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Fig. 2.2 Stress-strain curves for reinforcing bars.

Type 1 Square twisted cold worked bars

Type 2 Hot rolled bars with transverse ribs

Type 1 bars are obsolete.

2.7 FAILURES IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES

2.7.1 Factors affecting failure

Failures in concrete structures can be due to any of the following factors:

1. incorrect selection of materials

2. errors in design calculations and detailing
3. poor construction methods and inadequate quality control and supervision
4. chemical attack
5. external physical and/or mechanical factors including alterations made to the
structure

The above items are discussed in more detail below.

2.7.2 Incorrect selection of materials

The concrete mix required should be selected to meet the environmental or soil
conditions where the concrete is to be placed. The minimum grade that should be used
for reinforced concrete is grade 30. Higher grades should be used for some
foundations and for structures near the sea or in an aggressive industrial environment.
If sulphates are present in the soil or