Operational Amplifier

Chapter 3

ECEG 2113 – Applied Electronics II

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 Introduction
What is Operational Amplifier?
Operational amplifier, or simply Op-Amp refers to an integrated circuit (IC) that is
employed in wide variety of applications (including voltage amplifiers).
Originally they were used in analog computers to perform mathematical operations
such as addition, subtraction, differentiation, and integration.
 These early devices were constructed with vacuum tubes and worked
with high voltages.
A typical op-amp is powered by two dc voltages and has one inverting(-) input, one
non-inverting input (+) and one output.
Other operations include buffering and amplification of DC and AC signals.

Op-amp schematic symbol

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  Typical op-amp packages

Typical IC packages

3 IC packages placed on circuit board

Pin Diagram of op-amp

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1. Pin 1 (Offset Null): Offset voltage is nulled by application of a voltage of
opposite polarity to the offset.
2. Pin 2 (Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be inverted at output
pin 6.
3. Pin 3 (Non-Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be processed
normally without inversion. The rest is the same as pin 2.
4. Pin 4 (-V): The V- pin (also referred to as Vss) is the negative supply voltage
terminal.
5. Pin 5 (Offset Null): See pin 1
6. Pin 6 (Output): Output signal's polarity will be the opposite of the input's
when this signal is applied to the op-amp's inverting input.
7. Pin 7 (+V): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage
terminal of the 741 Op-Amp IC.
8. Pin 8 (N/C): The 'N/C' stands for 'Not Connected'. There is no other
explanation. There is nothing connected to this pin, it is just there to make it a
standard 8-pin package.

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 Standard Operational Amplifier Parameters
 Understanding operational amplifier circuits requires knowledge of the parameters
given in specification sheets. The list below represents the most commonly needed
parameters.
1. Open-Loop Voltage Gain:-Voltage gain is defined as the ratio of output voltage to
an input signal voltage. The voltage gain is a dimensionless quantity.

2. Large Signal Voltage Gain:-This is the ratio of the maximum allowable output
voltage swing to the input signal required to produce a swing of ± 10 volts (or some
other standard).
3. Slew rate:-The slew rate is the maximum rate at which the output voltage of an
op-amp can change and is measured in terms of voltage change per unit of time.
4. Common Mode Rejection Ratio:-In an ideal op-amp, the output signal due to the
common mode input voltage is zero, but it is nonzero in a practical device. The
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the measure of the device's ability to reject
common mode signals, and is expressed as the ratio of the differential gain to the
common mode gain.

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 Cont’d…
5. Input Offset Voltage:-The dc voltage that must be applied at the input terminal to
force the quiescent dc output voltage to zero or other level, if specified, given that
the input signal voltage is zero. The output of an ideal op-amp is zero when there is
no input signal applied to it.
6. Power-supply rejection ratio:-The power-supply rejection ratio PSRR is the ratio
of the change in input offset voltage to the corresponding change in one power-
supply.
7. Input Bias Current:-The average of the currents into the two input terminals with
the output at zero volts.
8. Input Offset Current:-The difference between the currents into the two input
terminals with the output held at zero.
9. Differential Input Impedance:-The resistance between the inverting and the non-
inverting inputs.
10. Output Impedance:-The output resistance is typically less than 100 Ohms.
11.Output offset voltage:-The output offset voltage is the voltage at the output
terminal with respect to ground when both the input terminals are grounded.
etc.
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 Characteristics and operation of OP-Amp
Characteristics of OP-Amp
 Operational amplifiers have several very important characteristics that
make them so useful:
 An op-amp has two inputs and it amplifies the voltage difference between those
two inputs.

 The op-amp must be connected to external sources of power (not shown on the
drawing above). The output voltage (vO) cannot be more positive than the positive
power source or more negative than the negative power source. The gain (G) is very
high, typically more than 100,000.
 In fact, va - vb must be so small that it’s very difficult to make va & vb close
enough
 Op-amps amplify DC as well as AC.
 The input currents are almost zero. In more technical terms, the op-amp has very
high input impedance.
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 Output voltage can be in range from negative to positive supply voltage
 Rail-to-rail ops allow widest voltage range (nearly up to supply voltage)
 Normal op-amps have lower output voltage range
 The (-) input produce an output signal that is 180º out of phase with the
input signal
 The (+) input produce an output signal that is in phase with the input signal
 No current flows in to either input terminal of the op amp (infinity Input
impedance )
 Op amp with negative feedback works as an amplifier (the two input
terminals are at the same voltage)
 Op amp with positive or no feedback works as a comparator

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 Operation Of Op-Amp
 Types of Op-amp Operation
 If an input signal is applied to either input with the other input is connected to
ground, the operation is referred to as ‘single-ended.’
 If two opposite-polarity input signals are applied, the operation is referred to as
‘double-ended.’
 If the same input is applied to both inputs, the operation is called ‘common-
mode.’
A Simple Model of What’s Inside
 The circuit inside an op amp is complicated, but for many purposes we can think
of it as shown here.
 Note that the output pin is driven by a dependent voltage source whose voltage
equals the difference between the two input voltages, multiplied by a constant A,
which is called the open-loop voltage gain.

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 Ideal Op-Amp ckt Analysis
What is an Ideal Op Amp?
 An ideal op amp is an op amp that has perfect conditions to allow it to function
as an op amp with 100% efficiency.

Ideal Op – Amp is a device which holds the following characteristics.

1. It has infinite voltage gain.

2. It has zero offset voltage. That is, the zero output voltage obtained in Op –
Amp even for the zero differential input voltage.

3. It has infinite bandwidth.

4. It has zero output impedance.

5. It has infinite input impedance.

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Ideal Op-Amp
 Infinite input impedance
 Zero output impedance
 Infinite open-loop gain
 Infinite bandwidth
 Zero noise contribution
 Zero DC output offset
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Properties Practical Op-Amp
 Input impedance 500k-2M
 Output impedance 20-100 
 Open-loop gain (20k to 200k)
 Bandwidth limited (a few kHz)
 Noise contribution
 Non-zero DC output offset
1. Open Loop gain
Open loop gain is the gain of the Op Amp without a positive or negative feedback.
2. Input impedance
It is the ratio of the input voltage to input current. It should be infinite without any
leakage of current from the supply to the inputs. But there will be a few Pico
ampere current leakages in most Op Amps.
3. Output impedance
The ideal Op Amp should have zero output impedance without any internal
resistance. So that it can supply full current to the load connected to the output.
4. Band width
The ideal Op Amp should have an infinite frequency response so that it can amplify
any frequency from DC signals to the highest AC frequencies. But most Op Amps
have limited bandwidth.
5. Offset
The output of the Op Amp should be zero when the voltage difference between the
inputs is zero. But in most Op Amps, the output will not be zero when off but there
will be a minute voltage from it.

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 Standard Op-Amp Configuration
 Op amps are often combined with other elements to form one of the following
five standard configurations:
1. Inverting Amplifier
2. Non-inverting Amplifier
3. Voltage Follower
4. Summing Amplifier
5. Difference Amplifier

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1. Inverting Amplifier: The most widely used constant-gain amplifier circuit is the
inverting amplifier.
 The output is obtained by multiplying the input by a fixed or constant gain, set by
the input resistor (R1) and feedback resistor (Rf)—this output also being inverted
from the input.
 An infinite input impedance implies zero current at the inverting input. If there is
zero current through the input impedance, then there must be no voltage drop b/n
the inverting and non-inverting inputs. This means that the voltage at the
inverting is zero b/c the non-inverting is grounded. This zero voltage at the
inverting input terminal is referred to as virtual ground.

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 2. Non-inverting Amplifier: Now suppose we feed back only a fraction of the output
voltage rather than all of it.

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 Non - Inverting Amplifier Cont’d…

Non-inverting amplifier

 Voltage at node 1 (inverting) = voltage at node 2 (non-inverting ) KCL at node 1:

(0– Vi) / R1 = (Vi – Vo) / R2
-(Vi / R1) = (Vi / R2) – (Vo / R2)

Vo / R2 = (Vi / R2) + (Vi / R1) =

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3. Voltage Follower: The voltage follower configuration is a special case of the non-
inverting amplifier where all of the out put voltage is fed back to the inverting (-)
input by a straight connection.
 The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-inverting amplifier with
feedback is 1. When the non-inverting amplifier gives unity gain, it is called
voltage follower because the output voltage is equal to the input voltage and in
phase with the input voltage.
 the output voltage follows the input voltage

Vo = Vi
Hence, gain = 1

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 Summing Amplifier
Summing Amplifier
Similarly,

Output voltage

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 Differential Amplifier
 Current into op amp is
zero due to high input
resistance.

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Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp Impedances -
Impedances of a Non-inverting Amplifier – Input Impedance

However high the input

impedance of an op-amp
circuit is, impedance still
exists. For a non-inverting
amplifier it can be
determined by the formulas
below.

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Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp Impedances -
Impedances of a Non-inverting Amplifier – Output Impedance
The output impedance is
understood to be low for an op-
amp. Its exact value can be
determined by the formula
below. Zout(NI) = Zout/(1 +AolB)

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 Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp Impedances –
Impedances of an Inverting Amplifier
The input impedance for an inverting amplifier
is approximately equal to the input resistor (Ri).
Zin(I) ≈ Ri
 This is because the inverting input is at
virtual ground (0V), and the input source
sees Ri to ground as shown below.

The output impedance is very low and in most

cases any impedance load can be connected to it
with no problem. The exact amount can be
determined by the formula below.
Zout(I) = Zout / (1 + AolB)

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 Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp Impedances –
Impedances of a Voltage Follower

Since a voltage-follower is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier

configuration, the same impedance formulas are used but with B = 1.

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 Op-Amp Applications In linear Ckt
1. An op-amp integrator
 simulates mathematical integration, which is basically a summing process that determines the
total area under the curve of a function.
 is a circuit whose output is proportional to the area of the input waveform.

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 Q = IC* t
Q = C*VC
The capacitor voltage can be expressed as

Recall that the capacitor voltage in a simple RC ckt is not linear but is exponential. This is because the
charging current continuously decreases as the capacitor charges and causes the rate of change of the
voltage to continuously decrease. The key thing about using op-amp with RC ckt to form an integrator
is that the capacitor’s charging is made constant, thus producing a straight-line (linear) voltage rather
than exponential and now let us see why this is true.

The inverting input of the op-amp is Because of the very high input
at virtual ground (0V), so the voltage impedance of the op-amp, there is
across Ri, equals Vin. negligible current at the inverting input.

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The op-amp provides a constant-current source for the capacitor,
causing it to charge at a linear rate.

Rate of Change of the Output

Since IC = Vin /Ri, the rate of change or slope of the integrator’s output
voltage is

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 Integrator circuit

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2. The Op-Amp Differentiator
Notice how the placement of the
capacitor and resistor differ from the
integrator.

For an ideal op-amp, the current flowing through the capacitor, , is equal to the

current flowing through the resistor, , and thus

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 3. Summing Amplifier
4. Difference Amplifier
5. Inverting amplifier
6. Non-inverting amplifier
7. Logarithmic Amplifier etc

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NON-LINEAR OP AMP APPLICATIONS
Part 1: COMPARATOR
What is Comparator?
- it is a type of an op-amp circuit that compares two input voltages to a
reference voltage and produces an output in either of two states indicating
the greater than or less than relationship of the inputs.
- Say the input signal is applied to the non-inverting input and the reference is
applied to the inverting input. When the input voltage is slightly greater than the
reference voltage, the op amp switches such that the output is in positive
saturation. When the input is slightly less than the reference, the output switches
to negative saturation.

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Zero-Level Detection
One application of an op-amp used as a comparator is to determine when an
input voltage exceeds a certain level

When the sine wave is +ve, the output is its maximum +ve level. When the sine
wave crosses 0, the amplifier is driven to its opposite state and the output goes to its
maximum –ve level.

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 Nonzero-Level Detection
The zero-level detection is modified to detect +ve and –ve voltages by connecting a
fixed reference voltage source to the inverting(-) input.

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Effects of Input Noise on Comparator Operation
When the sine wave approaches 0, the flactuations due to noise cause the total input
to vary above and below 0 several times, thus producing an erratic output voltage.

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 Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis
 hysteresis is a technique incorporating positive feedback.
 The common reference levels are referred to as the upper trigger point
(UTP) and the lower trigger point (LTP).

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 Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis

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 A comparator with the hysteresis sometimes known as a Schmitt trigger.
The amount hysteresis is defined by the difference of the two trigger
levels. VHYS = VUTP - VLTP
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 Output Bounding
• In some applications, it is necessary to limit the output voltage levels of a
comparator to a value less than the provided by the saturated op-amp.
• A single zener diode can be used to limit the output voltage to the zener
voltage in one direction and to the forward diode drop in the other.
• This process of limiting the output range is called bounding.

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 Operation of a bounded comparator

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 Double-bounded comparator

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 Comparator Application
Over-Temperature Sensing Circuit….(RA)
……..(RA)
PART 2: OSCILLATOR
The basic function of an oscillator is to generate an alternating waveform from a DC
source. The waveforms are subsequently used as clock signals in computers,
reference signals in communications and many other applications.

PART 3: PRECISION HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

Many times, the diode drop that occurs in a passive half-wave rectifier creates a
problem in instrumentation circuits, especially in low voltage applications. By using
the high gain of an op amp, with the appropriate feedback, it is possible to make the
diode look very much like an ideal device.

PART 4: PULSE WIDTH MODULATOR

If a voltage comparator is made to compare a slowly varying signal Vi (with a
frequency in a range from DC to about 100 Hz.) frequency against a high frequency
wave of the triangular or saw tooth type, the output, Vo, is a square wave with the
same frequency.
etc….

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1 Examples
Design a summing amplifier to produce a specific output signal, such that
vo = 1.25 – 2.5 cos ωt volt. Assume the input signals are vI1 = -1.0 V,
vI2 = 0.5 cos ωt volt. Assume the feedback resistance RF = 10 k.
Solution: output voltage

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 2

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 3

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4

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 Slew Rate
 It’s a measure of how fast the output
can “follow” the input signal.
Slew Rate
 Is the maximum rate of change of
the output voltage in response to a
step input voltage.

 Example
Determine the slew rate:

Vout
SlewRate  where Vout  Vmax  (Vmax )
t

 9V  (9V )
SlewRate   18V / s
1s
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Example : Consider the op amp configuration below.
Assume Vin = 5 and Calculate out put voltage

At node “a” we can write;

( Vin  3 )  3  V0 

1k 6k
From which; V0 = -51 V
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