pip asks Estella to be his girlfriend. Then Estella’s
boyfriend Bentley Drummle comes in. Pip, saddened, runs to tell Miss Havisham, only
to find that she approves of Steve. So Miss Havisham is glad that Estella has broken
Pip's heart. Because Miss Havisham thinks that all the men are savage and she is sure
that Estella will triumph.
Pip is visited by his benefactor, and although horrified by the implications, Pip feels
a loyalty to his benefactor. His benefactor is revealed to be Abel Magwitch, the convict
he helped, who was transported to New South Wales where he eventually became
wealthy. There is a warrant for Magwitch's arrest in England and he will be hanged if
he is caught. Magwitch tells the story of his life to Pocket and Pip. While in hiding,
Wemmick says that there is going to take a little time and there are no guarantees. So
Abel is pursued both by the police and by Compeyson. Compeyson was his former
partner in crime and the man who abandoned Miss Havisham at the altar. Compeyson
puts a thousand pounds on his head. Pip learns of Estella's marriage. He confronts Miss
Havisham with Estella's history. Miss Havisham begs for Pips forgiveness. Estella refu-
ses writing to Miss Havisham. Miss Havisham stands too close to the fire which
ignites her dress and she eventually dies from her injuries.
Pip cannot understand why Magwitch gives him a large sum of money. He does
not want to receive this benefactor. Pip wants to know the reason Magwitch’s help: Pip.
I was hasty. Compeyson was the second man on the marshes. Abel. I tried killing him
that night. I should have tried harder. Pip. Why? Abel. He owes me. Pip. Were you
partners? Abel. What are you asking for? Pip. I need to know. Abel. Once Pip. And
this once, did you hear of a Miss Havisham of Satis House? Abel. Should I? That turns
your guts, don’t it? You think I murdered for that? I’ve taken lives for less. Pip. I don’t
know what you did to get it. Abel. No, you don’t. Pip. Why me? Why do this for me?
Because I stole you a file? I only did that because I was scared. You said you’d cut my
throat. Abel. I know what I said? And it weren’t the file, it was the pie. Pip. I’d forgotten
about the pie. Abel. The file you took because you were scared, but... that pie… that
was out of goodness.
Herbert and Pip construct a plan for Magwitch's escape. A plan is therefore hatched
for him to flee by boat. It is also revealed that Estella is the daughter of Magwitch and
Mr Jaggers's housemaid, Molly, whom Jaggers defended in a murder charge and who
gave up her daughter to be adopted by Miss Havisham. While attempting to escape,
Magwitch is captured and sent to jail where he dies shortly before his execution. Pip
is about to be arrested for unpaid debts when he falls ill. Joe nurses him back to health
and pays off his debts. Pip decides to return home. On the way to forge Pumblechook
tells him that Estella is a widower and she’s coming back. The store ends in two forms.
In the first ending of Great expectation, Estella finally declares her love for Pip and the
narrator states that all the characters lived happily, except Pocket died of Hepatitis B.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
The Second Ending of the novel was urged by Bulwer-Lytton, a close friend of
Dickens. This version was originally published in 1861. It includes an extra chapter
(chapter 59) for the revision. In this ending, Pip returns to the forge after eleven years,
instead of the eight, that Dickens had originally intended. Also, the last part of the final
sentence went through further revision as the novel when through subsequent publishings.
The original sentence was:
. . . I saw the shadow of no parting from her but one.
During the proof stage, Dickens dropped the last two words. In 1861, it appeared
in All the Year Round as:
. . . I saw the shadow of no parting from her.
In 1862, the final revision was to the first published edition of the novel. The sen-
tence then read:
. . . I saw no shadow of another parting from her.
REFERENCES:
1. Dickens, Charles. (1861).Great Expectations. Chapman and Hall, 193, Piccadilly.
2. Dickens, Charles. (1996). Great Expectations. Ed. Janice Carlisle. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins.
3. Dickens, Charles. (1999). Great Expectations. Ed. Edgar Rosenberg. New York: Norton.
4. Crawford, Shawn. (1991). No Time to Be Idle: The Serial Novel and Popular Imagination.
Washington, D.C.: Washington P.
5. Hughes, Linda K., and Michael Lund. (1991). The Victorian Serial. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia.
6. Rawlins, Jack P. (1983). "Great Expectations: Dickens and the Betrayal of the Child." Studies in
English Literature.
7. Sutherland, J.A. (1976). Victorian Novelists and Publishers. Chicago: U of Chicago P.
8. Jordan, John O., and Robert L. Patten. (1995). Literature in the Marketplace. Cambridge:
Cambridge UP.
9. Bell, Vereen. (1965). "Parents and Children in Great Expectations." Victorian Newsletter 27.
10. Collins, Philip. (1964). Dickens and Education. New York: St. Martin's P.
11. http://www.dizimag.com/great-expectations
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tragedy as combining the emotions of pity and terror to produce “Catharsis”. The “compleat gentleman”
of the English Renaissance, Sir Philip Sidney, with his statements about the moral effects of poetry, was
psychologizing literature, as were such Romantic poets as Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Shelley with their
theories of the imagination. Every literary critic has been concerned at some time with the psychology of
writing or responding to literature. Psychological approaches consider literature as the expression of per-
sonality, of inner drives of neurosis. It has resulted in an almost exhausting and exhaustive psychological
analysis of character, of symbols and images, of recurrent themes, and the likes. During the twentieth century,
however, psychological criticism has come to be associated with a particular school of thought, the pscho-
analytic theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and his followers.
Key words: psychoanalytic, conscious and unconscious aspects, psychoanalytic criticism, mental
processes, human psychology.
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point where sexuality is constructed as meaning, where what was heterogeneous, what
was not symbolized, becomes organized, becomes created round these two poles, mas-
culine and not-masculine; feminine. Freudian critics like to point out the sexual impli-
cations of symbols and imagery, since Freud`s believed that all human behavior is
motivated by sexuality. Repressed to an unconscious state, they emerge only in disguised
forms: in dreams, in language (so-called Freudian slips), in creative activity that may
produce art (including literature), and in neurotic behavior. According to Freud, all of
us have repressed wishes and fears; we all have dreams in which repressed feelings and
memories emerge disguised, and thus we are all potential candidates for dream analysis.
One of the unconscious desires most commonly repressed is the childhood wish to
displace the parent of our own sex and take his or her place in the affections of the parent
of the opposite sex. This desire really involves a number of different but related wishes
and fears. Freud referred to the whole complex of feelings by the word “oedipal”, na-
ming the complex after the Greek tragic hero Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father
and married his mother. Freud`s theories are either directly or indirectly concerned with
the nature of the unconscious mind. Freud didn`t invent the notion of the unconscious;
other before him had suggested that even the supposedly “sane” human mind was
conscious and rational only at times, and even then at possibly only at times, and even
then at possibly only one level. But Freud went further, suggesting that the powers
motivating men and women are mainly and normally unconscious. It is important to
point out that among those who relied on Freud`s models were a number of critics who
were poets and novelists as well. Probably because of Freud`s characterization mind
as “clamorous” if not ill, psychoanalytic criticism written before 1950 tended to psy-
choanalyze the individual author. Poems were read as fantasies that allowed authors to
indulge repressed wishes, to protect themselves from deep-seated anxieties, or both. In
the view of the critics attempting to arrive at more psychological insights into an author
than biographical materials can provide, a work of literature is a fantasy or a dream-
or at least so analogy to daydream or dream that Freudian analysis can help explain the
nature of the mind that produced it. The author`s purpose in writing is to gratify secretly
some forbidden wish. In particular an infantile wish or desire that has been repressed
into the unconscious mind. To discover what the wish is, the psychoanalytic critic
employs many of the terms and procedures developed by Freud to analyze dreams.
REFERENCES
1. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. Wilfred L. Guerin, Earle Labor, Lee Morgan, Jeanne
C. Reesman, John R. Willingham. 2005.
2. An Introduction to Literary Criticism. Richard Dutton. 1984.
3. Modern Criticism and Theory. David Lodge. 2000.
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156
April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
in Women, as viewed by Men and Women” (1926). According to Adler in many societies,
both men and women place an inferior value on being a woman. Boys are frequently
taught early that being masculine means being courageous, strong, and dominant. The
essence of success for boys is to win, to be powerful, and to be on top. In contrast, girls
often learn to be passive and to accept an inferior position in society. In women it gives
expression to a rejection of their feminine condition.(Adler,1956) Horney did not deny
that women often envy men and are uncomfortable with their feminine role. (Horney,
1967) Rejection of the feminine role is also the consequence of the mother’s preference
for son. (Adler, 1926) Emma thinks “a man is free but she is not” so wishes for baby
boy. When Charles says; "It is a girl!" Emma turns her head away and faints. Emma
Bovary’s son desire can be understood in terms of her masculine protest; as she sees
women as constantly held by society she wishes for a son through whom she can fulfil
her own desires. She attempts to resist a role she finds limiting. In “Feminine Psychology”
Horney also states that as living in a male dominant society woman has the feeling of
being discriminated against so she envy man and try to discard her female role. (Horney,
1967) In 19th century France women could not have freedoms as they have today. Under
the terms of Napoleonic Code Civil, women were regarded as perpetual minors; fathers
and husbands were time-honored guardians of women. (Levasseur,1989) Emma was
victim of suffocating patriarchy that demanded she be no more than wife and mother.
While the men are self-defined; women are defined by their husbands, fathers and sons.
Even the title “Madame Bovary” show us she is defined by her husband’s last name:
Bovary. She is “Madame Bovary” in the eyes of society. Although the story is about
main character Emma, book does not introduce us Emma firstly. Firstly we learn the
history of Emma’s future husband Charles Bovary, after reading the man who will be
the keeper of Emma, we meet our main character. As not have the first words, Emma
Bovary could not have the last ones as book finishes with another male character.
Emma Bovary lacks maternal instincts and also she does not believe she has time
for such trivial things as children. She leaves her daughter “Berthe” to be raised by the
house help. She sometimes visits her at nurse’s house but when child is at home she
treats her as a burden. The presence of little Berthe does little to cheer her, for Berthe
is a girl; Emma wanted a boy. Perhaps if Berthe has been born a boy, Emma’s romantic
illusions might have carried on a bit longer. As Janette Johnson stated in her research,
Emma Bovary rejected motherhood and never felt the sacred calling that patriarchy
demanded of her. (Johnson, 1983) Although Emma resents motherhood, she pretends
to have the maternal instinct of a “good mother” to protect her image in society that
surrounds her. She worries about her appearance and what people will think of her. She
wants the outside world including her husband to think she is a good mother. (Brooks
and Watson, 30)
REFERENCES
2. Flaubert, Gustave. (2005) Madame Bovary. Trans. Eleanor Marx Aveling and Paul de Man. New York:
W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. Print.
3. Nelson, Marven O. (1991) “Another look at masculine protest” Individual Psychology: Journal of
Adlerian Theory, Research & Practice, Vol 47(4), Dec 1991, 490-497.
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4. Adler, Alfred. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ans-
bacher (Eds.). New York: Harper Torchbooks.
5. Adler, Alfred (1926) “The neurotic constitution; Outlines of a comparative individualistic psychology
and psychotherapy” Trans. Bernard Glueck and John E. Lind, New York: Dodd, Mead.
6. Horney, Karen. (1926) “The Flight from Womanhood: The Masculinity Complex in Women as Viewed
by Men and by Women” International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 7: 324-39. Reprinted in Feminine
Psychology, 54-70.
7. Horney, Karen. (1967) “Feminine Psychology” ed. Harold Kelman. New York: W. W. Norton
8. Levasseur, G. (1989) “Legal analysis of the Code of Criminal Procedure” (Napoléon et l’élaboration
des codes répressifs) Mélanges en homme à Jean Imbert, p. 371
9. Johnson, Janette Suzanne. (1983) Mother Love and Mothers in Love: The Novel of Adultery. Champaign:
Chicago University Press.
10. Brooks, Marilyn and Nicola Watson. (2001) “Madame Bovary: Becoming a Heroine.” The Nineteenth-
Century Novel: Identities. Ed. Walder-Dennis. Routledge: Open University Press, 29-47.
The Huns were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga
river migrated into Europe AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there. (1)
However, before Europe, the original Hunnic Empire was established in 220 BC in Asia
and the founding Emperor was T’ouman. That Empire was strengthened under the reign
of Moutin, the son of T’ouman. (2;10). It is a historic fact that the Chinese built the
Great Wall to protect themselves from the attack of the Huns. Under leadership of Bala-
mir some groups of Huns moved to the Eastern Anatolia. This movement is also called
Great Migration of nations in the history. After the death of Balamir, his son (in some
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
sources he is considered to be the grandson of Balamir-N.A) Uldin went over the Car-
pathian mountains and founded the European Hunnic Empire in the place of present
day Hungary. (3) During the reign of Attila (434-453) the Hunnic Empire was in its
strongest time and emperor Attila invaded a lot of places in Europe and attacked several
times to Roma and Constantinople. Peter Heather and Bryan Ward-Perkins agree that
it was Huns who were largely to blame in the fall off Roman Empire. (4; Acknowled
gement). After his sudden death in 453 the Empire lost its former power.
Though 15 centuries have passed since the death of Attila, he and the Empire he
led for a while are always remembered by writers (poets, playwright), scientists and
other people in all pockets of the world, especially in Europe. The Huns and their Empire
are not only the subject of history books but also in literary books. Since the medieval
times a lot of legends, sagas, poems, novels have been written about the Huns. Memories
of the Hunnic conquests were transmitted orally among Germanic peoples and are an
important component in the Old Norse Volsunga Saga and Hervarar saga and in the
Middle High German Nibelungenlied. These stories all portray Migration Period events
from millennium earlier. (5;ix) No doubt Das Nibelungenlied is one of the greatest and
heartbreaking literary works of Middle Ages. It is widely recognized that The Lord of
Rings draws many of its special effects from store house of medieval saga and especially
from medieval Nibelungenlied. (5;x) In this book the name of Attila was shown as
Etsel, the second husband of Krimhild.
In Volsunga saga, Attila (Atli in Norse) defeats the Frankish king Sigebert and Bur-
gundian king Gunthram but is later assassinated by Queen Fredugund, the sister of the
latter, the wife of the former. In this chronicle he is described as a noble and great king.(6)
Afore mentioned literary works are not the only books or documents that speak
about Attila and the Hunnic Empire. Many nations still in Europe claim that they are
successors of Huns. For instance, the “Nomanalia of Bulgar Khans” which is old, short
manuscript, written in old church Slavic, may indicate that Bulgars have ascended from
Attila. This manuscript contains the names of some early Bulgar rulers and their clans.
(7; 32) There are many similarities between Hunnic and Bulgar cultures and some ar-
cheological facts prove these similarities.
It would be worth mentioning Magyar (Hungarians) legends which may have
contained some elements of historical truths. These legends say that Magyars joined the
people who were descendants of Attila. The city Buda comes from the name of Bleda,
the brother of Attila. (1)
The Hunnic Empire and its famous and powerful king Attila were not only mentioned
in afore said legends and manuscripts but in modern time so many historical novels have
been dedicated to the Huns and Attila. Attila could achieve to include his name in the
list of the most distinguishing leaders of the world. When we analyze the subjects of
the historical novels it becomes clear that modern writers (especially in the USA and
Great Britain) are inclined to choose Ancient Roma, Greek and the Huns as a topic for
their novels.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
point that attracts attention is that generally all authors used the same sources for their
novels. Instead of showing Attila and his people as barbarians, they referred to historical
facts and created very positive brave heroes.
Besides in the English language, there are samples of the novels written about Attila
in different languages too. German novelist and historian wrote his famous novel “Attila,
Konig der Hunnen” in 1998.
All these facts about the ancient legends, manuscripts and modern novels betray
the fact that the Huns were and are respected for their brevity and courage and Europe
and other parts of the world are still under impact of the Huns and Attila, the dreadful
enemy for the ancient Empires.
END NOTE
1. www, brittanica.com.retreived 27.03.2012
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns 27.03.2012
3. Maenchen-Helfen The World of the Huns. University of California Press. 1973. p 12
4. The Times. 10 February 2008.
REFERENCES
1. Kevin Alan Brook, The Jews of Khazaria, Rowman & Littlefield, 2009,
2. Attila-the gathering of the storm. William Napier. Orion Books. London 2007.
3. Nibelungenlied-song of the Nibelungs. Translated from the Middle High German by Burton Rafell.
Yale University Press. 2006
4. R. G. Finch (ed. and trans.), The Saga of the Volsungs(London: Nelson, 1965)
5. Именник на българските ханове – ново тълкуване. М.Москов. С. 1988 г.
6. www.historicalnovels.info/Ancient
7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns.
8. az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avropa_Hun_İmperiyası.
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A Tale of Two Cities created the image of a stable England by using revolutionary
France as a setting to highlight the contrasts between the two countries, although Dickens
seemed to believe in the eighteen-fifties that England was heading towards an uprising
on the scale of the French Revolution. Dickens decided to write about the French Re-
volution as a sort of comparative study, because the violence that broke out in the French
Revolution was something that terrified countries across Europe. So, revolution broke
out in France and France isn’t so far from England. In fact, conditions in France aren’t
that different from conditions in England. He wanted to send a message that the English
royalty should have been scared.
Dickens warns his readers and this warning is addressed not to the British lower
classes, but to the aristocracy. He repeatedly uses the metaphor of sowing and reaping
by stating if the aristocracy continues to plant the seeds of a revolution through behaving
unjustly, they can be certain of harvesting that revolution in time and because of this
reason he gives long comparison of two countries at the beginning of the book.
Much of the action of A Tale of Two Cities takes place in Paris during the French
Revolution, which began in 1789. In A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens shows how the
tyranny of the French aristocracy-high taxes, unjust laws, and a complete indifference
toward the well-being of the poor-fed a rage among the commoners that eventually
erupted in revolution.
Dickens's outlook on revolutionary violence differed significantly from others. As
Irene Collins points out “Dickens dislikes the violence of the revolutionaries, both in
its popular form (the mob) and in its institutionalized form (the terror). Unlike others,
he can no longer see justice in the violence”. Dickens suggests that the French revo-
lutionaries begin to abuse their power just as much as the nobility did. While the French
commoners’ reasons for revolting were entirely understandable, and the French Revo-
lution was widely praised for its stated ideals of “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”,
Dickens takes a more pessimistic view by showing how the revolutionaries use oppression
and violence to satisfy their own selfish and bloodthirsty desires.
In A Tale of Two Cities we see deep distinction between the rich and the poor. While
one needs four servants to make his hot chocolate every morning others are on their
hands and knees in the street to lick up drops of spilled wine, are left with nothing but
onions to eat and are forced to starve. Every time the nobles refer to the life of the
peasants it is only to destroy or humiliate the poor. With his depiction of a broken wine
cask outside Defarge’s wine shop, and with his portrayal of the passing peasants’ trying
to drink the spilling wine, Dickens creates a symbol for the desperate quality of the
people’s hunger. This hunger is both the literal hunger for food-the French peasants
were starving in their poverty-and the metaphorical hunger for political freedoms.
Dickens deeply sympathizes with the plight of the French peasantry and emphasizes
their need for liberation. Although Dickens condemns this oppression, however, he
also blames the peasants’ strategies in overcoming it. The peasants could not get appre-
ciation of reader by fighting cruelty with cruelty. They only intensify the violence that
they themselves have suffered. Dickens makes his position clear while giving descriptions
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
of the mobs with deep aversion. Though Dickens sees the French Revolution as a great
symbol of transformation and resurrection, he emphasizes that its violent ways were
completely antithetical and immoral.
The French Revolution began as a critique of the aristocracy; as Dickens demons-
trates, however, the "classless" formation of the new French Republic becomes another
form of class violence. Someone’s always in power. And the powerless always suffer.
As the poor of France take to the streets, they fire a bloody and violent revolution. Blood
runs through the streets of Paris, entire families depend on new and unjust laws, and
no one can be sure of their future in the first years of the New Republic. Throughout
the novel, Dickens approaches his historical subject with some ambivalence. While he
supports the revolution, he often points to the evil of the revolutionaries themselves.
Righteous, justice-seeking people turn out to be bloody murderers. In other words, war
tends to confound most people’s expectations. Once blood starts spilling in the streets,
telling the difference between right and wrong becomes extremely difficult. A Tale of
Two Cities explores the dark sides of revolution, such as how "freedom" can easily
change its color and become another title for fanaticism.
Dickens’s novel explores the complicated relationship that emerges between the
political and the social consequences of revolution. As French citizens take to the streets,
demanding justice for themselves and their families, they also construct a justice system
that becomes anything but fair and impartial. Throughout the novel, Dickens sharply
criticizes mob mentality, which he condemns for committing the very cruelty and
oppression from which the revolutionaries hope to free themselves. In A Tale of Two
Cities Dickens suggests that whoever is in power, nobles or commoners will use their
power in cruel ways and forget the reasons that brought them to this position. He is not
taking side, nor tries reader to be in sympathy with one of them. He just believes that the
only way to break the cycle of tyranny is through the application of justice and mercy.
REFERENCES
1. Collins, Irene. "Charles Dickens and the French Revolution." Literature and History 1.1 (1990): 40-57.
2. Collins, Philip, ed. Dickens: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge, 1971.
3. http://www.shmoop.com/tale-of-two-cities/http://www.litcharts.com/lit/ataleoftwocities/themes
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
images with coherent structure. It was first introduced by William James , American psychologist and
philosopher in the 19th century.
As a literary technique, stream of consciousness was first employed by modernists writers such as
Dorothy Richardson (Pilgrimage), Marcel Proust(In search of Lost Time), James Joyce (Ulysses), Virginia
Woolf (Mrs Dalloway) and William Faulkner (The Sound and the Fury).
In British Literature Virginia Woolf and James Joyce used stream of consciousness technique as a
way of getting inside the head of their characters. No one has ever entered the characters’ inner world as
James Joyce did. Perhaps, that’s why he is considered one of the most difficult writers.
Key words: consciousness, British, literature, inner world.
Şüur yalnız insana xasdır. İnsanı heyvandan fərqləndirən, onu insan edən onun
şüurudur. Şüur insan beyni və onu əhatə edən mühit arasında bir növ əlaqələndirici ro-
lunu oynayır. Şüur insana dünyanı dərk etmək imkanı verdiyi kimi həmçinin ona öz
hərəkətlərinə məqsədyönlü şəkildə nəzarət etmək imkanı yaradır.Şüur və onun fəaliy-
yəti haqqında qədim dünya və orta əsr filosofları şox danışmışlar. Əlbəttə şüur haqqında
daha çox danışmaq, onu həm bioloji həm də psixoloji cəhətdən təhlil etmək olar. Lakin
toxunduğumuz problem bir qədər fərqli, şüurun daha doğrusu şüursuzluğun bir forması
olduğu üçün biz də elə ondan yəni şüur axınından söhbət açacağıq.
Bəs nədir şüur axını nədir? Ümumiyyətlə bu termin haqqında bəzi faktlara aydınlıq
gətirək və sonra şüur axınını bir ədəbi texnika olaraq təhlil etməyə cəhd edək.
“Bizim fikirlərimizin axını çay kimidir. Bütün asan, sadə yollarda axın üstünlük
təşkil edir. Amma maneə ortaya çıxdıqda geri qayıtmalar, irəli atılmalar baş verir, cərə-
yan dayanır, burulğan yaranır, və hər şeyi yolunu dəyişməyə məcbur edir”. ¹
Bir qayda olaraq qərb düşüncə tərzində “şüur axını” daxili monoloqla eyniləşdirilir.
Lakin qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, bir çox cəhətdən ruhi həyatın bu iki təzahür forması ara-
sında həqiqətən bir sıra ortaq cəhətlərin olmasına baxmayarq mahiyyət etabarı ilə “şüur
axını” şüurun tamailə nəzarətindən çıxmış, bir növ öz- özünə cərəyan edən “daxili mo-
noloq”dur.
“Şüur axını” terminini ilk əvvəl irəli sürən Amerikalı psixoloq William James
olmuşdur. O 1892-ci ildə yazdığı “ Psixologiyanın prinsipləri” əsərində insan psixika-
sında “şüur axını” prosesindən bəhs edir və bu konsepsiyanın əsasını qoyur. XI bölümü
“şüur axını”ına həsr olunana bu əsərdə William James qeyd edir ki, insan şüur axını
daşıyıcısıdır, insan beynində eyni anda müxtəlif fikirlər cərəyan edir və bu fikirlər insan
beynində mütəmadi olaraq birindən digərinə keçir, fikirlər bir-birini rədd edir, bir-birini
təsdiq edir, bir-biri ilə assosasiyaya girir, müxtəlif nisbətlərdə bir-biri ilə çuğlaşırlar.
William James, American philosopher
and psychologist, The principles of psychology
William James’i şüur axını ilə məşğul olmağa nə vadar etmişdi? Sözsüz ki, məşhur
filosofun uzun müddət şüur və onun fəaliyyəti barəsində apardığı tədqiqatlar.
Çox keçmədən bu termin ədəbi tənqiddə də istifadə olunmağa başladı. Ədəbiyyatda
şüur axını Dorothy Richardson, Virginia Woolf və James Joyce tərəfindən irəli sürülən
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
ədəbi texnikadır. Şüur axını rabitəsiz və bütöv struktura malik olmayan fikirlərin, şəkil-
lərin toplusudur. Şüur axını bir-biri ilə çuğlaşmış fikirlərin, hisslərin və xatirələrin insan
beynində davamlı hərəkətidir. Ədəbiyyatda isə bu belə hisslərin qarışığının bədii obrazın
beynində təzahürüdür. Süjet xətti bir zaman və məkan daxilində və ya onlardan kənarda
cərəyan edən hadisələri və qəhrəmanın fikirlərini ifadə edir. Şüur axını texnikasından
istifadə edən yazıçılar əsas diqqəti bir və ya bir neçə obrazın beynində gedən fikri və
hissi proseslərə yönəldirlər. Bu prosesin əsl xarakterik xüsusiyyətləri beyində baş verən-
ləri tədqiq etməklə ortaya çıxarıla bilər.
Şüur axını texnikası ilə yazılmış bir mətn bəzən rabitəsiz cümlələr və durğu işarə-
lərinin buraxılması ilə xarakterizə oluna bilər və bu cəhət də bədii əsərin qavranmasını
bir qədər qəlizləşdirir. Bədii ədəbiyyatda şüur axınını başqa sözlə daxili monoloq da
adlandırırlar. Bu onunla bağlıdır ki, şüur axınını bədii əsərdə iki formada görmək olar.
Biri obrazın daxili nitqi vasitəsiylə, digəri isə onun hərəkətləri vasitəsiylə. Məhz bu
baxımdan ona daxili monloq da deyirlər. Lakin şüur axınının daxili monoloqdan fərqi
vardır: birincisi, psixoloji aspektdən yanaşdıqda şüur axını mövzu ilə bağlıdır. Halbuki
daxili nitq onu ifadəetmə formasıdır. Belə ki, Marcel Prouts’un “İtirilmiş zaman axta-
rışında” romanı şüur axını, xüsusilə hiss, təssüratlar və xatirələr haqqındadır. Amma
burada daxili monoloqdan bir dəfə də olsun istifadə olunmayıb.
İkinci tərəfdən, yəni ədəbi cəhətdən yanaşdıqda şüur axını daxili monoloqun bir
tərzidir. Lakin daxili monoloq heç zaman rabitəsiz cümlələr və buraxılmış durğu işarə-
ləri ilə xarakterizə oluna bilməz, daxili monoloqda emosiyaların və təəssüratların ol-
masi da vacib deyil. Amma bunların hər biri şüur axını üçün xarakterikdir.
Modernist nəsrin nümayəndələrinin və onun sonrakı davamçılarının əsas aləti olan
şüur axını ilk olaraq Dorothy Richardson’un “Ziyarət” (Pilgrimage) əsərində (1915- 35)
istifadə olunmuş sonralar isə James Joyce’un “Ulysses” (1922), Virginia Woolf’un
“Mrs Dalloway” və William Faulkner’in “Səs və qəzəb” (The sound and the fury) (1928)
əsərlərində daha da inkişaf etdirilidi.
XX əsrin əvvəllərində psixoloji roman janrı inkişaf etməyə başladıqda bir çox ya-
zıçılar şüur axını texnikasından istifadə edərək əsərlər yaratmağa başladılar. İngilis dilli
ədəbiyyatda bu texnikadan istifadə edərək yazan yazıçılar James Joyce, Virginia Woolf
və William Faulknerdir. James Joyce iki əsərini Finnegance Wake və Ulysses əsərlə-
rini şüur axını texnikasından istifadə edərək yazmışdır. Ulysses Homerin qəhrəmanı
Odyssey’in Latın variantıdır. Ulysses əsəri nəinki müəllifin və İngilis ədəbiyyatının
hətta dünya ədəbiyyatının ən çətin əsərlərindən hesab olunur. James Joyce öz əsəri
haqqında danışarkən belə demişdi: “Mən elə bir əsər yaratdım ki, professorlar, ədəbi
tənqidçilər hələ üç yüz bundan sonra da bu əsər üzərində baş sındırsınlar. Bu da mənim
əsərimin ölməzliyini göstərsin”. James Joyce’dan əvvəl bədii yaradıcılıqla məşğul olan
heç bir yazıçı insan düşüncələrinin dərinliyinə bu qədər varmamışdır. Joyce bu əsəri
on səkkiz bölümə ayırmışdır. Bu bölümlər əsərdə epizodlar adlanır. Ümumilikdə əsər
bir qədər çaşdırıcı və xaotikdir. Əsərin üçüncü bölümü bütövlükdə şüur axını texnikası
üzərində qurulmuşdur. Belə ki, əsərin qəhrəmanlarından biri Stephen qayalar arasında
uzanarakən eyni anda beynində xaotik olaraq gah hansısa fəlsəfi konsepsiyaları təhlil
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
edir, gah Parisdəki tələbə həyatını xatırlayır, gah da anasını ölümü barəsində düşünür.
Bütün şüur axını texnikası üzərində qurulmuş əsərlərdə olduğu kimi bu əsərdə də za-
man tarazlığının pozulması öz əksini tapmışdır. Gah irəli atılmalar, gah geri çəkilmələr
eyni anda birindən digərinə elə keçir ki, çox vaxt oxuculara bəzi məqamların qaranlıq
qalmasına səbəb olur və ümumilikdə nəsri çətinləşdirir. Anlaşılmamzlıq yaradan digər
bir cəhət isə James Joyce’un tez-tez xarici sözlərdən və ya portmanteau² sözlərdən istifa-
də etməsidir. Digər qəribəlik eyni zamanda obrazlardadır. Əsərin altıncı epizodu da bü-
tövlükdə şüur axını texnikasında yazılıb. Belə ki, bu epizodda dəfn mərasimi təsvir
olunub və müəllif əsərin qəhrəmanlarından biri Bloom’un ölüm və həyat haqqında fi-
kirlərini şüur axını texnikasından məharətlə istifadə edərək oxucuya çatdırır. İki təzad
arasında fərqi və oxşarlığı müəyyən edən fikirlər oxucuya Bloom’un daxili monoloqu
şəklində təqdim olunur.
İki sözü birləşdirb yeni söz almaq. Məs: smog-smoke və fog
Digər bir qəribəlik isə on ikinci bölümdə obrazların adsızlığıdır. Bu bölümü nəql
edən sadəcə Dublinli adlandırılır. Hadisələr barda cərəyan edir və buradakı digər şəxs
isə sadəcə vətəndaş adlandırılır.
Bəzi tənqidçilər qeyd edir ki, James Joyce bununla oxucuları daha da çaşdırmaq,
bir az daha çox qəlizlik yaratmaq məqsədilə belə bir texnikaya müraciət edib. Lakin
bu da James Joyce nəsrinin özünəməxsus xüsusiyyətlərindən biridir.
Əsərdə James Joyce Bibliya əfsanələrindən, İrland mifologiyasından bol-bol istifadə
etmişdir. Əsərin on səkkizinci bölümündə James Joyce ardıcıl səkkiz cümlədə durğu
işarələrindən istifadə etməmişdir. Belə cümlələr şüur axını üçün xarakterikdir. Belə olan
halda cümlələr arasında əlaqə tamailə itir və bu da nəsri ağırlaşdıran əsas xüsusiyyət-
lərdən bridir. James Joyce şüur axını texnikasının bu cəhətindən də məharətlə yararlan-
mışdır.
Eyni texnikadan istifadə olunaraq yazılmış digər bir əsər Virginia Woolf'un “Mrs
Dalloway” əsəridir. Bu əsərin qəhrəmanı Xanım Dalloway'dir. Əsərdə olan digər bir
obraz isə Septimusdur. O ruhi xəstədir. Birinci dünya müharibəsinin şahidi olmuş bu
şəxsin qulağına qəribə səslər gəlir. Bu iki obrazın əslində bir-biri ilə heç bir bağlılığı
yoxdu. Mrs Dalloway intihara hazırlaşır. Əsərdəki hadisələr yalnız bir gün ərzində baş
verir. Mrs Dalloway intihar etmir,çünki Virginia Woolf Septimus obraznı yaradır ki,
onun əsərinin baş qəhrəmanı sağ qalsın. Əsərin sonunda onlardan birincisi həyatı, ikin-
cisi isə ölümü seçir.
Çox maraqlıdır ki, həm Virginia Woolf, həm də Amerika yazıçısı William Faulkner
şüur axınından istifadə etmək üçün ruhi xəstə obrazı seçmişlər. Əvvəldə qeyd etmişdik
ki, şüur axını assosasiyası olmayan fikirlərin axınıdır. Hər birimizin beynində şüur axını
vardır. Lakin nitqimizdə biz onları tənzimləyib normal fikirlər formasında ifadə edə
bilirik. Lakin bu hal ruhi xəstələr və yeni danışmağa başlayan körpələr üçün xarakterik
deyil. Və mənim fikrimcə hər iki yazıçının ruhi xəstə obrazı seçməsi məhz bununla
bağlıdır. Digər tərəfdən isə Faulknerin özünün qeyd etdiyinə görə o tamam fərqli bir
təhkiyə üsulu yaratmaq üçün bunu seçmişdir.
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İngilis ədəbiyyatında şüur axını texnikası üzərində qurulan digər bir əsər elə Virginia
Woolf 'un “Mayak” (To the Lighthouse) əsəridir. “Mayak” əsərində Virginia Woolf öz
obrazlarının beyninə daxil olur və və onların fikirlərini şıüur axını texnikası ilə əks et-
dirir. Şüur axını üçün xaraterik olan bir cəhət bu əsərdə də öz əksini tapıb: əsas yer
obrazın fikirlərinə və hisslərinə verilib. Bədii əsərlər üçün xaraterik olan mobillik və
dialoq zənginliyi bu əsərdə ikinci plandadır. Virginia Woolf əsərləri üçün xarakterik
olan bir cəhət bu əsərdə də öz əksini tapıb: o öz qəhrəmanlarını onların fikirləri, xatirələri,
bir-birinə olan münasibəti və reaksiyası vasitəsilə təqdim edir və bu yolla inkişaf etdirir.
Əsərin başlanğıcıdakı səhnədə stol arxasında oturmuş Mrs Ramsay'nin düşüncələri va-
sitəsilə müəllif səhnəni bizə təqdim edir. Xanıma görə otaq çirkin, insanlar düşüncəsiz-
dirlər. Amma ondan savayı stol ətrafında oturanların heç birini otağın çirkli olması ma-
raqlandırmır. Onun öz əri haqqında düşünücələri də burada öz əksini tapır. O bilmir
ki, öz ərini sevirmi yaxud nə vaxtsa sevibmi. Müəllif Mrs Ramsay haqqında isə digər
bir obrazın vasitəsi ilə oxucuya məlumat çatdırır. Əsərin digər bir hissəsində Lily vasitəsi
ilə biz Mrs Ramsay haqqında öyrənirik.
Beləliklə, nə qədər çətin, anlaşıqsız, kimi tənqidlərə məruz qalsa da həm James
Joyce, həm də Virginia Woolf İngilis ədəbiyyatını çox böyük yazıçıları sırasında hər
zaman qeyd olunur. Hər iki müəllif şüur axını texnikasından istifadə edərək nəinki İn-
gilis ədəbiyyatının hətta dünya ədəbiyyatını ölməz əsərlərini yaratmışlar. Elə James
Joyce’un özünü dediyi kimi bu əsərlər hələ çox təhlil olunacaq.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, Deland (1990). Through Days of Easter: Time and Narrative in The Sound and the Fury.
Literature and Theology
2. Eagleton, Therry Literary Theory, Blackwell Publishing 2008, (pp,28,164)
3. Faulkner, William The Sound and the fury Vintage International 1984
4. Friedman, Melvin. Stream of Consciousness: A Study in Literary Method, 1955. (p 32-38)
5. Guerin, Wilfred et al A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature, Oxford University Press 2005
(pp,104,180,192,291,300-301,372)
6. Humphrey, Robert. Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel, 1954. (p p,122-124)
7. http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91md/
8. http://www.online-literature.com/james_joyce/ulysses/
ABSTRACT
Joyce, James Augustine, was one of the most radical innovators of twentieth century writing, who
dedicated himself to exuberant exploration of the total resources of language . He was an Irish novelist and
poet, considered to be one of the most influential writers in the modernist avant-garde of the early twentieth
century.
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Dubliners is a series of short, interrelated stories which deal with the lives of ordinary people, whose
actions are invested with a symbolic profundity. Joyce explores what would become central themes in his
work: youth, adolescence, adulthood and maturity, and how identify is affected by these different stages in life.
Araby is the third of the fifteen stories in Dubliners. “Araby” is a short story centering on an Irish
adolescent emerging from boyhood fantasies into the harsh realities of everyday life in his country. Joyce
based this coming-of-age tale, which he wrote in 1905, on his own experiences while growing up in Dublin
in the late nineteenth century.
Key words: James Joyce, works, Dubliners, Araby , symbols.
Giriş
Ceyms Avqustin Aloizius Coys İrland yazıçısı və şairidir, iyirminci əsrin ən nüfüzlu
yazıçılarından biri hesab olunur. Coysun ilk nəşr olunmuş “Chamber Music” adlı kitabı
otuz altı poemadan ibarətdir. “Chamber Music” muxtəlif üslublarda yazılmış sevgi
haqqında şeirlərdən ibarətdir . Ceyms Coysun sevilən işlərindən bıri də “Dublinliler”
olmuşdur. Bu, qisa hekayələrdən ibarət kitabdır. “Sənətkarın bir gənc olaraq portreti”
Coysun ilk romanıdır ve oz tecrubesine dayanaraq tertib etmisdir. “Surgunlər” əsəri
Coysun yeganə səhnəyə qoyulmuş əsəridir. Coys “Uliss” romanına göre daha çox məş-
hurdur . Ceyms Coysun sonuncu əsəri “Finneqans Veyk” olmuşdur, bu əsər on yeddi
hissədən və dörd kitabdan ibarətdir. Coys həmçinin tənqidi oçerklər və nəsr əsərlərinin
de müəllifidir.
Coys Dublində orta səviyyəli bir ailədə anadan olub, onun atası Con həvəskar aktyor
və məşhur tenor olub, onun anası Meri isə istedadlı pianist olub. Coys Klongoves və
Belvedere kolleclərində sonra isə Dublin Universitetində oxumuşdur. Burada o daha
çox fəlsəfə və dil üzrə ozünü təkminləşdirmişdi. Təhsilini başa vurduqdan sonra o İrlan-
diyanı tərk edib, lakin anasının xəstəliyinə görə bir ildən sonra Parisdən qayıtmalı olub.
Anasının vəfatından sonra gələcək həyat yoldaşı Nora ilə Parisə qayıdıb və həyatlarına
burada davam etdirmişlər. Ceyms Avropanın Triest, Paris ve Surix şəhərlərində daimi
olaraq yaşamışdır. Baxmayaraqkı, onun həyatının yetkin dövürləri xaricdə keçib, Dub-
linə qarşı olan istəyi, sevgisi çox böyük olub. Bunu əsərlərındə də qeyd edib.
Dublinlilər
Dublinlilər Ceyms Coys tərəfindən yazılmış on beş qısa hekayədən ibarət kitabdır,
ilk dəfə 1914 cü ildə nəşr olunmuşdur. Onlar əsasən iyirminci əsrin əvvəllərində İrlan-
diya və Dublinin həyatından bəhs edir. Hekayələr İrlandiyanın milliyətçilik zirvəsində
olan vaxtı yazılmışdır. Tarix və mədəniyyət kəsişməsi zamanı İrlandiya muxtəlif ide-
yaların təsiri altına düşmüşdü. Coysun ideyalarının əsas məğzi görünüş olmuşdur “Dub-
linlilər”dəki xarakterlərin bir çoxu sonra “Uliss” əsərinde kiçik rollar şəklində toplanır.
Toplu şəkildə götürsək hekayələr yaşı az olan baş qəhrəmanlar tərəfindən deyilir, bu-
nunla belə, hekayələr oxunduqca yaşlı insanların həyatından və qayğılarından danışılır.
Bu uşaqlıq, yeniyetməlik və yetişkinlik Ceyms Coysun üçtərəfli bölgüsü ilə əlaqəlidir.
Arabi
Arabi “Dublinlilər” romanında on beş müstəqil hekayədən üçüncüsüdür.
Hekayənin danışanı ilk olaraq hansı küçədə yaşadığını təsvir edir. Oğlan bu evə
köçməmişdən əvvəl burada yaşayan indi isə ölü olan bir kahindən danışır. O, burada
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xalası və dayısı ilə yaşayırdı. Oğlan eyni zamanda bu küçədə dostu ilə oynadığı oyunları
xatırlayır. Dotunun adı Manqan olub. Oğlan Manqanın bacısının qabağını kəsmək üçün
kölgələrdə gizlənirdi.
O, Manqanın bacısına vurulmuşdu. O, qız haqqında hər an düşünürdü və qorxurduki,
onun həç zaman qızla danışmağa cəsarəti çatmaz.
Bir gün səhər qız oğlana yaxınlaşaraq onun Arabiyə gedib getməyəcəyini soruşur,
bu Dublində bir bazardır. Qız məktəbi ilə əlaqədar ora gədə bilməyəcəyini deyir.
Oğlan böyük məmnuniyyətlə gedəcəyini və ona bir hədiyye də alacağını deyir.
O, dayısından icazə alır və ancaq o günün gəlməsini səbirsizliklə gözləyir. Nəhayət
o gün gəlir və o dayısına axşam bazara getmək istədiyini deyir və xaiş edirki, dayısı evə
vaxtında gəlsin, ona bazara getmək üçün və xərcləmək üçün biraz pul versin. Həmin
axsam amma dayısı gecikir onun getməli olduğunu unudur. Dayısı artıq gec olduğunu
getməməyini deyir amma oğlan getmək istəyində israrlı olur və dayısından qatar üçün
biraz pul istəyir.
O, çatanda bazar artıq bağlanırdı , ancaq bir iki yer açıq idi. Onun baxdıqlarına isə
pulu çatmırdı. İşıqlar yavaş yavaş sönür və oğlan ümüdini itirərək geri dönür.
Simvollar
Simvollar mücərrəd fikirləri və konsepsiyaları təmsil etmək üçün istifadə olunan
obyeklər,xarakterlər ,fiqurlar və yaxud rənglərdir.
Pəncərələr
“Dublinlilər” də pəncərələr baş verəcək hadisələri və ya toqquşmaları ardıcıl sürətdə
göstərir. Misal olaraq, “Bacılarda” rəvayət edən hər gecə pəncərədən baxır, həmçinin
“Arabi” də rəvayət edən şəxs öz otağının pəncərəsindən Manqanın bacısına tamasa
edir. Pəncərələr burada daxili və xarici aləmin mərkəzi nöqtəsidir.
Toranlıq və Gecə vaxtı
Coysun “Dublinlilər”hekayələr toplusu demək olarki,qaranlıq səhnələrdən ibarətdir.
Gün işığı və yaxud şən mənzərələrin heç biri bu hekayələri işıqlandırmır. Əvəzində boz
tonlar və qara onların zülmət tonlarını göstərir. Xarakterlər Dublinin qaranlıq vaxtlarında
canlandırılır və onlar həyatları ilə bağlı hadisələri sonuncu saatlarda, qaranlıq vaxtlarda
yaşayırlar.. Bu tünd fonlar ‘Dublinlilər’də yarı həyatı canlandırır. Biz bu qaranlığı
“Arabi’ hekayəsində görmüşük.
Manqanın bacısı
Manqanın bacisı onun diqqətini dağıdan qız olub və onun ağlından heç çıxmayib.
Manqanın bacısı onun arzusu olmuşdu lakin hekayə boyu o qızın adı verilməyib. Niyə?
çünki, o bilirdiki onun arzusu xəyali bir şeydir.
Arabi
“Arabi” sözü əsərdə çox mühüm yer tutur, elə bu adından da görünür. „Arabi“
ərəblər üçün çox qədim bir addır. „Arabi“ Dublində olan Şərqi ətirlər satılan bir yerdir.
Oğlanın ora getmək istəyi də güclü olub və belə nəticəyə gəlirikki, ‚“Arabi“ oğlan üçün
yeni dünya arzusu imis.
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Dediyimiz kimi, Ceyms Coys iyirminci əsrin ən nüfuzlu yazıçılarından biri hesab
olunur. Onun əsərlərində istifadə etdiyi simvollardan həmçinin, Ceyms Coysun yaradı-
cılığından muasir yazıçılar istifadə etməkdədirlər.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
1. Norton Anthology of English literature
2. Encyclopedia of World Biography.
3. www.jamesjoyce.ie
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buildings, especially the residence of a feudal lord. The name could also have denoted
a servant who lived and worked at such a place. Topographical surnames were among
the earliest created, since both natural and man-made features in the landscape provided
easily recognisable distinguishing names. The name development since 1154 includes
the following: Henry de Castell (1260, Cambridgeshire), John del Castel (1307, York-
shire), and William ate Castele (1317, Kent). The saga of the name Castle follows a line
reaching back through history to the days of the Anglo-Saxon tribes in Britain. It was
a name for someone who worked as a person who worked in a castle. The original bearer
of the surname Castle may have held the post of governor or constable of the castle.
However, the surname might also be derived from residence near a castle, or from
services or rent owed to a castle. The surname Castle is derived from the Old Norman
French word castel, which means castle.
During the period of the Fall of the Roman Empire and the Rise of the Anglo Saxons
there were built many burhs in England. 'What is the Burhs? ’Burhs' or 'Burghs' is a
meaning of which meant "fortress" or castle. The meaning gradually changed from
"fortress," to "fortified town," to simply "town". The word 'Burhs' later changed to
Burgh, Bury then Borough which are evident in many modern British place names.
Any such place name is an immediate indication that signifies that a Burh was once
built in the area. What was the difference between the Burhs and Castles? Burhs were
developed as a community effort where as a castle was a private enterprise. A castle
was privately owned under Royal license.
Many place names are derived from the person or group of people who first settled
in the area. The earliest of these place names usually end in ing which is derived from
the Old English ingas and originally meant 'dependants or relatives' of a certain man.
British place names contain elements that can be traced back to the languages spoken
by at least five quite distinct groups of people. The Welsh, the Scots, and the Irish are
well aware that they have often been invaded by the English (amongst others). And a
brief excursion into English history will reveal that the country has been invaded by the
Celts, the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons, the Scandinavians, and the French. All of these
groups contributed words which make up the place names we have today.
The Celts
The Celts were one of the many tribes living in Europe in the years before Christ.
The Celts from Northern France and the Netherlands settled in England. They were
known as the Brythons (Britons). Later, Celts from Southern France settled in Ireland.
They spoke Goidelic (Gaelic).
The Celts left behind names that are found most abundantly in the North and West.
They also gave names to many rivers. Celtic names are often found in isolated spots
which suggest that more remote groups remained Celtic-speaking long after other groups
had accepted that language of the Anglo-Saxons.
One of the castles take its name from the celts. That castle is Balmoral castle. The
name Balmoral from the Gaelic, meaning is Majestic Residence.
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The Windsor
One of the most famous castles in England is a Windsor. Windsor began as a Saxon
village. The name Windsor is believed to be a corruption of the Saxon words 'windlass
Oran' meaning a bank with a windlass. After the Saxons founded the settlement it grew
into a town because of its position by a river. The original settlement was at Old Windsor
but William built a castle on an escarpment at Clewer. Windsor Castle, which was
strengthened and improved by Henry II and Henry III, would have a large staff of de-
fenders and servants and provided a market for the townspeople’s goods.
Here comes the other castle. The Buckingham Palace is a palace and London residen-
ce of the British sovereign. It is situated within the borough of Westminister. The palace
takes its name from the house built (c. 1705) for John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham.
It was bought in 1762 by George III for his wife, Queen Charlotte, and became known
as the queen’s house.
The Camelot castle
The Legends and stories about Camelot create an enduring impression of a wonderful,
mystical castle and land where Knights in shining armour lived to an honourable Code
of Chivalry. Did Camelot really exist? There is no historical evidence that King Arthur
existed. The Arthurian legends were based on the books written by the clerics of the
Medieval era or the Middles Ages. But there is some evidence that King Arthur might
have been based on a real person.
Where did the name Camelot originate? There is some speculation that Camelot
was derived from the Latin word 'Camelodunum'. The oldest known literature about
King Arthur makes no reference to Camelot by name. Camelot is first mentioned ex-
plicitly in the romance called Lancelot written by the French poet Chretien de Troyes
between 1170 and 1185. The patroness of Chretien de Troyes was the Countess Marie
de Champagne who was the daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine who married King Henry
II of England. The name Camelot is mentioned as follows:"Upon a certain Ascension
Day King Arthur had come from Caerleon, and had held a very magnificent court at
Camelot as was fitting on such a day. But the legends of Camelot are legion - there are
no definitive answers!
After learning this information we understand that the English castles names
originated from not only one language, but also different sources. For that reason, the
English castles names have various origins.
REFERENCES
1. http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/celts.htm
2. http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/Castles.html
3. http://www.guide-to-castles-of-europe.com/english-castles.html
4. http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/castles/normancastles.htm
5. http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/castles/motteandbailey.htm
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camelot
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There is hardly a person in this world that doesn’t know anything or at least never
heard the name of Shakespeare. This figure is famous not only because of his talent and
masterpieces in literature, but for his enigmatic life as well. Only some general facts
are known about him and his life, but the certain part of his life is still covered with
mystery.
John Shakespeare and Mary Arden had a child in April of 1564 in Stratford-upon-
Avon. It is not possible to find the record of his birth, but the baptism was written in
church and thus his birth date is considered to be the 23d of April. His father was
alderman in the same town. The sources do not provide enough information about the
youth of Shakespeare, it is known that he attended the Stratford Grammar School and
then could not proceed to Oxford or Cambridge. In the year 1582 he married the girl,
whose name was Anne Hathaway. They had a daughter in a year and later on twins. By
the year 1589 people talked about Shakespeare as about an actor, a poet and a playwright.
Later he joined “The Lord Chamberlain’s Men”-this was a really famous acting troupe
in London. In 1599 this troupe lost lease of the theatre called “The Theatre”; they had
enough money to build their own theater - “The Globe”. It was opened in July 1599,
the motto of it was: “Totus mundus agit historionem” – meaning “a whole world of
players” (J. Bate, 85).By the year 1603 James the first came to throne and the troupe
was renamed into “King’s Men”. In their patent was mentioned that they are “free to
use and exercise the art and faculty of playing Comedies, Tragedies, Histories, Interludes,
Morals, Pastorals, stage plays… as well for recreation of our loving subjects as for
our solace and pleasure.” (S. Wells, 335). Thus the entertaining programs for the king
started and then lasted for another ten years, afterwards the theatre burned. The theatre
was reconstructed and Shakespeare contributed to this reconstruction, but he never
returned to the stage again, he went on writing his works and at the age of 52, on the
same day he was born, he died.
Shakespeare is the author of many masterpieces; one of them is his play – Othello.
If to take the period between 1603 and 1604 “Othello” is the most remarkable tragedy
written by Shakespeare. In Othello we find the combination of most vital human emotions
and feelings – hate and love. The story is serious and ironical. We can not judge about
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any point of view because there is no narrator in a play, the play tells the audience about
an honest and noble man who can be influenced so that he is ready to kill the woman
he loves. This tragedy is well known all over the world and there are even set phrases
about the main hero and his jealousy.
The main plot of the tragedy comes from Giraldi Clinthio’s Gli Hecatommithi that
was a tale about love and betrayal. But the characters and themes still differ a lot.
Shakespeare pays more attention to human nature and psychology. The important
difference lies for example in the motivations that Iago had, in the version of Cithio
Iago just wanted to revenge on Desdemona for her refusal, in the Shakespeare’s play
the situation is more complicated.
The play of Shakespeare is as well connected with the important matter in Europe
at that time, the Muslim religion and culture and their relations with West. The play
was written a century later after the Muslims were moved from Spain, and the readers
and audience could feel the hostility towards Othello because of his origin, religion
beliefs and culture. The conflict between Venice and Turks presents the same hostility
between West and East. The Venetians are trying to protect Christendom from the
coming influence of Muslim Turks, the irony is in the fact that Othello is sent to manage
this mission.
Some researches state that Othello is a good example of Aristotelian drama: there
are not many characters in the play, for Shakespeare this was actually the smallest set
of characters, some certain distractions from the main plot line and concentration on
several themes, including for example jealousy in this case. This play of Shakespeare
proves to be of a great interest for its readers from the very moment it appeared.
REFERENCES
1. G. B. Harrison, Shakespeare’s Tragedies (ROUTLEDGE and KEGAN PAUL LTD, Broadway
House,68-74 Carter Lane, London, E.C.4)
2. G. Taylor, Reinventing Shakespeare (1989); 98-265
3. J. Bate, The Genius of Shakespeare (1997); 2-87
4. Prof. Dr. Sh. Khalilli and S. Magill, Shakespeare’s English Historic Plays (Qafqaz University Press,
N: 41, Baku, 2009)
5. S. Greenblatt, Will in the World (2004), 13-19
6. S. Wells, ed., Current Approaches to Shakespeare: Language, Text, Theatre, and Ideology (1988);
333-335
7. Vilyam Şekspirin seçilmiє əsərləri, Sabir Mustafayev (Öndər nəşriyyat, Bakı, 2004)
8. www.enotes.com
9. www.wikipedia.org
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CONFERENCE MATERIALS
EDUCATION
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
I would like to thank all of you for coming together today to discuss one of the most
important activities necessary in an institution of higher learning – RESEARCH.
Oftentimes, I am hesitant to spend conference time thanking individuals on such
an occasion as this because there is always the risk of omitting the name of some one
person who has been essential for the creation of my presentation. On this occasion,
however, I would be negligent if I did not publicly thank at least a few people. If your
name is not on this list, please know that you are still important to this work. I have
shortened the public listing only due to time and space constraints.
First, I want to thank the Rektor, Dr. Ahmet Sanic, and CAG Education Systems
for allowing me the privilege of participating in the work of this great university named
Qafqaz University. Next, it is essential to thank Cehun Mikayilov, a mathematician on
the Qafqaz Faulty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of World
Economy. Without this man, it would have been impossible to prepare my presentation
quickly and skillfully for you today. He has proven to be a mathematician, statistician,
and scholar of the highest order. Kaitlin Ward, my colleague and friend has generously
taught me much in the short time I have known her. She is herself a superb educator
who really cares about her students. Yagut Bakhshaliyeva is a native Azerbaijani
renaissance woman. This woman has talent in so many different areas, that it will be
impossible for Qafqaz to utilize all of her many skills and insights. It will be impossible
simply because of the large number of things this woman knows and can do. Without
Yagut, I would not have survived those first weeks at Qafqaz University.
Of course, I want to thank the Faculty of Pedagogy of the Department of English
Language and Literature, who specifically invited me to participate in this conference.
Research is essential.
In order to give this subject due respect, I must state plainly, “Without research,
there is no university.”
Without research, there is no university!
Without research, there may be a school or there may be a building in which teachers
give instruction to students, but without research, this entity is not a university.
Why is it important for you as teachers to conduct research?
1. Without research, you cannot know what fields must be taught.
2. Without research, you cannot know which things within a given field need to be
taught.
3. Without research, you cannot know who to teach.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
One size shirt will not fit every person attending this conference. One way of
teaching will not fit every student and every situation.
Simply being present in a class with students and teaching in some way does not
equal teaching effectively in much the same way as copying or memorizing does not
equal student learning.
As part of my first week of the new term, I prepared and executed a survey. All of
my students were asked to complete the survey. The survey was written utilizing methods
research has indicated would be most likely to be effective. Next, the surveys were
distributed in class. That class period was spent discussing vocabulary words used in
the survey and the meanings of the questions themselves were discussed. The students
were given the opportunity to ask questions if they did not understand anything at all
on the survey. Only AFTER all this had been done did the students begin their completion
of the survey.
The survey responses were tabulated, and then placed into the form of “pie” graphs.
While this is useful even at this step, there is further analysis to be made in order
to gain the most useful information for planning for students.
In interpreting the results of the survey, many things must be taken into account. For
example, did the students really understand the question? Did the student understand
the meaning of the possible responses? Did the students know how to mark the survey
in order to indicate the student’s real opinions? It must be realized that humans of all
ages tend to over-represent in certain areas of inquiry and under-represent in other areas
of inquiry. (How do we know this? We know this from research.)
This is why learning effective techniques for conducting research is essential. If
you do not know the difference between a “p value” for example and an “n value” then
it is difficult for you to be an effective researcher. If you do not understand fully the
difference between “data” and “information” then it is impossible for you to conduct
effective research.
How can you gain these necessary skills? Take courses in research design and inter-
pretation. Study statistics. Have the good fortune to have a statistician as a friend. There
are innumerable things can be done to improve your ability to conduct effective, useful
research.
Effective research improves the student’s ability to learn, the teacher’s ability to
instruct skillfully, and raises the status of your profession. Research does this for your
profession by adding to the collective knowledge available to everyone in your field
as they pursue work in teaching. The more the group knows, the better each individual
can practice.
The world is ever changing and complex. Research is the only way to know “reality”.
If one does not function in the context of reality, then one is just expending effort without
making a positive change or improvement.
The following represents a simplified and abbreviated rendering of the results of
this survey. While I did not have time to specifically include the entire survey or the
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actual wording you may still get the idea of how research is useful in the everyday
teacher/student relationship.
Week One Survey
Shirley A Stanley’s Communication Level 4 students Qafqaz University
How many?
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
How many times a week outside of class do you actively seek people
with whom to speak English?
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
students to study the literature which is currently being discussed in their society, par-
ticularly when that literature has been interpreted through other media, such as movies
or musicals. In preparing, I explored the possibility of computer-assisted literature
teaching (CALT). Nowadays, technology has made teaching and learning easier and
more efficient. Nevertheless, most of the technological applications are concerned with
language teaching and learning (e.g. the widespread applications and discussions of com-
puter-assisted language learning), and there have been few technological applications
regarding literature teaching and learning. Since there are also countless literature re-
sources online, teachers should be encouraged to use them to make their literature class
more interesting. It is expected that having students experience literature in different
modes of delivery may add variety and pleasure to literature classes. Moreover, literature
in music, pictures, or films might motivate students to read literature in print. Compared
with the substantial amount of research on students’ attitude toward general foreign
language study, research on students’ attitude toward literature is quite slim. Students’
Perceptions of Literature investigates university students’ attitudes toward the study
of literature in a foreign language as well as the factors affecting their opinions about
literature in general. Moreover, two factors were found to be significantly related to their
attitudes toward literature study, namely, the amount of leisure reading done in the foreign
language, and the preferred learning styles, such as being given opportunities to express
their personal opinions, to look for the underlying meaning of the text, and to read about
people and experiences different from their own. In other words, students’ attitude toward
literature may be influenced not only by their own reading habits but also by the teachers’
instructional methods. It is possible that students have different perceptions of ‘literature
for pleasure’ (i.e. reading literature for its own sake) and ‘literature for instrumental
use’ (e.g. reading literature to sharpen language skills).
REFERENCES:
1. Brumfit, C.J.(1981). Reading skills and the study of literature in a foreign language. System 9.3, 243–248.
2. www.onestopenglish.com
3. Baird, A. (1976). The study and teaching of literature.ELT Journal XXX, 281–286
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target matter, our national leader took into consideration a deeply rooted and a qualified education system.
As a future young teacher, the burden of a good education lies in our shoulders, I'd say.
It is a real fact that if any of the students of foreign language faculty is asked “What do you want to
become?” -among the 100% of the given answers you'll hardly be able to hear any opinion like “I want to
be a teacher”. So, there is a serious obstacle in the methodology of teaching process. As the grammar is
regarded as the ‘backbone” of the language, I found it necessary to touch upon the teaching of this aspect.
Most students, especially those who want to access language learning run away from the ridged grammar
rules as far as possible. The theme of my dissertation work is “modality”. That’s why I'll draw your atention
to this side of grammar.
Key words: Education, modality, methods.
In the center of all processes stands the problem of “human being” -an individual,
a person with certain psychological character, with his complicated qualities. In all these
complications there appears an urgent need to express one's feelings in foreign language.
Fairly speaking, I improved my English in this way. Every time when I listened to my
heart, every time when I heard its constant beatings there was a great need to utter it in
English. So, I had to look up dictionary for any unknown word that I didn’t know. But,
of course, the chain of words is not sufficient for expressing deeper emotions. This is
here that modality “comes” to answer our calls. Modality is the life itself, I would say.
To teach modality just on the basis of strict, ridged grammar rules will lose its beauty,
its significance. If we carry on like this, students will pay no attention either to the
teacher or to the lesson she teaches.
For example, while speaking of the modal verb “can” and its function denoting phy-
sical or mental ability, if you cite such an example as “I can speak English” then wait
nothing from your teaching method. As John Locke said: “It is difficult to instruct
children because of their natural inattention; the true mode, of course, is to first make
our modes interesting to them”.
I offer my own method: Try to start the lesson with construction “once upon a
time…” as if you are going to narrate a tale of something mysterious or with such
gestures, intonations and emotions as though you speak of your personal life (students
are curious about their teacher's personal life-especially when she is young and pretty).
They will glaze at what you are talking about. Even the most chatter-box girls will be
eager about what you are going to say later. Speak about love matters, marriage relation-
ship and include the grammar lesson that you are going to teach in this frame. In case
of choosing examples appropriate to any grammar rule give such sentences that reflect
the moral commotions of your students. For example: “You could put all the hearts
together in the world and that still wouldn’t describe how much I love you” instead of “I
could speak English when I was a child” while teaching the use of modal verbs “could”,
”would”, or “may you never feel what I then felt, may your eyes never shed such stormy,
heart-wrung tears as poured from mine” instead of “may I use your phone?”.
Stimulate your students. Ask them to write compositions on the matters they are
mostly interested in, as “Friendship between Men and Women”. It will help them to
enrich the bulk of vocabulary. In my monthly pedagogical experiment I gave them such
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
instruction. Results admired everyone. Even one of the students had drawn a beautiful
picture under her writing. I hung it from the board of glory.
Praise them, but no often. Ask some questions those who are morally far away from
the lesson as if you are interested in them and whether they have girl-friends or not (in
most cases it belongs to boys). They will awake from their sleep. Ask them to write
their opinions about their friends in English. But don't forget: they have to use current
grammar rule or speech pattern. Because we have our definite aim-to involve them and
teach by this method.
Speak about your achievements. Be sincere as much as possible. They will appreciate
you and ask questions that they are interested in. run away of using any word that will
insult them. Don’t be rude.
At the end of my article I'd like to stress that a responsible teacher is a real treasure
of the future development of the state system. That’s all what I noticed in my monthly
pedagogical experiment.
REFERENCES
1. V.L. Kaushanskaya “A grammar of the English language”, Baki, 2004
2. Http: arts.uwaterloo.ca/~oops/quotes.php.
A group of scientists proposed to teach the workers the English language. For the
first time, thanks to Agreement of total $7.4 billion investment, workers started to learn
English. But there was no time for teaching them Alphabet by means of the following
cliché:
A – is for Apple, B – is for Book, C – is for Cat.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
The new approach was introduced, carrying out all the lessons not at the desk but
in oil fields. The industry urgently needed technology, education and specialists. The
scientific exchange started where visitors from Baku were sent for learning new methods
of well deepening and exploitation.
The new Alphabet was:
A – for Assessment,
B – for Barrel,
C – for Capacity.
The birthplace of the international oil industry, Azerbaijan by realization of the
“Contract of the Century” gained a brilliant result in conducting right oil policy. This
Contract gave opportunity to thousands of workers to integrate in World oil industry
by learning English as an international language. Language barrier was very important
for cooperation and experience exchange.
When we begin to learn a foreign language, we usually use a book whose first
chapters are filled with: "Hello, how are you? My name is Jane." Of course, that would
seem easier to learn, but there was no time to wait for years until the workers manage
the challenge of mastering another tongue.
One of the modern approaches of teaching was Heinrich Schliemann's method.
The famous 19th-century German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890),
who pursued a life-long dream of excavating the remains of Homeric Troy, no doubt
was a genius for language. Within two years, he taught himself fluent Dutch, English,
French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and later learnt seven more languages, including
both modern and ancient Greek.
How could we, who generally consider ourselves lucky if we manage to learn only
one or two foreign languages in entire lifetime, not be curious about the method he used?
"In order to acquire quickly the Greek vocabulary," Schliemann wrote, "I procured a
modern Greek translation of 'Paul et Virginie' [a French novel; Schliemann already
knew French], and read it through, comparing every word with its equivalent in the
French original. When I had finished this task I knew at least one half the Greek words
the book contained; and after repeating the operation I knew them all, or nearly so,
without having lost a single minute by being obliged to use a dictionary. I never lost
my precious time in studying grammar rules."
He doesn't say how he learned to pronounce ancient Greek, but since nobody speaks
it any more, this probably didn't really matter to him too much. Oil workers were taught
English by this way. They knew the process and terminology. The only thing workers had
to do was studying reports, manuals in two languages by comparing every single word.
The other modern approach is between learning music and learning languages.
Musicians are known to have a special talent for picking up new languages. There are
many famous classical musicians who speak several languages with relative ease. Nor-
mally, we attribute this ability to the musician's superior listening skills, and this is no
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
doubt part of it: the more we train ourselves to listen carefully, the better we will be able
to pronounce foreign words.
Obviously, mastering a foreign language has much to do with our natural talents.
German Grand Master of Chess, Robert Hübner in his article described his visit to
Hungary, but unfortunately, he didn't speak the language. He bought a good book, boar-
ded the train, and when he arrived in Budapest after an eight-hour journey, he could
speak Hungarian more than well enough to get by. Presumably, Herr Hübner had a
photographic memory and an extremely high IQ.
Make a commitment to your goal, and follow through on it with enthusiasm, even
obsession: that's the surest ticket to learning a foreign language in record time!
Just as it's important to have the "feel" of a piece of music in order to play it well,
you must also have the "sense" of a language.
REFERENCES
1. Mir-Babayev, M.F., “Brief chronology of the history of Azerbaijan’s oil business”. Baku, “Sabah”,
2004, 200 s. ISBN 978-5-86106-083-7
2. Mir-Babayev, M.F., "The Contribution of Azerbaijan to the World's Oil Industry", "Reservoir"
(Canada), Issue 3, March, 2011, pp. 30–31.
3. http://www.language-learning-tips.com/17_Schliemanns_method.htm
4. http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/24_folder/24_articles/24_aioc.html
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Azerbaijan#.22Contract_of_the_Century.22_and_
following_years.
ABSTRACT
My report is about 4 main problems in our modern education system, problems that every student,
every university, every teacher has to deal with. But if we’ll be brave enough to face them and analyze
realities of education problems we can get rid of them. The first problem that had been touched in my report
is disinterest in the subject studied by students. There are some tips for teachers to make their lessons more
interesting. The second problem that I want to emphasize is the incompetence of teachers and hesitation
of teachers to develop their knowledge in a modern ways and denial of new books and methods. I described
some new methods and literature that students would be more interested to learn. The third problem that
I point out in my report is absence of modern equipment in most of local universities, which leads to
students’ disinterest in learning. The forth problem is absence of student assessment methods which could
divide students according to their knowledge level. Besides these four, there are many other significant
problems touched and described in my report.
Key words: teaching methods, problems, literature, students, solution.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
Learning foreign language is not an easy task. The primary goal of teachers (that
is alive people, not any self-study methods) is to simplify the learning process and help
students to overcome any obstacles on the road of mastering the new skills. I would
like to draw your attention to the 4 main difficulties teachers usually experience, and
which modern educational system still can't deal with.
The first problem is disinterest in the subject studied by students. There may be
two reasons correspond for this.
1. Inability of teacher to present material under study the right way.
2. Wrong choice of profession (teacher or translator) or wrong choice of target language
by students & lack of motivation.
If the student is doubting about English as target language, the teacher should ex-
plain that: over 410 mln people speak English as a first language, with over 1 mlrd (2007)
speaking it as an additional language.1 It is the official language of the United Nations
and aviation. It’s the most widely used language in science and on the Internet. If two
non-native speakers want to communicate, it’s likely they’ll do it in English. English
is the international language that gives many opportunities.
About doubts choosing profession: actually teacher can’t predetermine the choice
of each student, mostly the choice is dictated by parents (according to their family tra-
ditions or social status) or society (social trends), but teacher can direct study in path
of interest of student.
About inability of teacher to present material under study on a right way:
There are about 10 well known methods and approaches of teaching English language.
What is a teaching method?
Teaching method is a way of teaching a language which is based on systematic
principles and procedures, i.e., which is an application of views on how a language is
best taught and learned.2
Methods of language teaching include:
1. Grammar-translation approach
2. Direct approach or the natural method
3. Reading approach
4. Audio-lingual method
5. Suggestopedia
6. Total Physical Response (TPR)
7. Communicative language teaching (CLT)
8. Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)
9. Task-based method
10. The silent way3
But along this methods teacher should use alternative methods considering the
physiological characteristics and the need of each student.
As in my opinion:
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
here are three classics that possess each of these features. A Tale of Two Cities, by
Charles Dickens In case it seemed that way by the criticism of Great Expectations, for
the record there is nothing wrong with Dickens himself. In fact, he wrote one of the best
classics of all time, A Tale of Two Cities, which is a heart-wrenchingly accurate story
set during the French Revolution about two men who look almost identical, and the
heroic sacrifice of one of them. The two cities are London and Paris, and the two men
are Charles Darnay, a French nobleman, and Sydney Carton, an English lawyer. While
the opening statement, "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times..." is one of
the more famous quotes from English literature, the ending is just as memorable. How-
ever, it is generally only known by those who have read the book. No spoilers here.
Wade through Dickens' rambling text and uncover a gem of a story.
The Scarlet Pimpernel by Baroness Orczy
If you are interested in the French Revolution and think A Tale of Two Cities is
accurate, take a look at The Scarlet Pimpernel. Not only is the setting accurate, but
Orczy wrote about people who actually existed. The Scarlet Pimpernel itself is the code
name for an English aristocrat who is smuggling refugees out of Paris during the Re-
volution. The book is crafted as a mystery, so that even the reader is not told the identity
of this man until at least halfway through the book, because he is extremely clever at
hiding his identity and pretending to be much less clever than he really is. Throw in some
romance, betrayal, and disguises, and get a really captivating story. Orczy originally
wrote the story as a play, which became very popular. She also went on to write a series
of sequels about the Scarlet Pimpernel and his family, but only the original book is
very commonly read.
The Woman in White by Wilkie Collins
This book is an early form of the modern detective novel. Walter Hartwright meets
and rescues the "woman in white" of the title on the way to a new job working for Mr.
Fairlie. When he arrives, he is extremely surprised to meet Mr. Fairlie's beautiful niece
Laura, because she closely resembles the woman in white. Add insanity, deceit, an
unwanted betrothal, and multiple shifting points of view to produce a very interesting
plot that unwinds slowly, with several surprising twists.
There are others, as well, but these three are a good place to start. Further reading
might include some of the Scarlet Pimpernel sequels, or perhaps some French or German
literature. The third problem in our local universities is absence of modern equipment.
As fact students can’t show their slides, movies or audio files. As a result students may
lose their interest of doing some interesting projects at home and be less enthusiastic.
Or, for example, phonetic lessons are impossible without laboratory lessons with head
phones. As a solution of this problem I will suggest students to write petitions to dean
or administration of universities.
− The forth problem of our educational system in teaching foreign language is
inability of teachers to choose the right materials and literature for students with different
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knowledge levels. Our university system’s syllabus and books seems same for every
student. But in some universities there is test based system that allocates students to
classes according to their knowledge.
Despite of all problems and defects that our education system has students’ desire
to learn language is determinative.
END NOTE
1. Wikipedia
2. Anthony Edward M. Approach, Method and Technique. ELT Journal, Oxford University Press.1963.
3. Diane Larsen-Freeman. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press,
USA; 2 edition (May 11, 2000)
4. Anthony Edward M. Approach, Method and Technique. ELT Journal, Oxford University Press.1963.
REFERENCES
1. Charles Dickens. A Tale of Two Cities. Signet classic, 1997
2. Willkie Collins .The Woman in White. Arcturus Publishing Limited, (June 11, 2011)
3. Baroness Emmuska Orczy. The Scarlet Pimpernel. Simon & Brown, (November 29, 2011)
4. Diane Larsen-Freeman. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press,
USA; 2 edition (May 11, 2000)
5. Anthony Edward M. Approach, Method and Technique. ELT Journal, Oxford University Press.1963.
Poems are, after all, authentic texts. This is a great motivator. Poems are often rich
in cultural references, and they present a wide range of learning opportunities. For me,
the aim is to teach English through poetry, not to teach the poetry itself, so you don't
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need to be a literature expert. Most of the tried and tested activities used regularly by
language teachers can be adapted easily to bring poetry into the classroom.
Communicative speaking activities
Before doing any productive work, the teacher must give the students plenty of
pre-reading activities so that they are adequately prepared.
As a way in to a poem, I might play some background music to create the atmosphere,
show some pictures to introduce the topic, and then get students to think about their
personal knowledge or experience which relates to this topic.
They then talk about the poem, first with a partner and then in small groups, perhaps
coming together as a class at the end to share ideas. The teacher monitors and feeds in
ideas and vocabulary if necessary, gives brief feedback on language used and notes any
language problems to be dealt with at a later date.
The teacher prepares worksheets for pre-reading speaking activities which might
involve a quiz, a questionnaire, sentence stems to be completed and discussed, state-
ments to be ranked and discussed, and so on.
Students might predict endings to verses, the whole poem, or events occurring after
the end of the poem.
Afterwards, the students could talk about their personal response to the poem,
discuss the characters and theme, or debate the moral issues.
Role plays work well, interviewing a partner, or even dramatizing the poem and
making a video. Students could compare poems on related topics, with different groups
working on different poems and then regrouping to pool their ideas.
Working on pronunciation
It can be fun to get students to rehearse and perform a poem. The teacher reads the
poem to them or play a recording, and they identify the stresses and pauses.
We take a chunk (usually a line, sometimes two) at a time, and one half of the class
claps out the rhythm while the other half beats time, and then they swap over.
I recite while they mumble rhythmically, and then as their confidence grows they
could chant in a whisper, a shout, or show a range of emotion. For me, this tends to
work best when it is improvised. I keep it snappy - it's a high energy activity, and you
have to know and trust each other!
I sometimes do intensive phoneme work centred on the rhyming patterns in the poem:
Some poems are crying out to be exploited in this way. I elicit possible rhymes before
revealing the poet's choice, and discuss which suggestions have exactly the same sound
and which don't, leading to a minimal pair activity.
Writing activities
A poem can spark off some wonderful creative writing. Students can add more lines
or stanzas individually or in pairs or groups.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
They can write a letter to a character in the poem, write about what happened before
the beginning or after the ending of the poem and so on.
Students could use the poem as a starting point and model for some parallel writing:
Each group might contribute a verse to a collective poem (or rap).
Genre transfer presents a lot of opportunities for writing practice; letters, diary
entries, radio plays, newspaper articles, agony aunt columns all based on the original
text from a poem.
My students have found reformulation exercises very stimulating, where they switch
between formal and informal language.
Longer poems can be summarized in fifty words.
It is also fun to get students to transform content words to synonyms or antonyms
and then discuss the subtleties of vocabulary.
REFERENCES
1. Austin, JL, 1962. How To Do Things With Words Harvard University Press
2. Maley, A and Duff, A, 1982 (2nd Edition). Drama Techniques in Language Learning CUP
3. McRae, J, 1985. Using Drama in the Classroom. Pergamon Press
4. Phillips, S. Drama With Children Oxford University Press
5. Soyinka, W, 1984. Six Plays: (inc) The Trails of Brother Jero, Methuen
6. White, R.V. 1988, The ELT Curriculum: Design, Innovation and Management. Oxford: Blackwell
7. Wessels, Charlyn, 1987. Drama (Resource Books for Teachers) Oxford University Press.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
There are four communication skills described by Schmuck and Schmuck (2001),
that people can use to make the process of sending and receiving messages more effective
and thereby reduce the gap in communication .
1. Paraphrase. Paraphrasing is a skill for checking whether or not you understand the
ideas being communicated to you. Any means of revealing your understanding of
a message constitutes a paraphrase. Paraphrasing is more than word swapping or
merely saying back what another person says. It answers the question, "What exactly
does the sender's statement mean to me?" and asks the sender to verify the correctness
of the receiver's interpretation. The sender's statement may convey specific infor-
mation, an example, or a more general idea
2. Describe Behavior. In using behavior description, one person reports specific ob-
servable behaviors of another person without evaluating them or making inferences
about the other's motives. If you tell me that I am rude (a trait) or that I do not care
about your opinion (my motivations) when I am not trying to be rude and do care
about your opinion, I may not understand what you are trying to communicate. How
ever, if you point out that I have interrupted you several times in the last ten minutes,
I would receive a clearer picture of how my actions were affecting you. Sometimes
it is helpful to preface a behavior description with, "I noticed that ..." or "I hear you
say..."to remind yourself that you are trying to describe specific actions.
3. Describe Feelings. Although people often take pains to make sure that others un-
derstand their ideas, only rarely do they describe how they are feeling .Instead, they
act on their feelings, sending messages that others draw inferences from. If you
think that others are failing to take your feelings into account, it is helpful to put
those feelings into words. Instead of blushing and saying nothing, try "I feel em-
barrassed" or "I feel pleased." Instead of "Shut up!" try "I hurt too much to hear any
more" or "I'm angry with you.
4. Check Impressions. Checking impressions is a skill that complements describing
your own feeling and involves checking your sense of what is going on inside the
other person. You transform the other's expression of feelings (the blush, the silence,
the tone of voice)into a tentative description of feelings and check it out for accuracy.
An impression check describes what you think the other's feelings may be and does
not express disapproval or approval. It merely conveys, "This is how I understand
your feelings. Am I accurate?" Examples include the following: "I get the impression
you are angry with me. Are you?" "Am I right that you feel disappointed that no
body commented on your suggestions?"
Often an impression check can be coupled easily with a behavior description, as in
these examples:
"Ellen, you've said nothing so far and seem upset with the class. "Jim, you've made
that proposal a couple of times. Are you feeling put down because we haven't accepted it?"
Teachers can learn and model these skills in their classrooms. They can also teach
them directly to students, just as they teach many other skills.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
REFERENCES
1. Richard İ. Arends. Learning to teach. USA New York -2004
2. Joanna Baker How to teach large classes with few resources. London- 2005
3. Adrienne Herrell and Michael Jordan. Fifty strategies for teaching English language learners.
Second edition. USA. California SU.-2004
4. Ulduz Murshudova. Ingilis dili dərslərində interaktiv metodlardan istifadə qaydaları. Bakı-2007
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
E-learning is very useful in this century. Learners in front of the computer they can
follow every conference or lessons without time problem, information problem and
economical problem because of e-learning. So e- learning has two sessions, these are
synchronous learning and asynchronous learning.
Synchronous learning is students and teachers communicate with each other through
e-chats. Chat, officially give the educator and the continuation of the course before the
realization of the remote or through conversation. Generally, real-time e-learning edu-
cators Internet broadcast, simultaneously with the presentation of images and performed
with the use of smart board. Students voice or written answers to questions. 3
Asynchronous learning is learner self-governing and determines its own pace. E-
learning, teachers and students require to be online at the same time. This kind of e-
learning is called asynchronous e-learning. The materials are organized according to
classes, learning methods, such as, the problem and is included in the simulation. Each
student, during the course directly interact with the computer. Ideally, this kind of
meaningful interaction between students and their learning orientations requires lessons.
The lessons usually include assessments and tests.4
Asynchronous Learning Synchronous Learning
Fax Telephone
E-mail Screen Sharing
Knowledge Base Chat
Forum Desktop Conferencing
Computer Based Training Online seminar
Quick Reference Guide
So learners have a lot of reason for a prefering e-learning. For ex: The most important
reason for prefer e-learning is, student doesn’t have time and place problem. Anytime,
anywhere (campus,school, home, at work…) we can connect our lecturer or classmates.
So we can access the information through of electronic devices and internet connection.
Another reason is this learning style is student centered. In traditional face to face
teaching method generally teacher centered in classroom and sometimes it’s boring for
students also in this style student must came to class and student must participate in
lesson because teacher doesn’t repeat his lesson but in e-learning system is student cen-
tered. Student doesn’t need to participate in classroom, and doesn’t need to learn to his
or her lesson by the teacher also we can whenever we want connect our lecturer and if
we don’t understand lesson we can repeat one more time till we get a lesson or subject.
Also another important point is, the cheapest way for a learning. Specially nowadays
e-learning is more common in MBA programs. Learners both they can work in their
country and they can follow master program in another country. E- learning is suitable.
In the same time students can to compose online debate session in this way students
can share their information with their friends whom from Africa, America, Japanese
China, Turkey, Azerbaijan….like these everybody is in same session and we can share
our idea with them in chat rooms. Only we need computer and internet connection. Also
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
another reason is, we can access the information very fast. We touch only one button
and we connect one place to another place to fast. For these reason, we choose e-learning.
This is the great chance for us.5
END NOTE
1. www.eogrenme.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=6 accessed on 10.10.2011
2. www.howstuffworks.com/elearning1.htm accessed on 15.10.2011
3. sneg.turkcer.org.tr/eogrenme-nedir.pdf accessed on 20.11.12
4. www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/EDUCAUSEQuarterlyMagazineVolum/Asynchronou-
sandSynchronousELea/163445 accessed on 20.11.12
5. http://www.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/why-e-learning-is-so-effective/
REFERENCES
1. www.eogrenme.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=6
2. www.howstuffworks.com/elearning1.htm
3. sneg.turkcer.org.tr/eogrenme-nedir.pdf
4. www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/EDUCAUSEQuarterlyMagazineVolum/Asynchronous
andSynchronousELea/163445
5. http://www.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/why-e-learning-is-so-effective/
Over the last few decades, a gradual shift has taken place, from the emphesis on
language teachers to students themselves. The reason is to make students less dependent
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
to teachers and make them autonomous in learning. This change in second language
learning is very dominant. Therefore, language learning strategies which language
learners independently use in order to acquire a new language become more integral
in the process of second or foreign language learning. Therefore, This research is con-
cerned with language learning strategies which are strategies students use to learn a new
language better. Also in this article we will find out more about language learning strate-
gies. We will find out Where they are come from, how many types they have and so on.
It is an old saying which says: “Instead of giving fish, teach how to fish”;
therefore, in second language teaching this criteria should be take into account but
making students independent is a very difficult task in this regard, especially in some
cultures which students are strongly dependent to their teachers and they do not apt to
do things on their own decisions.
Language learning strategies are those ones which could help students to become
autonomous, but we should investigate how students should deal with these strategies,
where they can learn these strategies, and which strategies are more useful and more
popular than others.
Methodology
1. Participants. 100 students were as our participants, all of them were from 5 different
inistitutes. They were between the ages of 20 to 30. They were all randomly chosen,
and to make their level of proficiency constant I take their previous semsters
average score into account. Their average scrores were between 70 to 90 out of 100.
2. Design. This descriptive research is conducted in five different inistitutes and it
involves students of these inistitutes in case of LLS. In order to reach the appropriate
results for our research questions, two way of gathering data were used (Qualitative
and Quantitative).
3. Instruments. For the quantitative purpose I used the standard LLS Questionnaire.
And for qualitative in order to elicit more information from the participants, I
asked 4 open-ended questions.
4. Procedure. The questionnaires were administered to those 100 students and they
were asked to fill out the questionnaire precisely and also answer to those 4 open-
ended questions. While students were filling out the questionnaire, they were pro-
vided with complementery information about what each strategy is. Finally, data
were gathered and interpreted.
Conclusion
To sum it up It is good to mention again that in cognitive strategies, Repetition,
Note Taking and Classifying were used mostly by our participants. While Concept
mapping, Imagery and Translation have recieved less attention.
Also in metacognitive strategies, strategies like Self-evaluation, Self-management
and Selective attention have recieved more attention by srudents, in contrast, Self-
reinforcement, Delayed production and Advance organizers were not used much by
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participants. Social strategies are not in good condition either. But overall view of statistics
shows that our participants are average strategy users. They neither use them alot nor
use them a little.
REFERENCES
1. Brown (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching.
2. Nunan (2001). Second language learning and teaching.
3. Susan Bull and Yingxin Ma (2001). Raising awareness of language learning strategies in situations
of limited resources.
4. J. Michael O’Malley, Anna Uhl Chamot (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.
Michael Lessard-Clouston (1997). Language learning strategies: An Overview for L2 teachers.
ABSTACT
People acquire new knowledge and complex skills from game play, suggesting gaming could help
address one of the nation’s most pressing needs — strengthening our system of education and preparing
workers for 21st century jobs. The success of complex video games demonstrates games can teach higher-
order thinking skills such as strategic thinking, interpretative analysis, problem solving, plan formulation
and execution, and adaptation to rapid change. Games and simulations can also serve as powerful “hands-
on” tools for teaching practical and technical skills. In addition, today’s students who have grown-up with
digital technology and video games are especially poised to take advantage of the features of educational
games. The creation, commercialization and adoption of games for learning is a multidisciplinary innovation
challenge-involving scientific discovery and technical advancement, creative design and development, a
friendly investment climate, changes in pedagogy, and new roles for teachers and students. Schools of
education should engage the learning games community to develop new and revamp old pedagogy to take
advantage of these new educational tools.
Key words: education, games, teaching, technology
Students are not merely technology savvy, they are approaching their lives differently
as they integrate digital technologies-such as computers, the Internet, instant messaging,
cell phones, and e-mail-seamlessly throughout their daily activities. Time spent using
digital media by children aged 13–17 has now surpassed the time they spend watching
television.
The digital natives use digital tools in support of their schoolwork. For example,
students aged 6–17 who go on-line, report that educational activities such as homework
and research are among their top five daily uses of the Internet. One in five children
who use the Internet at home report that they go on-line every day for educational
purposes. Just 6-17 go on-line to play individual or multiplayer games at least once a week.
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
These individuals spend a significant amount of time playing digital games. On average,
kids aged 8-18 spend about 50 minutes per day playing video games. (Connected to the
Future: A Report on Children’s Internet Use, Corporation for Public Broadcasting,
March 2003.)
There are 3 types of game: board, card and video games. A board game is a game
played with counters or pieces that are placed on, removed from, or moved across a
"board" premarked surface, usually specific to that game). Frequent subject matters for
educational board games are geographical, and the board is a map of the region taught.
An educational card game is any game using playing cards, either traditional or game-
specific. Generally these dula expand concepts, such as the food chain, set matching,
etc. Flash card games are used to teach math, animal, and dinosaur species.
Some card games improve memory. To aid in educating students and adults about
the finer details of different political systems, numerous companies have developed
simulations that immerse the player into different political systems by forcing them to
make realistic political decisions. These games vary from running an actual election
campaign to games that allow the player to make the day-to-day decisions of running
a country, as seen in Democracy. These types of games are targeted at students, educators
and adults alike.While the digital natives have embraced new technologies, including
video gaming, they are largely disconnected in their classrooms. Most student educational
use of the Internet occurs outside of the school day, outside of the school building, and
outside the direction of their teachers. For example, among students aged 12-17 who go
on-line from more than one location, 83 percent say they go on-line mostly from
home, and only 11 percent say they go on-line mostly from school.16 Students are
frustrated and increasingly dissatisfied by the digital disconnect they experience at
school. They cannot conceive of doing schoolwork without Internet access and they
are not given many opportunities in school to take advantage of the Internet. In addition,
interactive games are the medium of attention for youth, who spend large numbers of
hours playing these games.. Yet, most instruction is still “tell and test”, in which students
take in information passively from reading and lectures, reciting it back in the form of
work sheets, reports, and tests. Commercial games are vivid and action oriented, com-
pared to teachers in classrooms using chalkboards. Given these contrasts, educational
games might improve students’ attitudes about learning even difficult subjects, including
those who are not attracted to studying mathematics and science.
Many game features, combined and designed effectively into educational gaming,
could teach many things in an engaging and motivating manner. Games could be used
for the expansion of cognitive abilities, as well as a platform for developing new or
practicing existing skills in the context of real world goals, rules, and situations. Games
could also be used to teach old subjects in new ways. For example, in the civilization-
building games, players may explore subjects such as math, how computers work, and
geography within the rules structure of the game. Through games and simulations,
learners can exercise practical skills-such as operating sophisticated aircraft, building
a bridge, tinkering with chemical reactions in living cells, experimenting with marketing
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
REFERENCES:
1. What Would a State of the Art Instructional Video Game Look Like?,J.P.Gee, Innovate, September 2005
2. Education and Training for the Information Technology Workforce Report to Congress from the
Secretary of Commerce, U.S. Department of Commerce, June 2003.
3. Connected to the Future: A Report on Children’s Internet Use, Corporation for Public Broadcasting,
March 2003.
4. Video games 'stimulate learning , BBC News, March 18, 2002
5. Dostál, J. Educational software and computer games - tools of modern education, Journal of Tech-
nology and Information Education. 2009, Palacký University
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
ABSTRACT
What is educational psychology? Educational psychology is very important period in the learning
process. The changes require learning and teaching skills that were less important in earlier time. But the
new skills are quite learnable. Educational psychology can help to learners in this way. Every joy of teaching
has a possible frustration related to educational psychology. If you are a teacher, you may wish to make a
positive difference in students’ lives, but you may also have trouble reaching individuals. A student seems
not to learn much, or to be unmotivated, or unfriendly, or whatever. And some teaching problems can be
subtle: when you call attention to the wonderful immensity or an area of knowledge, you might accidentally
discourage a student by implying that the student can never learn “enough”. The complexity of designing
and implementing instruction can sometimes seem overwhelming, instead of satisfying. But if you believe
yourself and your students’ knowledge, everything will be good for you. A teacher’s job -in fact a teacher’s
privilege-is to help particular “young people” to realize their potential. As a teacher, you will be able to
do this by laying groundwork for lifelong learning. You will not teach any one student forever, of course,
but you will often with them long enough to convey message: that there is much in life to learn -more in
fact than any one teacher or school can provide in a lifetime. The knowledge may be about science, math, or
learning to read; the skills may be sports, music, or art-anything. Whatever you teach, its immensity can
be a curiosity, wonder and excitement. It can be a reason to be optimistic about life in general and about
your students in particular. Learning, when properly understood, is never-ending, even thought it often
focuses on short-term, immediate concerns. As a teacher, you will have an advantage not shared by every
member of society, namely the excuse not only to teach valuable knowledge and skills, but to point students
beyond what they will be able to learn from you. As an old limerick put it.”The world is full of such a plenty
of things, I’m sure we should all be as happy as kings”. In the learning processes, it is very important student
and teacher relationship, because its improving high level of learning. However in this process, it is very
important thing that, teachers must know what and how they teach, or which way better for student to study
in the learning process. All things considered, then, times have changed for teachers. But teaching remains
an attractive, satisfying, and worthwhile profession. The resent trends mean simply that you need to prepare
for teaching differently than you might have in the past, and perhaps differently than own school teachers
did a generation ago.
Key words: educational psychology, implementing instruction, student and teacher relationship,
learning process, short-term, accountability in education, lifelong learning.
Niyə görə müəllim olmalı? Hər şeydən əvvəl müəllimlik peşəsi- imtiyazlı peşədir
və gənc insanlara kömək etmək ,onların istedadlarını üzə çıxarmağa xidmət edir. Müəllim
gənc insanların inkişafına, onların öyrənmək sevinclərinə şahid olur. Gəncləri həyata
hazırlayir. Təhsildə müəllim və tələbə münasibəti çox vacibdir. Bir müəllim kimi, qarşı-
mızdakı insan,kasıb, varlı,ortabab imkana sahib ola bilər və mümkündür ki, hər birinin
müəyyən problemləri də olsun,amma bütün bunlara baxmayaraq hər şeydən əvvəl on-
ların hər biri tələbədir. Danılmaz faktdır ki, onların içində, gələcəyin liderləri,savadlı
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
şəxsləri vardır. Məhz buna görə də, müəllim hər şeydən əvvəl qarşısındakı tələbə ilə
münasibətini dostca qormalıdır ki,tədrisinin kefiyyəti yüksək olsun. Araşdırmalarım
nəticəsində belə qənayətə gəldim ki, müəllimin verdiyi dərslərin kefiyyəti onun dərs
demək metodundan və qarşısındakı tələbənin onu necə qavramasından aslıdır. Məhz
buna görə, mənim fikrimcə müəllimin dərs demək metodu üç yerə ayrılır:
1. Xəyali öyrətmək
2. Qiyabi öyrətmək
3. Əyani öyrətmək
Xəyali öyrətmək. Buna misal olaraq dənizi götürək. Xəyali öyrətmək ömründə heç
vaxt dənizi görməyən insana, dənizin nə olduğunu başa salmağa bənziyir. Həmin insan
“dəniz” haqqında eşitdiklərini sadəcə xəyalında canlandıra bilər.
Qiyabi öyrətmək. Dəniz görməyən və onu xəyal edən bir insana dənizi göstərməyə
bənzəyir. Yəni artıq hər zaman xəyalında bir şeyi canlandıran insan, real olaraq onu
gözlə görür və nə olduğunu öyrənir.
Əyani öyrənmək. Hər zaman xəyalında canlandırdığı bir məvhumu, artıq hər hansısa
vasitəylə sonradan görməyə müvəffəq olur və onu real olaraq yaşayır. Məhz bu əyani
öyrənməkdir.Əgər bu terminlərin başqa cür açıqlamasını versək, belə söyləyə bilərik.
Hər zaman gözündə dənizi canlandıran və sonra onu görən insan arasındakı fərq o qədər
də böyük deyil,amma dənizi görənlə, dənizdə boğulmaq təhlükəsi qarşısında qalan insan
arasındakı fərq açıq-aydın məlum olur.
Elm də buna bənziyir. Bir insan hələ balaca olarkən ona söylənilən “elm öyrənmək
gözəldir,insanı kamilləşdirir” fikri ilə sonradan təhsil alan və sonda elmdən bəhrələnən
insan arasındakı açıq-aydın fərq də buna bənzəyir.
Məhz bir tələbəyə elm öyrətmək və ona bu yolda həqiqi dost olmaq, tələbənin in-
kişafını görmək bir müəllim üçün cox vacib və sevindirici haldır. Tələbənin əsil elmə
yiyelənməsi üçün ona bu yolda kömək etmək və onu elmdəki hər şeylə əyani tanış etmək
lazımdır. Bundan başqa,elmi zəngin xəzinəyə bənzətmək olar. Nəzərə alsaq ki, hal-
hazırda elm sahəsində bir çox dəyişkənliklər və yeniliklər mövcuddur,məhz bu da istə-
nilən gəncə elmdən məharətlə faydalanmaq imkanı yaradır. Müasir zamanda, elm sa-
həsində texnologiyanın geniş yer tutması danılmaz faktdır. Buna misal olaraq, təhsil
sisteminin texnologiya üzrə proqramlaşmasıdır. Amma texnologiya özü ilə birgə bəzi
problemlər də gətirir, sinif otaqlarını və məktəbləri texniki vasitələr ilə təhciz etmək
olduqca çox vəsait tələb etməklə yanaşı, bundan başqa dəyərli mənbə olan kitablardan
tələbələri qismən məhrum edir. Məhz bu faktırların da, təhsil pisxologiyasına böyük
təsiri var. Təhsilə təsir edə biləcək ikinci faktır da, xarici dilin sürətlə təhsil sisteminə
daxil olmasıdır. Başqa sözlə söyləsək, dili tədris edən müəllim qarşısındakı tələbənin
“dil səviyyəsini” mütləq bilməlidir ki, tədrisin kefiyyəti aşağı düşməsin. Bu yolda
müəllimlərə kömək etmək üçün müasir təhsil proqramlarının rolu böyükdür. Ən yeni
təhsil proqramları müəllimlərin öz peşəkarlıqlarını artırmasıyla yanaşı, tələbələrdə də
özünə inam yaradır. Məhz bütün bunlar da, müəllim-tələbə kollektivini təhsil həyatında
daha da yaxınlaşdırır.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
8. www.portal.unesco.org./www.education/on.
9. www.edchange.org/<www.cec.sped.org
Katherine Bilsb says, “English teachers have been using videos in the classroom
for decades and, more recently DVDs and online video clips from Youtube or Myspace.
Sitcoms are an excellent classroom resource for a number of reasons. An episode ge-
nerally lasts 30 minutes – so we don’t have to worry about students getting bored or
losing the plot – as sometimes happens when we watch a feature film. Sitcoms are often
repetitive too. Students who watch more than one episode become familiar with the
characters and their catchphrases. As students begin to predict how a character might
behave in a particular circumstance they will become more motivated and enjoy a sense
of achievement”.
Situation comedy or shortly sitcom, generally known that is a kind of radio or te-
levision comedy series that characters sharing the same common environment in every
episode such as; an apartment building or workplace and accompanied with jokes as a
part of the dialogue. It’s interesting that nowadays situation comedy is used as an im-
portant tool to teach the students the language, especially new vocabularies almost every
ELT classes. So why do the teachers use the sitcoms? What are the features of it?
Firstly sitcoms are funny that make everyone laughed. It really provides the positive
atmosphere in the class and students become motivated about it. If the learners being
motivated their interest to lesson will increase and they can learn and understand the
language without being bored.
Sitcoms provide us with authentic English. English teaching videos are designed
for the classroom and purvey authentic materials and different varieties of the English
language; for example with typical slangs, locutions and sayings. With this, students
make contacts with humorous utterances and expressions. Also they can learn pronun-
ciation of the words and improve their listening ability by watching sitcoms. These
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features build up the student’s understanding for the English language in natural and
authentic way. It is said that a large part of communication is nonverbal. That’s why
seeing the facial expressions and gestures of the characters help students understand the
meaning of the words and acquire it easily.
Anywhere in the world there are many sitcoms. This exposure to different varieties
of English introduces to learners that there isn’t one standardized version of the language.
However, English language has different accent and pronunciation versions such as;
American English, British English, Australian English. This varieties may cause misun-
derstanding by students.
Sitcoms are full of cultural references. Depending on the situation these references
portray the city that we live and show the differences and similarities between other
countries such as; culture, lifestyle, religion and etc.
Also there are many different topics and situations in the sitcoms that teachers can
work with the students on their vocabulary by watching a short part of the scene.
Teachers can pick some unknown vocabularies from that scene and they can discuss
the meaning of the word. This is also help students to acquire the new vocabularies and
use it in a sentence. Most of the students are shy about speaking target language. Acting
a scene from the sitcom in the class can increase their self-confident and it helps students
to communicate with other people in daily life.
REFERENCE
1. Katherine Bilsb ,14 September Conference for ELT New York 2011 2.www.teachingenglish.org/
article/sitcoms
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
In the ‘post’ phase of the lesson, it is useful to do activities which require students to react to what
they have read by using the information they have found out.
Key words: Lesson, language, reading, listening, speaking, skills.
Some linguists divide language learning into the four language skills of listening,
reading, speaking and writing. Reading and listening have some similar features. When
students read and listen to English, they only have to recognize and understand the lan-
guage that they read or listen to. So we call these the two ‘receptive’ skills. Speaking
and writing also have some similar features. When students speak or write, they have
to produce language. So we call these the ‘productive’ skills.
Reading also has some features which are similar to writing. When students read
or write, they have time to think about the meaning of the language. They can read the
text again, they can rewrite and correct. What they have written. They have time to
think about what they have read or written.
When students listen or speak, they have less time: they have to react quickly. In
real-life situations, you usually only hear something once. Sometimes you can ask so-
meone to repeat it-but you cannot do that if you are listening to a station announcement
or to the television or radio. When someone asks you a question, you have to understand
what they said, think of a reply and say it in English – in a short space of time.
These different features of reading, listening, speaking and writing mean that we
need to plan our lessons to give students different kinds of learning activities to practice
each language skill.
Speaking and writing can be taught and practiced either as part of a PPP lesson or
as a separate lesson. So first, let’s look at a slightly different lesson framework for
teaching reading and listening.
We plan a reading skills lesson in three parts:
1. pre – reading
2. while – reading
3. post – reading
Before we read in our own language, we usually already know something about the
text we are reading, The information we choose to read is not often completely new
or uninteresting to us. This is a skill called prediction.
In the ‘pre’ phase, students prepare for the main reading activity. The purpose of
‘pre - reading’ activities is to help students to think about the activity and motivate them
to read the text, or listen to the story or conversation. The activities aim to help students
use the skill of prediction:
Then, while we read we usually do this in two ways. We may want to find out the
general idea or topic of something we are reading, or we may want some very specific
information. To find a general idea, we read everything from start to end, so that we
can identify the main idea. This sub skill is called reading for the main idea (s). If we
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want very specific information from what we are reading, then we try to select the
particular information we want: we do not worry about other information or ideas that
we do not need. This sub – skills is called reading for specific information.
In the ‘while’ phase, the teacher gives the students a task to do while they are reading.
The purpose of the task is to give students a real reason to read. The teacher can set
different types of tasks in order to help students to read either for the general idea or
for specific information.
Finally, in real life, we usually take action after we have read something or listened
to something. We reply, we tell a friend about it, we make a note of it, we write to
someone about it, or we act upon it (we catch the right train or bus!).
In the ‘post’ phase of the lesson, it is useful to do activities which require students
to react to what they have read by using the information they have found out. This allows
you to check whether your students have understood what they have read or what they
have listened to, and to practice reading and listening in real-life situations.
REFERENCES
1. Richard İ. Arends. Learning to teach. USA New York -2004
2. Joanna Baker How to teach large classes with few resources. London- 2005
3. Adrienne Herrell and Michael Jordan. Fifty strategies for teaching English language learners.
Second edition. USA. California SU.-2004
4. Ulduz Murshudova. Ingilis dili dərslərində interaktiv metodlardan istifadə qaydaları. Bakı-2007
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
children as early as possible. Many teaching techniques can be used to realize this aim.
And one of them is using story books. Stories can help children in learning both their
mother tongue and different foreign languages. Of course, in countries of which native
language isn’t English using story books is important and useful because it enlarges
children’s experience in English.
First of all through stories children get information about different people, new
countries and various cultural values. They can read abbreviated parts of famous authors’
works in a simplified way in story books. So it can broaden their horizon. “Learning
English through stories can lay the foundations for secondary school in terms of learning
basic language functions and structures, vocabulary and language learning skills.”
“Stories can help develop positive attitudes towards the foreign language, culture and
language learning.”1 Stories increase children’s interest in the target language and culture.
Besides children enjoy reading especially if the book is illustrated. Stories with
illustrations attract not only a child’s attention but also an adult’s , make them be inte-
rested, curious in reading and learning a foreign language. So stories increase motivation
in children, but stories should fit a child’s age and developmental level, be appropriate,
interesting, meaningful and not to be very complicated, otherwise the child can be de-
motivated and lose his interest in learning a target language. Illustrations also help them
understand the content of a story.
“Bruner has noted, we live our lives and shape our identities through stories. Basing
on this view Carol Read writes that stories and drama help children to make sense of
their own behavior and others, and to develop aspects of emotional, such as empathy.”2
A story is a part of literature. Reading literature develops tolerance and creativity
in children. Northrop Frye writes: “It’s clear that the end of literary teaching isn’t simply
the admiration of literature; it’s something more like the transfer of imaginative energy
from literature to the students.” (1: 193) “Stories are a useful tool in linking fantasy and
the imagination with the child’s real world. They provide a way of enabling children
to make sense of their everyday life and forge links between home and school.”3
Widdowson identifies two levels of linguistic knowledge: the level of usage and
the level of use. In his opinion the level of usage demands knowledge of linguistic rules
and the latter demands knowing how to use the very rules in communication. And lite-
rature is useful in developing knowledge both in a usage level and in a use level. (1: 191)
Listening to stories is useful as well as reading. It improves their listening compre-
hension and pronunciation. “Children enjoy listening to stories over and over again.
This frequent repetition allows certain language items to be acquired while others are
being overtly reinforced. Many stories contain natural repetition of key vocabulary and
structures. This helps children remember every detail, so they can gradually learn to
anticipate what is about to happen next in the story. Repetition also encourages parti-
cipation in the narrative.”4 Repetition of different words and grammatical structures in
stories enlarges a child’s vocabulary and strengthens his knowledge of grammar, at the
same time makes them memorable. This in its turn helps to develop a child’s self-esteem
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
and courage. A child begins to hold intercourse in a foreign language with others easily
without shyness. So stories improve not only reading skills, but also a child’s speaking
and his communication both with the teacher and with his peers. The more they read,
the more their thinking in a target language will be encouraged. “Stories allow the
teacher to introduce or revise new vocabulary and sentence structures by exposing the
children to language in varied, memorable and familiar contexts, which will enrich their
thinking and gradually enter their own speech.” “Children who read daily over long
periods of time is better on measure of vocabulary, comprehension and decoding ability
than did children in the control groups who were not read to by an adult.”5
Through stories and activities social skills such as cooperation, collaboration,
listening and turn taking can be developed too.
Activities used during reading stories also play an important role in children’s
motivation. Especially diversity of activities helps the teacher keep children motivated
and makes the lesson unpredictable. “Good language activities have no age limits, an
idea which works with five-year-olds will, with some minor adaptations in content and
presentation, probably work equally well with much older learners.”6
Pre-story activities usually play an important role as they help to introduce the topic
to learners, to identify what the learners know about it, help to encourage topical
thinking and to be more active and interested in participating in the lesson.
While reading a story it is important to go back and ask a child questions in order
to check his understanding and give him a chance to predict the story. Asking such kind
of questions improves both speaking and thinking in a target language.
After activities such as: information gaps, questionnaires and surveys, guessing
games, matching, sequencing, retelling the story, writing a letter, role play, etc. provide
children with the practice of using the target language.
END NOTE
1. universityofibnkhaldunbogar-indonesia.blogspot.com
2. carolread.com
3. universityofibnkhaldunbogar-indonesia.blogspot.com
4. universityofibnkhaldunbogar-indonesia.blogspot.com
5. universityofibnkhaldunbogar-indonesia.blogspot.com
6. universityofibnkhaldunbogar-indonesia.blogspot.com
REFERENCES
1. C. J. Brumfit and R. A. Carter. 2000. Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford University Press.
2. David E. Freeman and Yvonne S. Freeman. 2000. Teaching Reading in Multilingual Classrooms.
3. Sandra Silberstein. 1994. Techniques and Resources in Teaching Reading.
4. www. carolread.com : 16/02/2012
5. www. teachingenglish.org.uk : 16/02/2012
6. www. universityofibnkhaldunbogar-indonesia.blogspot.com : 16/02/2012
7. www. encuentrojournal.org : 16/02/2012
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
own language learning and language teaching experiences. Some background events
that can be expected to influence our way of teaching are likely to include: a) our infor-
mal language learning (first, second language) b) the way we were taught languages
at school and how we responded to such teaching c)other formal or informal second
language learning experiences as an adult (Stern H.1991)
The aim of my paper is to enlarge teacher creativity. A person teaching English to
native speakers of Azerbaijani should be alert to hindrances resulting from the grammatical
differences between the two languages. The hindrances are usual for almost any learner
of English whose first language is Azerbaijani. As a learner and a teacher of English
whose native language is Azerbaijani I observe such hindrances very often. I would
like to enumerate some of them below:
1. Prepositional phrases used as attributive adjectives. For example:
a. The books on the green table are all about African countries.
b. I didn’t like the buildings around Baku
c. The shop at the corner of the street sells clothes from Germany.
Because of the interference of Azerbaijani, elementary level learners tend to incor-
rectly build the sentences like the following often with the omission of articles:
a. On the green table the books are all about African countries.
b. I didn’t like around Baku the buildings.
c. At corner of the street shop sells from Germany clothes.
2. Articles. Azerbaijani has no article so at first, learners take this part of speech as
strange and a burden to learn. Moreover, most of times it requires no direct translation,
this ,in turn, makes matters ‘complicated’ for learners(if they don’t know another
language with articles, like German). I will try to illuminate the problem in the
following examples:
My teacher has got a new computer. The computer is very heavy.
The dog is a faithful animal.
It is difficult to explain why we use a and the instead of it in the first example. And,
why the second sentence uses first the, then a requires skill and patience for explanation.
3. ‘There is/There are’ expressions. To build a sentence with the expressions a new
learner has structural problems. The following sentence has a reversed structure in
Azebaijani translation:
English sentence ; There are(1) two pens in my pocket(2).
Its Azerbaijani translation; Cibimdə(2) iki qələm var(1).
4. The place of prepositions in expressions or sentences. They come before related
words, I mean, in pre-position but their equivalents in Azerbaijani come in post-
position such as:
English sentence; I saw a lot of animals in Australia.
Azerbaijani translation; Avstraliyada çoxlu heyvan gördüm.
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
The preposition in in the English sentence comes in front of the related word
‘Australia’. By contrast, in the Azerbaijani one its equivalent da comes after the related
word ‘Avstraliya’. Putting the preposition to the correct place in an English sentence
is a great feat.
5. Word order. It is obvious that the general structure of sentence elements in English
is like this: SUBJECT + PREDICATE+OBJECT + ADVERBIAL. In Azerbaijani
the order is very different: SUBBJECT+OBJECT+ADVERBIAL+PREDICATE.
Thus a learner should avoid the danger of interference.
6. Countability and uncountability of English nouns. The relationship between whether
a noun is countable or uncountable and article use in expressions.
The points in 5 and 6 are easy to understand that is why I didn’t give example sen-
tences. So far, I have discussed the hindrances or problems usually faced by elementary
learners of English, whose first language is Azerbaijani. For upper levels also, there
are such ‘adaptation’ problems. For example:
7. Functions of modal verbs, especially the secondary ones. Students often get confused
about different functions of modal verbs. One example from my learning experience:
I saw a presentation like the following table in ‘Longman English Grammar’
(Alexander.2003).
Secondary function of modals is expressing degrees of certainty.
very uncertain
↓
You might could may should ought to must will be right.
↓
almost certain
Then I made it clear for myself why modal verbs are sometimes used ‘unusually’.
It turned out, for instance, that ‘John should be at home now’ is another way of telling
‘Probably, John is at home now’.
8. English has a vast store of words, a lot of synonyms. This fact sometimes discourages
students and makes them impatient in learning. A teacher has got to give explanations
for this fact by for example, talking a little about styles in language.
There are a lot of other problems worth considering. Azerbaijani and English are
quite different languages. The difference is both convenient and inconvenient for learning
English. Conveniently English possesses much fewer grammatical suffixes or prefixes
than Azerbaijani, and this saves us from memorizing a lot of grammatical burden for
speaking English normally. The problems I have dealt with in this article are signs of
the inconvenient facet.
As for the solutions to the problems, I think the development of students’ metalinguis-
tic abilities is necessary because in order to explain the problems to students a teacher
benefit from metalanguage. Metalanguage generally means the use of language to
describe and discuss itself. This is the property of human language which is also called
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
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April 27, 2012 Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
provides relevant information which will assist teachers to develop sensitivity and understanding of this
unique language-minority population. I hope that this material will help the teachers determine how to
structure the curriculum better, pinpoint transfer pitfalls between English and Arabic, enhance students’
social integration and accelerate their acquisition of English.
Key words: English Arabic, culture, linguistic, human relations.
One of the regions of the world most affected by political unrest and turmoil is the
Middle East. The increasing population of Arabic- speaking students in the American
schools has become a reality that merits attention. The purpose of this paper is to share
cultural and linguistic information with bilingual and ESL teachers to enable them to
promote intercultural understanding and facilitate the acquisition of English as a second
language. Arabs live within the borders of over twenty nations throughout the Middle
East, North Africa, and the Arabian Peninsula. Nevertheless, “ to avoid offending many
Arabs, [ teachers ] would be prudent to use the singular ‘Arab nation ’ instead of the
plural ‘Arab nations ’ in [ their ] conversations with the Arabs “ in acknowledgement
of their shared language , religion and culture. Although 90 percent of the more than
160 million Arabic- speakers in the region are Muslim, there are also many Arab Jews
and Chiristians. Minorities are identified by either religion or language. Some examples
of non- Arabs are Kurds, Druze, Copts, Assyrians and Berbers.
There is great pride and prestige associated with the Arabic language. “Arabic is
the language one of the world’s great civilizations, and one to which the West has been
profoundly indebted for over a millennium in fields as diverse as mathematics, chemistry,
geography and philosophy”. Not only is it the language of the Holy Koran, but it is a
language which enjoys wide usage in the creation of great literature and poetry, as well
as having influenced Spanish greatly through 700 years of presence in Spain. One
example of the love and respect for the written word was the care and attention given
to libraries during Arab period in Spain. In one of Cordobas 70 libraries, for example,
400,000 books were collected.
Geographic proximity allows for the common bond of language to remain strong
despite variations in the spoken language among people of varying regions and natio-
nalities. Children commonly grow up with sense of bilingualism in that they aware of
these regional dialectical differences and how the standart written forms differ from their
spoken dialects. This experience with Arabic can be helpful as students are introduced
to English.
Arabic is different from English is many ways. Problems ranging from phonological
to morphological and structural difficulties that face Arabic speaking students while
learning English have been well- documented. There are unique aspects of the Arabic
language which pose special transfer problems with English which have pedagogical
implications for ESL teaching and curriculum design.1
When teaching English to Arabic- speakers some linguistic considerations should
be kept in mind: First , the writing system goes from right to left . The way the letters
are written depends upon their position in Arabic words. The orthographies of both
languages are different and tend to pose difficulty in pronunciation and spelling. Some
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Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature 2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
sounds in English do not exist in Arabic: an example is the substitution of the “b“ for
a “p“ ( beople ) … “ compination “. Arabic does not have two distinctive bilabial plo-
sives, only the voiced /b/ and hypercorrected spelling that represents both “b“ and “p“
as “p“. There are no written vowels. Diacritics are used instead to indicate vowels.
Second, recognizing syntactinc differences between English and Arabic can guide
ESL teachers and help them deal with transfer problems effectively. ESL teachers should
train their students to make linguistic adjustments when learning English. For example
they should make it clear that word order (e.g. Dead sea vs. sea dead), language typology
(Ali goes to school vs. goes Ali to school), structural patterns (that’s the teacher whom I
met vs. That’s the the teacher whom I met him)… are different in both languages.
Most importantly, the sociolinguistic aspects of Arabic differ from those of English.
Some these features usually transfer to English inappropriate manner. For example, the
depth of questioning about family affairs, health and other private matters are culturally
incompatible. Jokes are also culture – bound; what is humorous to an Arab might be
outrageous to an American and vice versa.
Finally, written discourse of Arab ESL learners is dependent on the Arabic logic
and cultural thought patterns. The rhetoric of a tightly organized, logical presentation
of ideas is as foreign to Arab students as English itself. On other hand, English rhetoric
is often construed as cold and highly impersonal rather than embellished as is the elite
style of literary Arabic2.
END NOTE
1. Al – Batal, M. (1988). Towards cultural proficiency in Arabic. Foreign Language Annals. 21(5),
443- 453 .
2. Yorkey, R . (1977). Practical techniques for teaching Arabic – speaking students . In J. Alatis & R .
Crymes ( Eds ) . The human factors in ESL ; A series of six lectures ( pp. 57-85 ) .
REFERENCES
1. Abraham, S., & Abraham, N. (Eds). (1983). Arabs in the New World: Studies on Arab- American
communities .
3. Butt, G. (1987). The Arab world. London: BBC Books .
4. Al Batal, M. (1988). Towards cultural proficiency in Arabic. Foreign Language Annals .
5. Suleiman, M. F. (1987). A Cross-phonological analysis between Arabic and English. The segmental
phonemes.
6. Yorkey, R. (1977). Practical techniques for teaching Arabic-speaking students. In J. Alatis & R.
Crymes (Eds). The human factors in ESL; A series of six lectures.
216