The Female Reproductive System Implantation - process of adhering blastocyst to the

Its function is to create hormones and responsible for endometrium after the fertilization.
fertility, menstruation, and sexual activity. Blastocyst
Parts of the Female Reproductive System by the 5th or 6th day, the fertilized egg is known
• Ovary as blastocyst
• Fimbriae a rapidly dividing ball of cells.
• Fallopian Tube
• Endometrium Cervix
• Uterus muscular opening of the uterus.
• Cervix
• Vagina Vagina
Ovary entrance of the penis, also called the nerve
site of oogenesis; produces hormones the canal.
estrogen and progesterone.
Fimbriae Four Hormones Involved in the Functioning of the
picks up the ovum from the ovary. Female Reproductive System
Fallopian Tube • Progesterone
passage from the ovary to uterus; site of • Luteinising Hormone (LH)
fertilization.
• Oestrogen
Endometrium
• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
nourishes the embryo; sheds during
menstruation. Male Reproductive System
Pivotal
Parts of the Male Reproductive System
adjective; crucial importance in relation to the
development or success of something. • Testis
Uterus • Scrotum
site of egg implantation, embryo development. • Penis
Fertilization - process of fusing male and female • Epididymis
gametes to produce zygote. • Vas deferens (tube)
• Urethra
 • Seminal Vesicle Glands: provide liquid in which sperm can swim
• Bulbourethral Gland
A. Seminal vesicle
Testis – the testis have two primary functions: B. Prostate gland
C. Bulbourethral gland
Producing sperm (which carry the man’s genes)
Producing testosterone (the primary male sex Seminal Vesicle
hormone)
Are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas
Scrotum deferens near the base of the bladder it secretes
a fluid that make up most of the components of
Thick-skinned sac that surrounds and protects
the semen.
the testis.
Prostate Gland
Penis – deposits sperms into the vagina during mating.
It has three parts: A walnut-sized structure that’s located below the
urinary bladder in front of the rectum that
The root secretes slightly alkaline milky fluid.
The body or shaft
The glans Bulbourethral gland

Epididymis Secretes a thick and clear mucus that lubricates

and neutralizes the any trace of acidic urine in
A long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of the urethra.
each testicle.
External Parts
Vas deferens (tube)
• Testis
Carries sperm from testes to urethra
• Scrotum
Transports mature sperm to the urethra
• Penis
preparation for ejaculation.
Internal Parts
Urethra
• Vas deferens
Is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to
• Urethra
outside of your body.
 • Glands
3 Primary Hormones involved in the Functioning of the
Male Reproductive System
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - helps control the
production of sperm and the amount of FSH in men
normally remains stable after puberty.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - causes the testicles to make
testosterone, which is important for producing sperm.
Testosterone - The primary male hormone responsible
for regulating sex differentiation, producing male sex
characteristics, spermatogenesis, and fertility.
Hormones
Are chemical messengers that coordinate
different functions in your body.
Are essential for your life and your health.
Several glands, organs and tissues make and
release hormones, many of which make up your
endocrine system.
There are 50 hormones in the human body.
Function of Hormones involved in the Male and Female
Reproductive System
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Male – necessary for sperm production
(spermatogenesis).
Female – stimulates eggs development (oogenesis)
and the release of oestrogen.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Male – stimulates the production of testosterone to
continue the process of spermatogenesis.
Female -stimulates the release of egg
(ovulation) and the estrogen and progesterone
production.
Other Hormones
Testosterone
Is important in the development of male
characteristics, including muscle mass and
strength, fat distribution, bone mass and sex
dive.
Estrogen
Stimulates the growth of uterine lining.
Progesterone
Maintains the uterine lining for pregnancy.
Effects of Hormone Secretion in the Development of an
Organism
Regulating the growth and development of the
body.
The development of reproductive functions such
as menstruation, pregnancy, lactation and
childbirth.
Maintaining salt and water balance
Mood swings and cognitive functions
Regulation of metabolic pathways by thyroxine,
insulin and cortisol.
Activation and suppression of the immune
system.
Controlling hunger and thirst
 Controlling programmed cell death or
apoptosis.
Hypothalamus
Is a gland in your brain that controls your
hormone system. Its main function is to keep the
body in a stable state called homeostasis.
Endocrine System
Is composed of glands that secrete different
types of hormones that affect almost every cell,
organ, and function of our body. It is essential in
regulating growth and development,
metabolism, as well as reproductive processes
and mood.
Endocrine gland
Secretes chemicals known as hormones into the
bloodstream, which carries them throughout the
body.
When a hormone in the blood reaches the target
organ, it produces a notable effect.
The endocrine system sends signals all over the
body, much like the nervous system, but unlike
nervous system the effects can take a few hours
or even weeks.
Pituitary gland
Location: at the base of the brain
Hormones Released: Oxytocin, Vasopressin, Growth
hormone, Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACLH), LH,
and FSH
Function: stimulates growth, and controls the functions
of glands.
Oxytocin
Also called love hormone is a natural hormone
that stimulates uterine contractions in childbirth
and lactation after childbirth.
Vasopressin
Antidiuretic hormone, plays a key role in
maintaining osmolality (the concentration of
dissolved particles, such as salts and glucose, in
the serum)
Maintaining the volume of water in the
extracellular fluid (the fluid space that surrounds
cells).
Growth hormone
A natural hormone your pituitary gland makes
and releases that acts on many parts of the body
to promote growth in children.
ACHT
A hormone your pituitary gland releases that
plays a large role in how your body responds to
stress.
Luteinizing Hormone
In male, it stimulates the production of
testosterone; while in female, it stimulates the
release of egg (ovulation).
Thyroid Gland
Location: below the voice box
Hormones released: thyroxin, calcitonin
Function: regulates body metabolism, and causes
storage of calcium in bones.
Thyroxin
Plays an important role in regulation of your
weight, energy levels, internal temperature,
skin, hair, nail growth, metabolism and is an
important part of the endocrine system.
Calcitonin
Is a hormone that plays a role in regulating the
level of calcium in your blood by decreasing it.
Parathyroid Gland
Location: in the neck
Hormones released: parathormone
Function: controls the calcium levels in our body, and
normalize bone growth.
Parathormone
hormone your parathyroid glands release to
control calcium levels in your blood. It also
controls phosphorus and vitamin D levels. If your
body has too much or too little parathyroid
hormone, it can cause symptoms related to
abnormal blood calcium levels.
Thymus Gland
Location: in front of the heart
Hormones released: thymosin
Function: enables the bone to produce certain
antibodies.
Thymosin
is a hormone secreted from the thymus. Its
primary function is to stimulate the production of
T cells, which are an important part of the
immune system. Thymosin also assists in the
development of B cells to plasma cells to
produce antibodies.
Adrenal Gland
Location: on top of the kidneys
Hormones released: adrenaline
Function: prepares the body for action, controls the
heart rate and breathing in times of emergency.
Adrenaline
is a hormone released from the adrenal glands
and its major action, together with
noradrenaline, is to prepare the body for 'fight
or flight'.
Pancreas
Location: between the kidneys
Hormones released: Insulin, Glucagon
Function: regulates blood sugar levels
Insulin
is a hormone that is responsible for allowing
glucose in the blood to enter cells, providing
them with the energy to function. A lack of
effective insulin plays a key role in the
development of diabetes.
Glucagon
works along with the hormone insulin to control
blood sugar levels and keep them within set
levels. Glucagon is released to stop blood sugar
levels dropping too low (hypoglycemia), while
insulin is released to stop blood sugar levels
rising too high (hyperglycemia). It is one of the
‘’anti-insulin’’ hormones. It works in totally
opposite way to insulin.
Reproductive
Gland: testes (male)
Location: lower abdomen
Hormones released: androgen, testosterone
Function: control maturation and male characteristics
Androgen
or male sex hormone, is defined as a substance
capable of developing and maintaining
masculine characteristics in reproductive tissues
(notably the genital tract, secondary sexual
characteristics, and fertility) and contributing to
the anabolic status of somatic tissues.
Testosterone
is most often associated with sex drive and plays
a vital role in sperm production. It also affects
bone and muscle mass, the way men store fat in
the body and even red blood cell production.
Reproductive
Gland: ovaries (females)
Location: lower abdomen
Hormones released: estrogen, progesterone
Function: influences female traits, and support
reproductive function.
Estrogen
plays a key role in your reproductive health. The
development of secondary sex characteristics
(breasts, hips, etc.), menstruation, pregnancy
and menopause are all possible, in part,
because of estrogen.
Progesterone
sometimes called the pregnancy hormone a
hormone released by the corpus luteum in the
ovary. It plays important roles in the menstrual
cycle and in maintaining the early stages of
pregnancy.
Nervous System
Main Function: It provides monitoring, response, and
regulation of all system in the human body and other
organisms.
It is a system of cells, tissues, and organs that regulates
the body's responses to internal and external stimuli.
Major Divisions In charge of all the functions your body needs to
• Central Nervous System stay alive.
• Peripheral Nervous System B. Spinal Cord
Central Nervous System – serves as the main It’s the spinal cord and nerves — known as the
processing center for the entire nervous system. nervous system — that let messages flow back
• Brain and forth between the brain and body.
• Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – connects the
Brain - An organ located within the skull that functions central nervous system to the organs and limbs.
as organizer and distributor of information for the • Somatic Nervous System
body. • Autonomic Nervous System
Spinal Cord - This serves as a channel for signals Somatic Nervous System
between the brain and the rest of the body, and is associated with the voluntary control of the
controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input body movements.
from the brain. Autonomic Nervous System
A. Brain is associated with the involuntary control of the
Three Main Parts: body movements.
Cerebrum Somatic Nervous System
large, upper part of the brain that controls Two Main Parts:
activity and thought. Spinal Nerves
is the thinking part of the brain and it controls nerves that carry motor and sensory signals
your voluntary muscles — the ones that move between the spinal cord and the body.
when you want them to. Cranial Nerves
Cerebellum the nerve fibers that carry information into and
the part under the cerebrum that controls out of the brain stem.
posture, balance, and coordination. Autonomic Nervous System
It controls balance, movement, and coordination Two Subdivision:
(how your muscles work together). Sympathetic
Brain Stem activated when the body is in dynamic role or
It controls balance, movement, and coordination stress. examples: heart rate and breathing,
(how your muscles work together). dilation of pupil, sweating, etc.
Parasympathetic
maintains body functions and restores the body
to normal or relaxed mode.
The Nerve Cell – the basic unit of nervous system also
called neurons.
Cell body (soma)
Dendrites (receive messages from other cells)
Axon (passes messages away from the cell body to
other neutrons, muscles, or glands)
Action potential (electrical signal travelling down the
axon)
Myelin sheath (covers the axon of some neurons and
helps speed neural impulses)
Terminal buttons (form junctions with other cells)
Synapse
site of transmission of electric nerve impulses
between two nerve cells (neurons) and
stimulates the nerve impulses to start in the next
dendrite.
Neurotransmitter
are chemical messengers in the body. Their job
is to transmit signals from nerve cells to target
cells.
Stimulus and Response
• A change in the environment is the stimulus; the
reaction of the organism to it is the response.
3 Major Function
• Sensation
• Integration
• Response
Sensation
refers to the information that is gathered from
the physical world, and with this information, our
motor movement is determined. We become
aware of the world by way of sensation.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of
sensory receptors that extend from the central
nervous system (CNS) to communicate with
other parts of the body. These receptors
respond to changes and stimuli in the
environment.
Stimuli (plural) - A stimulus is anything that can trigger
a physical or behavioral change. Stimuli can be
external or internal. An example of external stimuli is
your body responding to a medicine. An example of
internal stimuli is your vital signs changing due to a
change in the body.
Two Categories of Sensation
General Sensations - Includes touch, pain,
temperature, proprioception, and pressure.
Special Senses - Vision, hearing, taste, and smell which
convey sensations to the brain through cranial nerves.
Proprioception
Also known or described as the "sixth sense"
also referred as kinesthesia, it is our sense that
 lets us perceive the location, body - movement,
and action of the body.
Sensation
Describes physical input about the environment
received by various sensory receptors in our
eyes, ears, nose, and so on.
Perception
is the process by which we make sense of this
input; how the brain automatically selects,
organizes, and interprets these sensations.
Integration
Stimuli that are received by sensory structures
are communicated to the nervous system where
that information is processed.
The integration involves processing of information, and
is carried out by the central nervous system (CNS),
which consists of brain and spinal cord.
Response
The nervous system produces a response on the
basis of the stimuli perceived by sensory
structures. An obvious response would be the
movement of muscles.
Voluntary Response - Voluntary or conscious
(contraction of skeletal muscle). Voluntary responses
are governed by the somatic nervous system.
Involuntary Response - Involuntary (contraction of
smooth muscles, regulation of cardiac muscle,
activation of glands). Involuntary responses are
governed by the autonomic nervous system.
Claude Bernard (1813-1878) French Physiologist
- Often referred to as the founder of modern
experimental physiology
- He developed the concept of “a fixité du milieu
intérieur,” or the" constant of the internal
environment" that is, organisms maintain a
stable internal environment despite changing
external conditions.
Walter B. Cannon (1871-1945) American Physiologist
Father of Homeostasis
- He built upon the work of Claude Bernard and
coined the word homeostasis to describe a self-
regulating process by which biological systems
maintain stability while adjusting to changing
conditions.
Homeostasis is a central pillar of modern Physiology.
The term homeostasis from the Greek words Ǒμoιoς
(hómoios) “similar” and στάσις (stásis) “standing still”
(together to mean staying similar and not staying the
same) to describe the self -regulating processes by
which a biological system maintains stability while
adjusting to changing environmental conditions. The
term homeostasis attempts to convey two ideas: (1) an
internal stability within a range of values and (2) the
coordinated dynamic response that maintains this
internal stability (self-regulatory goal-seeking
behavior).
Homeostasis Negative Feedback
Is the state of balance in our body. • Oppose initial change
This state of balance in the body must be • Reduce input
maintained so the cells in our body can function • Resist change to bring the body closer to the
properly. normal state.
Variables – body temperature or the chemical 3 Main Components:
components • Receptor
The purpose of homeostasis in our body is to • Control center
maintain the established internal environment • Receptor
without being overcome by external stimuli that Receptor
exist to disrupt the balance. Gives information to the central center
Feedback Mechanism Monitors the body’s internal condition
It is the mechanism of the body to maintain the Control Center
levels of hormones in the body within the Brain in most cases
desired limits. An increase or decrease in the Integrates information given by the receptors
levels of the hormones triggers the feedback Effector
mechanism. May be cells, organs, or other structures
Two Types of Feedback Mechanism: Receives signals from the control center
Positive Feedback - known as a positive response or a Changes function to correct change in variable
self-reinforcing response to external or internal input. Negative Feedback
In this, the effector boosts up the stimulus that 1. A regulated variable called a stimulus is outside of
enhances the product formation for maintaining body its normal range.
stability. 2. That information (stimulus) is picked up by
Negative Feedback - the response will reverse or receptor/sensor.
cause the opposite effect of the original stimulus. Most 3. Receptor sends this information (stimulus) to the
endocrine glands are under the control of negative control center.
feedback mechanisms. 4. Control center determines if variable is out of its
normal range.
5. If control center determines that the variable is out
of normal range, control center sends signals to
cells/organs (effector).
6. Effectors cause physiological response that will
return the variable back to its normal homeostatic
range.
7. Variable returns to normal, stimulus is no longer
present.
8. Control center allows effector to return back to
normal activity, until another change in variable is
detected.
Blood Pressure
Stimulus
• Blood pressure increases above normal range
• Effector cells
Receptors
• Receptors in blood vessels detect change in BP
• Blood vessel receptors relay information
(stimulus) to control center (brain)
Control Center
• Control center in brain receives information and
determines that blood pressure is above normal
range
• Control center sends signals to effector cells
(heart & blood vessels)
Effector cells
• In heart and blood vessels work to decrease
heart rate and increase the diameter of blood
vessels
Body Temperature
Stimulus
• Body temperature decreases below normal
range
Receptors
• Receptor brain cells detect a temperature
change
• Brain cells relay information of stimulus to
control center
Control Center
• Control center in brain receives information and
determines that body temperature is below
normal range
• Control center sends signals to effector cells
• Nerve cells activate skeletal muscles to shiver
and produce heat
Production of human red blood cells – A decrease in
oxygen is detected by the kidneys and they secrete a
hormone. This hormone stimulates the production of
more red blood cells.
Positive Feedback
• Reinforce initial change in variable
• Increase input
• Result in more of a product
• Occur when something needs to happen quickly
• Bring the body farther away from normal range
• Stopped negative feedback once the process
that it was used is complete
Positive Feedback - control self-perpetuating events
that can be out of control and do not require continuous
adjustment. In positive feedback mechanisms, the
original stimulus is promoted rather than negated.
Positive feedback increases the deviation from an ideal
normal value.
Child Birth
Positive Feedback Loops
Stimulus
• Baby’s head stretches the cervix
Receptor
• Stretch sensitive nerve cells in the cervix signal
the control center (brain)
Control center
• Brain causes pituitary gland to release oxytocin
Effectors
• Oxytocin causes stronger contractions of smooth
muscles in the uterus, moving the baby’s head
farther down the birth canal
Response
• Forceful contractions and oxytocin release
continue to increase until baby is born
End Point
• Stretching of the cervix stops, which stops
oxytocin release
Example of Negative Feedback
Glucose and Insulin - When we eat a meal a large spike
in glucose happens. This changes our glucose range
beyond the normal level. To promote cells to use and
store glucose the body releases insulin. This brings the
glucose level to normal.
Example of Positive Feedback
The pituitary gland of a new mother produces more
prolactin (hormone) as the baby suckles, which leads
to the production of more milk. Once the baby stops
suckling for a few days the production of milk
decreases.
An increase release of estrogen during the follicular
phase of the menstrual cycle causes ovulation.
As someone exercises, a signal from the brainstem
causes the heart to beat faster to move more blood
(and oxygen) through the body.
When a human is hungry, metabolism slows down to
conserve energy and allow the human to continue
living with less food.
The Central Dogma
Comparison of DNA and RNA
DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid while
RNA stands for Ribonucleic Acid.
DNA is a double stranded while RNA is single
stranded molecule.
DNA is located in the nucleus while RNA is
located in the cytoplasm.
The sugar of DNA is deoxyribose while the RNA
sugar is ribose.
Purines Ligase (the gluer)
Double carbon-nitrogen ring with four nitrogen - An enzyme which connects two strands of DNA
atoms. Adenine and Guanine in both DNA and together.
RNA. Types of Ribonucleic Acid
Pyrimidines Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Single carbon-nitrogen ring with two nitrogen Brings information from the DNA in the nucleus
atoms. Cytosine in both DNA and RNA Uracil to the cytoplasm.
only in RNA Thymine only in DNA. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Replication Hold tightly to the mRNA and use its information
DNA replication is semiconservative, meaning to assemble amino acids.
that each strand in the DNA double helix acts as Transfer RNA (tRNA)
a template for the synthesis of a new, A type of RNA that attach the correct amino
complementary strand. acids to the protein chain that is being
This process takes us from one starting molecule synthesized in the ribosome.
to two "daughter" molecules, with each newly Transcription
formed double helix containing one new and The sequence of nucleotides in DNA directs the
one old strand. order of nucleotides in messenger RNA in a
Key Players in DNA Replication process.
Helicase (the unzipping enzymes) Translation
- An enzymes that separate the double helix by The process of converting the information in
breaking the hydrogen bonds between the messenger RNA into a sequence of amino acids
complementary bases. that make a protein.
Primase (the initializer)
- An enzyme that synthesizes called primers.
These primers serve as starting point for DNA
synthesis.
DNA Polymerase (the builder)
- An enzyme that replicates DNA to build a new
strand.