Switching devices and Fourier

analysis

Lecture 2
Lecture 2 objectives

At the end of this lecture you will have
a knowledge of

Basics of switching devices

Diodes

BJT

FET

SCR

Analysis of diode circuits

trial method

Fourier analysis
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Switching devices

Consider an ideal switch:

On, v = 0. Off, i = 0.

Any polarity of v or I,
and no limits.

Can turn on or off at any
time.

Acts instantly.

Real devices don’t do
any of this, of course.

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Switching devices

But even the best possible parts still
have polarity limitations.

The restricted switch concept is very
useful.

These are devices that are ideal in
every way except polarity.

Classic example: Ideal diode.

Conducts forward, blocks reverse.
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Diodes

For silicon PN devices, the
typical forward drop is 1 V
(not 0.7 V).

Current ratings from 1 A to
nearly 10000 A exist.

Voltage ratings from 10 V
to 20 kV exist.

Not both at once (highest
is about 5000 A, 5000 V).

Power junction devices with speeds of 20 ns to about
100 µs are used. As a general rule, large devices are
slower.
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Diodes

However, certain device grades are very
slow.

Example: 1N4004 rectifier diode, 1 A, 400 V,
speed is about 2 µs.

MUR140 ultrafast rectifier diode, 1A, 400 V,
speed is about 20 ns.

Schottky diodes are also widely used in power
electronics.

Lower forward drop.

Very fast.

Higher leakage.
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Bipolar transistors

Popularity as power switches
is dropping fast except at low
power.

Devices from 0.5 A to 500 A,
and voltages up to about 1700 V.

Highest power handling: 250 kW.

Speed depends on absolute and relative
rating.

Typical devices (several amps and above)
switch in 500 ns to a few tens of
microseconds. 7
FET

Most power devices are
enhancement types that
require a few volts between
gate and source to turn on.

Faster than BJTs, but lower
ratings.

Easy to use in parallel for
high I.

Individual devices to about
100 A and 1000 V.
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FET

Maximum power (single device) is
about 10 kW.

Modular packages with multiple devices
can reach 500 A.

Power FETs are constructed as millions
of small devices in parallel.

The process inherently adds a “reverse
parallel” diode internally.

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SCRs

The generic term is thyristor.

These are PNPN multi-junction
devices.

“Latching” behavior: either off,
or on, with a gate pulse.

The SCR acts like a diode when
on.

Ratings similar to diodes.
Devices that can handle 6000 A
and 6000 V simultaneously are
available.

Constructed as single-wafer
devices.

Relatively slow, 1 µs at best. 10
Other thyristors

GTO: an SCR that can be forced off
with a negative gate pulse.

Light-fired SCR: an SCR that can be
triggered with photons (from a laser).

TRIAC: two SCRs in reverse parallel.

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Combined devices

Combination devices are rapidly
growing in popularity.

The oldest is the Darlington pair of
BJTs.

The IGBT is similar to a Darlington
FET/BJT combination.

The IGBT combines gate behaviour of
FET with low voltage drop of BJT.
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Combined devices

Very popular for inverters.

Devices rated up to 1200 V and 1200 A
exist.

IGBT speed is somewhat faster than
BJT.

MCT (MOS-controlled thyristor)
combines FET and GTO for very high
power. Not readily available.

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Switching devices

The restricted switch concept is very
useful.

These are devices that are ideal in
every way except polarity.

Classic example: Ideal diode.

Conducts forward, blocks reverse.

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Switching devices

Restricted switch types - ideal diode

Forward conducting, reverse blocking
switch (FCRB)

No forward voltage drop

No leakage current

Action is determined by terminal conditions

Symbol: triangle and bar

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Restricted switch types

Forward-conducting forward blocking
(FCFB) switch.

Conducts or blocks in forward direction.

Needs a gate to establish operation.

Action is not allowed in reverse.

This describes a BJT.

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Restricted switch types

Forward conducting, bidirectional
blocking (FCBB).

Always blocks in reverse, can carry or block
forward.

This describes a GTO, or a BJT in series
with a diode.

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Restricted switch types

Bidirectional conducting, forward blocking
(BCFB).

Always allows reverse flow, but can carry or block
forward.

This describes an ideal power FET.

Bidirectional conducting, bidirectional blocking
(BCBB).

This describes an ideal, or “bilateral” switch.
Sometimes called a “bilat”.

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Restricted switch action

Restricted switch types can be selected based
on converter function.

Example: rectifier (for voltage to current
conversion) should block ac voltage and carry
dc current.

Types (voltage -> current)

Dc-dc: unilateral devices (FCFB, FCRB).

Ac-dc: FCBB.

Dc-ac: BCFB.

Ac-ac: BCBB

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Restricted switches

The specific switch requirements can be
identified through a direct process:

Check the current direction when the device is on.

Check the blocking polarity when the device is off.

Choose a function (FCRB, FCFB, etc.) to
match the need.

Identify the function with a device (diode,
FET, etc.).

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Restricted switches

This is a basic approach for initial
solution of the hardware problem.

Restricted switches are ideal except for
polarity. No drop, no leakage, instant
action, etc.

FCRB = ideal diode

FCFB = “ideal BJT”

BCFB = “ideal FET”
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Analysis of diode circuits

The action of a diode (FCRB switch) is
determined solely by the terminal
conditions, and not by an external gate.

Once we know how to analyze diode
circuits, the others follow.

The reality is that we don’t know how
to perform a direct circuit analysis when
ideal diodes are present.

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Analysis of diode circuits

But, diodes can only be on or off.

Diodes react only to terminal
conditions:

If the device is on, it remains on while the
current is positive.

If the device is off, it must turn on when
the voltage is positive.

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The trial method

Any diode in a circuit must be either on
or off.

The diode state (on or off) determines
the circuit configuration.

Once the configuration is known, the
circuit can be drawn and analyzed.

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The trial method

Although the diode states are not
arbitrary, we are free to assign states
and then check the result.

This is a “trial and error” method. But
with a little practice, there are few
errors: The Trial Method.

Diodes satisfy KVL and KCL.

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The trial method

Diodes always carry forward current, and
block reverse voltage.

In the trial method, we assign diode states,
then check for consistency.

To check:

KVL and KCL must be satisfied.

On diodes must carry i > 0.

Off diodes must block v < 0.

If the checks are OK, the assigned states are
valid. If not, try another.
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Keys

Draw the configurations.

Check polarities.

If inconsistent, use polarities as a way
to reassign states.

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Basic example
A simple rectifier connection

There are 16 configurations. Only two satisfy

KVL, KCL, and power flow objectives).
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Basic example

Try some of the configurations with the
trial method.

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The trial method

The method works for complicated circuits.

Diodes are passive switches, since their
action is governed by terminal conditions.

Switches with gates are active.

Devices such as the FET can be analyzed as
combinations:

If the gate is high, the device is on.

If the gate is low, the reverse parallel diode must
be checked.

The FCBB switch is similar (dual).
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Why Fourier?

Switch action is periodic by design

We often have specific input
frequencies, and seek specific output
frequencies.

But, many frequencies occur together.

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The basics

Any physically realisable periodic function,
f(t) = f(t+T),
can be written as a sum of sinusoids
f(t) = a0 + Σ an cos(nωt) + bn sin(nωt)
where the sum is taken over n = 1 to infinity,
ω = 2π/T, and the an and bn coefficients are
given by explicit integral equations,

We can also write f(t) = Σ cn cos(nωt + θn),
with the sum from 0 to infinity. This form is
common in electrical engineering.
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Some terminology

Each cosine term, cn cos(nωt + θn), is called
a Fourier component or a harmonic of the
function f(t). We call each the n-th harmonic.

The value cn is the component amplitude; θn
is the component phase.

c0 = a0 is the dc component, equal to the
average value of f(t),
c0 = <f(t)>

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Some terminology

The term c1 cos(ωt + θ1) is the
fundamental of f(t), while 1/T is the
fundamental frequency.

In most converters, we seek a single
desired frequency (perhaps the output
frequency). This is associated with a
single wanted component.

Others are unwanted components.

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Angular time

The change of variables θ = ωt is often
useful to us.

In many cases, the waveform shape is
the important issue, rather than explicit
timing.

The variable θ is angular time.

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Why angular time?

Applies readily to piecewise sinusoidal
waveforms.

Identifies dc and various ac frequency
components.

Establishes conditions on frequencies
and on power transfer.

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Square wave example

Set up the an coefficients for the square
wave, sq(θ).

The function is +1 between -π/2 and +π/2,
and -1 between +π/2 and +3π/2.

Integrals are:
1 3π / 2

π ∫π
an = sq (θ ) cos(nθ )dθ
− /2

1 π /2 1 3π / 2

π ∫π π ∫π
= cos(nθ )dθ − cos(nθ )dθ
− /2 /2

4  nπ 
= sin 
nπ  2  37
Square wave example

The series is:
sq(θ) = Σ4/(nπ) sin(nπ/2) cos(nθ)

More examples can be found in

Appendix D of the textbook.

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What about power?

A voltage
v(t) = Σ cn cos(nωt + θn),

and a current
i(t) = Σ dm cos(mωt + φm),

with the same base frequency ω.

39
Power

We are interested in conversion:

The energy flow over time.

This is determined by the average power
flow <p(t)>.

Since ω = 2π/T, then 1/T = ω/(2π).

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 The power integral
ω 2π ∞  ∞ 
Pave = ∫ ∑ n c cos( nωt + θ n  ∑ m
) d cos( mω t + φ m  dt
)
2π 0
 n =0   n =0 
∞
Pave = ∑ vRMS ( n ) iRMS ( n ) cos(θ n − φ n )
n =0

Cross-frequency terms like

cos(nωt)cos(mωt) with n and m unequal
do not contribute to average power (to
energy flow).
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The power integral

Average power is the sum of
contributions at each frequency.

Only Fourier components that appear in
both the current and the voltage
contribute to average power flow.

42
Frequency matching

Frequency matching condition:

To draw power from a source or to deliver
it to a load, there must be components at
matching frequencies for each.

If the source is given, we must match it.

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Examples

60 Hz to 50 Hz, voltage to current,
conversion.

The converter creates the input current and the
output voltage.

The input current must have a 60 Hz component.
The output voltage must have a 50 Hz
component.

If ac voltage is imposed on a battery, no average
power will be delivered to the battery.

In a rectifier, only the dc component of the output
matters for power transfer.

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Switching functions

DT
1

0
t0 t0 + T t

t0 – DT/2 t0 + DT/2

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Switching functions

We should perform the Fourier analysis
on this waveform.

The average is D, the duty ratio or duty
cycle.

The frequency f = 1/T, or ω = 2π/T

There is also a phase, determined by
the time axis position t0.

We define a phase value φ0 = ωt0.

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Switching functions

In general, a periodic (and single-pulsed)
switching function is determined by,

Duty ratio (fraction of time when on)

Frequency

Phase or timing.

To control a converter, we must manipulate
switching functions,

Duty ratio adjustment

Frequency adjustment (but must satisfy matching)

Phase adjustment.

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