The Four E’s of Effective Learning

Teaching Tips for Helping Students Become More

Effective Learners

Jeff Nevid
St. John‟s University
To contact:
jeffnevid@gmail.com
© 2014
Jeffrey S. Nevid
All Rights Reserved
 “A Mind Must Work to Grow”

Charles W. Eliot,
President
Harvard University
1869-1909
Complaints About Education
Are Nothing New

“What does education often do?

It makes a straight-cut ditch of a

free, meandering book.”

---- Henry David Thoreau

From the Early 20th Century . . .

“It‟s a miracle that curiosity survives

formal education.”
----Albert Einstein
 And more recently. . .

“We spend the first twelve months of our

children's lives teaching them to walk and
talk and the next twelve telling them to sit
down and shut up.”

----Phyllis Diller
Though the brain has not changed. . .
The ways that students use their brains have
changed
 Adapting the Classroom to
Today’s Students
Talk Less, Interact More. . .
 Use demonstrations
 Use videos and clips from popular movies as lecture
starters, etc.
 Invite discussion about issues that matter (Why do
people use and abuse drugs? What are the
drawbacks of using punishment in disciplining
children?)
 Encourage collaborative learning exercises, such as
building class wikis
 Wikis provide a platform for students to build knowledge
structures inclusively
Moving Toward Evidence-Based Pedagogy :
Grounding Pedagogy in
Psychological Science

Pedagogicalaids in textbooks development are driven

more by marketing concerns, rather than scientific
research

To date, little research has been conducted on the

effectiveness of pedagogical techniques used in class
and textbooks

Textbook developers and instructors need to draw

upon the knowledge base in cognitive psychology and
empirical research
Pedagogy Research Program
at St. John’s University
 Conducted laboratory and classroom-based studies on
effective pedagogy, including modularization of text
material, concept signaling, mastery
quizzing, journaling, and concept mapping.

 Supplemented by field tests in classroom uses

 Survey research focusing on use of learning aids in

textbooks, such as uses of graphs and diagrams
 Sample of Prior Research
Project
Textbook modularization
study
(comparing traditional text with
modular format)
Source: Nevid & Carmony,
2002, Teaching of Psychology
Concept Signaling Study
(highlighting key concepts in
margins of text)
Source: Nevid & Lampmann,
2003, Teaching of Psychology
10
Design
A randomized, counterbalanced
design in which students read
two text passages, one
presented in a modularized
format and the other presented
in a narrative format.
A randomized, counterbalanced
design in which students read
two text passages, one with
concept signaling and the other
without.
Key Finding(s)
Students who preferred the
modular approach performed
significantly better on the
accompanying quiz when they
had read the material in their
preferred format .
Concept signaling improved
student performance on test
items measuring knowledge of
key concepts. No differences
were found for non-signaled
(surrounding) material.
 Project Design
Mastery Quizzing Analyzed student performance
(pre-post quizzes in class tied to on course exams,
specific concepts discussed disaggregated by signaled
during class) concepts (concepts tested in
mastery quizzes), related
Source: concepts (other concepts
Nevid & Mahon, 2009, discussed on mastery quiz
Teaching of Psychology days), and non-signaled
concepts (control concepts
discussed on other days).
11
Key Finding(s)
Students showed significant
improvement in knowledge of
mastery quiz content as
assessed by pre-post lecture
comparisons.
Mastery quizzing cues students
to attend to important concepts
discussed in class, and provides
incentives for coming to class,
coming on time, and paying
attention.
Using Psychology to Teach Psychology
Helping students become more effective learners involves

The Four E’s of Effective Learning:

1. Engage student interest & attention

2. Encode important information
3. Elaborate meaning
4. Evaluate progress

Source: Nevid, J. S. (2006, February). In pursuit of the “perfect lecture.”

APS Observer, Teaching Tips, Vol. 19(2).
The Four E‟s of Effective Learning:
A Useful Heuristic for Teaching
 The 1st “E”
Engaging Interest
 Learning begins with focused
attention

 We can capture and hold student

attention through use of:
 Personal vignettes
 Real-life examples
 Interactive exercises
 Lecture starters that pique
interest, such as movie clips
 The Brain Loves a Puzzle
Puzzles Challenge the Mind to Think

Pose puzzling questions at the beginning of class:

 Most of us are ticklish, but did you know that it is

impossible to tickle yourself? The question is, why?

 Did you know that the ability to „„hold your liquor‟‟

puts you at greater risk of developing serious
problems with alcohol? Why do you suppose this is
so?
1st E: Engaging Attention:
---Tips For Students
The brain does not passively soak up information like a sponge. When
your attention is divided, it is difficult to process new information at a
level needed to understand the complex material required in
college-level courses and to retain this newly acquired knowledge.

 If you mind wanders during class or while studying, bring your

attention back to the lecture or study material. It‟s normal for the
mind to wander, but avoid spacing out.
 Becoming an active note taker during class and while reading the
text can help you remain alert and focused and avoid spacing out.
 Keep a notepad handy while reading the text and jot down key
points as you read through the material.
The 2nd “E”
Encoding Information
 Information must first be
encoded to be retained
Question:
What image appears on the back of a
$10 bill?

 Signaling is a pedagogical aid

that directs attention to material
that is important to encode in
memory.
Everyone Recognizes This
But how many people
know what image
appears on the back of
the $10 bill?

Do you?
Answer: The U.S. Treasury
(But you already knew that, right?
 VISION: How to Use
Concept Boxes:

SEEING THE LIGHT

Step 1: Read the
Concept Boxes
Light abounds. It is generated by the sun and
Concept boxes should be
CONCEPT 1 read prior to reading the
by billions of other suns. It filters down
through the Earth’s atmosphere and corresponding passage in
strikes our eyes. Some light is also generated Vision involves the process by detail.
from closer distances – as in the lightening which light energy is converted
in thunderstorms, fire, or human-made electric into electrical signals the brain
light. When light strikes our eyes, an incredibly interprets to produce the
intricate process occurs that allows people who
experience of sight.
are sighted to perceive color, movement, shape,
and form of objects that inhabit the world and heavens about them. Step 2: Become Alert
Our sense of vision allows us to receive information from a mere few
inches away from us, as in reading words in a book held close to your eyes, to the Main Points
to many billions of miles away, as in twinkling stars seen on a clear night This preview of the major
many billions of miles away. To understand the sense of vision, we begin by points in the text helps
discussing the source of physical energy that gives rise to vision: light.
you focus on them as you
read the material.
Light: The Better to See You With CONCEPT 2
Light is physical energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (electrically charged Light, a form of physical
particles). X-rays, radar waves, and radio waves energy, is the raw material
are other forms of electromagnetic energy. Light that the eyes use to allow us to
Step 3: Think About
is the portion of the spectrum of electromagnetic see the world around us. the Concepts
radiation that is visibly detectable to humans. Think about each concept
Light energy is released in the form of waves and particles. They just differ in before you read the
wavelength from visible light.
corresponding text. This
will provide a framework
that helps you integrate
the material.
 Concept Signaling Study
 Participants: 80 introductory psychology students
 Design : A randomized, counterbalanced design in
which students read two text passages, one with
concept signaling and the other without.
 Outcome measure: A 20-item multiple choice quiz
measuring content acquisition.
 Student Preference Measure: Students indicated which
format they preferred with respect to readability, clarity,
and overall preference.

Citation: Nevid, J. S., & Lampmann, J. L. (2003). Effects on content acquisition

of signaling key concepts in text material. Teaching of Psychology, 30, 227-
229.
 Learning Benefits of Concept Signaling

Concept Signaling Study

90

85
Percentage Correct

80

75
Signaled Text
70
Nonsignaled Text
65

60

55

50
Total Signaled Content Nonsignaled Content

Note. Differences significant (p < .05) for signaled conten t and total score only.
Getting Our Signals Straight:
Applying Concept Signaling in the Classroom

 Use signaling to help students identify key

lecture points. “Take five “ at the beginning
of the lecture to outline key lecture points.

 Present key lecture points using blackboard

notes, handouts, overhead
transparencies, or PowerPoint
presentations.

 Encourage students to use signaling cues in

the accompanying text, such as highlighted
terms and concepts, and headings as an
Podcasting
2nd E: Encoding Information
----Tips for Students
 When reading the text, stop and ask yourself after
every paragraph or two, What‟s the main point or
idea? What am I expected to know?

 Jot down the major concepts or ideas and review

them later.

 Use built-in study tools in your textbook, such as

headers, highlighted key terms and concepts, and
review sections and summaries, to encode the
main points and concepts you need to learn.
The 3rd “E”
Elaborating Meaning to Strengthen New Learning

Memory is strengthened through two

forms of rehearsal:
 In maintenance rehearsal, or rote
memorization, we repeat words or
phrases

 In elaborative rehearsal, we reflect on

the meaning of the material and relate it
our own life experiences.
My Aunt Edna’s Two Simple Rules for
Effective Teaching . . .

 Make it interesting
 Bring in personal
examples, stories, anecdotes, teasers, to pique
interest

 For every concept, give an example

 Think “concept, example, concept example”
Elaborative Rehearsal Leads to
More Enduring Memories
Keys to Elaborative Rehearsal:

 Relate information to personal experiences

 Present information in different modalities (text,

film, discussion)
 Present information in different formats
(narrative text, concept charts, keyed concepts,
review sections, spatial diagrams, etc.)
 Encourage deeper processing through interactive
exercises, self-assessment exercises, classroom
projects, etc.
 Contextualizing Meaning
 Context creates meaning

 Encourage deeper processing by forming links

between concepts and life experiences

 Use personal examples and storytelling as

teaching devices

 Hyperlink information:
 How is this concept put into practice?
 Can you give me an example?
 Why does it matter?
 “Let Me Tell You a Story”
Stories are remembered long after
facts are forgotten. remembered
long after facts are forgotten

You Don‟t Need to be a Master Storyteller

to Tell a Good Story
 Piaget‟s Principle of Conservation

The Pizza Incident

 Keeping Peace at the
Dinner Table
 DIAGRAMMING PSYCHOLOGY:
HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE

Source: Nevid, J. S. (2007). Psychology: Concepts and applications. (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Writing to Learn:
Journaling Encourages Deeper Processing

What is Writing to Learn?

 Low stakes (nongraded) writing or journaling assignments that can
be submitted on Blackboard or by email, or posted on blogs

 Unlike “writing to earn” term papers, these writing exercises do not

encumber instructors with the need to grade hundreds of writing
assignments

 Helps bring “writing across the curriculum” down to the introductory

level, even with large classes

 Examples: How does ____ relate to your experiences? Can you give
an example of ____from your life experiences or those of people you
know? What does ____ mean to you? What did you learn that you
didn‟t know before?
 Another concept that was easily relatable to me
in this chapter was conditioning. In my
house, there are always lavender candles
burning in my living room because those are my
mother's favorite and she likes visitors to smell a
nice aroma when they first walk in. So every time
when I smell this lavender scent even when I am
not at home, I think of my Mom and I feel like I
am at home and I also feel really bubbly on the
inside because I love to be home.
 My mom is a secretary and I asked her
to name the letters of the keyboard for
me and she was surprised that she
couldn't. Memory works in so many
funny ways, like how you see money
every single day and cannot identify the
correct drawing of a penny.
Prompts for Writing Assignments: Reflective vs.
Generic Writing

 Prompt for writing assignment: “Each journal entry should be

one- to two-paragraphs and consist of either (a) a real-life
example of the concept or topic you are asked to write about
(e.g., „An example of the concept of _________ in my life
is…‟), or (b) what you learned about the topic that you hadn‟t
known before.”
Outcome Measures
 Proportion correct on actual exam questions for
items matched to writing topics vs. unrelated
(unmatched) content
 Exam performance aggregated across three
course exams (Midterm, Unit Exam, Final)
 All multiple choice exams
 Learning Benefits of Journaling

Source: Nevid, J.S., Pastva, A., & McClelland, N. (2012). Writing-to-learn assignments in
introductory psychology: Is there a learning benefit? Teaching of Psychology, 39, 272-275.
General Conclusions
1. Our findings provide support for the learning benefits
of brief writing assignments in introductory
psychology
2. Students performed significantly better on course
examination questions testing knowledge of
concepts linked to writing assignments than those
measuring knowledge of unrelated content.
3. Journaling effects were robust for type of writing
assignment (generic and reflective writing) and
assigned versus student-selected topics
3rd E: Elaborating Meaning
--Tips for Students
 For every concept you read about in this text or
learn in class, connect it to a real-life example or
life experience.
 Your textbook authors and instructors use many
examples of concepts, but you can take this a
step further by connecting these concepts to your
own life experiences.
 Keep a journal, using one side of the page to list
and define concepts and the other to provide
examples
The 4th “E”
Evaluating Progress

 Students should not wait until exam time

to find out what they don‟t know.

 Students should be able to gauge their

progress as they read through the text.

 Use spot quizzes early in semester to

diagnose problems.
 Mastery Quizzing Study
 What is Mastery Quizzing?
 Ten, pre-post quizzes during the semester of specific concepts
discussed during class
 Students have two chances to get the right answer and earn credit
toward final grade—at the very beginning of class and at the end
 Mastery quizzing provides incentives for attendance, punctuality, and
attention

 Participants: Introductory psychology class comprising 61

students, 44 women, 17 men, mostly freshmen

 Method: Analyzed student performance on course

exams, disaggregated by signaled concepts (concepts tested in
mastery quizzes), related concepts (other concepts discussed on
mastery quiz days), and non-signaled concepts (control concepts
discussed on other days).
 Results:

 Students showed significant improvement in knowledge of

mastery quiz content as assessed by pre vs. post
comparisons.
 Credits earned on mastery quizzes predicted performance on
course examination questions measuring signaled concepts
and other concepts from lectures on days mastery quizzes
were administered, but not on unrelated concepts (control
concepts)

 Take-Away Message:
 Mastery quizzing cues students to attend to important
concepts discussed in class, and provides incentives
for coming to class, coming on time, and paying
attention

 Citation: Nevid, J. S., & Mahon, K. (2009). Mastery quizzing as a signaling

device to cue attention to lecture material. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 1-4.
Bloom‟s Taxonomy: Original vs.
Revised
The IDEA MODEL. . .
A Simpler Model Based on Four Key Skills:

Identify . . .Key figures in psychology and parts of

the body

Describe or Define. . Key terms and concepts

Evaluate or Explain. . . Underlying processes and

mechanisms

Apply. . . Concepts to examples

 The IDEA Model of Course Assessment
Bloom’s Taxonomy

Identify. . key figures in psychology, parts of the nervous system, etc.

Define or Describe. . . key concepts, key features of psychological theories, etc.
Evaluate or Explain. . . underlying processes and mechanisms.
Apply. . . psychological concepts to real-world examples.
What’s the NEW IDEA in Course Assessment?
 Source: Center for Teaching and Learning, Brigham Young University
 THE IDEA MODEL OF COURSE ASSESSMENT
Integrating APA Learning Goals with Bloom’s Taxonomy

Skill Level in Bloom Learning Active Learning APA Learning Goal 1:

Taxonomy Objectives Verbs used to Knowledge Base of
(Original/Revised Measure Skills Psychology
Model) Acquired
Examples: Memory
Knowledge/Remembering Define key terms Describe basic processes and
Describe key Define/Describe stages of memory.
concepts Describe types of long-term
Comprehension/Understanding Identify parts of the
nervous system,
Identify memory.
Identify methods of
key figures in measuring memory.
psychology, etc. Identify key brain structures
involved in memory.
Application/Applying Apply concepts to Apply knowledge of how
examples Apply memory works to powering
up your memory.
Analysis/Analyzing Evaluate theoretical Evaluate the reliability of
concepts Evaluate/Explain eyewitness testimony.
Explain underlying Explain the difference
Synthesis/Evaluating mechanisms or between maintenance
processes rehearsal and elaborative
Evaluate scientific rehearsal.
Evaluation/Creating evidence Explain why the concept of
recovered memory is
controversial.
The IDEA Model
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply . . . knowledge of psychology

The IDEA Model of Course Assessment. . .

Maps learning objectives to APA learning goals and Bloom’s taxonomy

Uses active learning verbs to measure learning outcomes
Keys test items to learning outcomes
 Bloom Instructional Units (BIUs)
Objective Example (Classical Conditioning)
Remembering Define the terms conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response
Understanding Describe classical conditioning in your own
words
Applying Give examples of classical conditioning in
daily life
Analyzing What do you expect would happen if you
lengthened the interval between CS and US?
Or reverse the order of CS and US?

Evaluating Why is it important to study classical

conditioning? Why does it matter?
Creating/Synthesizing What alternative explanations of classical
conditioning can you propose?
Propose a research study to test ways of
strengthening or weakening conditioned
responses
Examples of Coded Test Items:
Foundations of Modern Psychology

Identify. . .
Wundt is to ______ as James is to ______.
A) structuralism; Gestalt
B) structuralism; functionalism
C) behaviorism; Gestalt
D) behaviorism; functionalism
E) functionalism; psychoanalysis

Define or Describe. . .
Psychology is best described as a science that studies
A) The role of the mind in explaining behavior
B) How the mind controls our behavior
C) Observable behavior only
D) Mental processes only
E) Behavior and mental processes

Evaluate or Explain . . . .
Psychology is a scientific discipline in that it focuses on
A) the pursuit of truth, not simply opinion.
B) testing opinions and assumptions in the light of evidence.
C) systematically building theories to explain phenomena.
D) behavioral, as opposed to mental, processes.
E) accumulated wisdom of scholars.

Apply . . .
Animal trainer Bob Jeffers uses rewards to teach his animals to perform circus tricks. Jeffers's techniques
are based on principles from which school of psychology?
A) Behaviorism
B) Structuralism
C) Psychodynamic
D) Functionalism
E) Humanism
What We Found: Item difficulty and item discrimination by IDEA question types
Item Difficulty

Item Type M SD

Identify .60 .14

Define/Describe .64 .15

Evaluate/Explain .53 .15

Apply .60 .12

Item Discrimination Index

Item Type M SD

Identify .29 .17

Define/Describe .32 .14

Evaluate/Explain .33 .15

Apply .27 .17

Note: Difficulty is based on the proportion of students answering items correctly, which is averaged by question type. The item discrimination index
represents the difference between the proportion of students answering an item correctly in the top 27% of the class versus the bottom 27% of the
class, averaged by question type.

Nevid, J. S., & McClelland, N. (2013). Using action verbs as learning outcomes: Applying bloom‟s
taxonomy in measuring instructional objectives in introductory psychology. Journal of
Education and Training Studies, 1(2), 19-24.
4th E: Evaluating Progress
----Tips for Students
 Keep track of your progress in the course—your performance on
exams, quizzes, homework, journal assignments, etc.

 Test yourself on built-in quizzes in the text and online quizzing

programs.

 Use the review sections in the text to recite your knowledge of

the learning objectives or answers to survey questions before
glancing at the sample answers in the text. Recitation is an
important study skill that demonstrates you have acquired new
knowledge.

 Jot down your answers to review questions in a notebook or

computer file. Use the sample answers provided in the text as
feedback to determine if you have achieved the learning
objectives or need further review of the related material in the
text. Once you are confident in you answers, use these as a
study guide to prepare for exams.
 Sample References from the
St. John‟s University Pedagogy Research Program

 Nevid, J. S., & Carmony, T. M. (2002). Traditional versus modular format in presenting textual
material in introductory psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 29, 237 – 238.

 Nevid, J. S. (2003, September). Helping students get the point: Concept signaling as a
pedagogical aid. Paper presented at the conference, Taking Off: Best Practices in Teaching
Introductory Psychology, Atlanta, GA.

 Nevid, J. S., & Lampmann, J. L. (2003). Effects on content acquisition of signaling key concepts in
text material Teaching of Psychology, 30, 227-229

 Nevid, J. S. (2004, January). Graphing psychology: The effective use of graphs and figures in
teaching introductory psychology. Invited address at the presented at the 26th Annual National
Institute on the Teaching of Psychology, St. Petersburg, FL.

 Nevid, J. S. (2004, February). Evidence-based pedagogy: Using research to find new ways to
help students learn. Invited closing address presented at the 11th Midwest Institute for Students
and Teachers of Psychology (MISTOP), Glen Ellyn, IL.
 Sample References (contd.)
 Nevid, J. S., & Forlenza, N. (2005). Graphing psychology: An analysis of the most commonly
used graphs in introductory textbooks. Teaching of Psychology, 32, 253-256.

 Nevid, J. S. (2006, February). In pursuit of the “perfect lecture.” APS Observer, Teaching
Tips, Vol. 19(2).

 Nevid, J. S., & Blitzer, J. R. (2006, August). Educational benefits of mastery quizzes as
signaling devices. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological
Association, New Orleans, LA.

 Nevid, J. S., & Mahon, K. (2009). Mastery quizzing as a signaling device to cue attention to
lecture material. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 29-32.

 Nevid, J. S. (2009/2010, Winter). Reaching and teaching millennial students. Psychology

Teacher Network, 19(4) pp. 1, 3, 4.

 Nevid, J. S. (2011). Teaching the millennials. APS Observer, Teaching Tips, 24(5), in press.

 Nevid, J.S., Pastva, A., & McClelland, N. (2012). Writing-to-learn assignments in introductory
psychology: Is there a learning benefit? Teaching of Psychology, 39, 272-275.

 Nevid, J. S., & McClelland, N. (2013). Using action verbs as learning outcomes: applying
bloom’s taxonomy in measuring instructional objectives in introductory psychology. Journal
of Education and Training Studies, 1(2), 19-24.
Thank you!
For a copy of this PPT or to share your ideas about
teaching psychology, please contact:

jeffnevid@gmail.com or
nevidj@stjohns.edu

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