energies
Review
Advances in Dual-Three-Phase Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Machines and Control Techniques
Ziqiang Zhu * , Shensheng Wang, Bo Shao, Luocheng Yan






Citation: Zhu, Z.; Wang, S.; Shao, B.;
Yan, L.; Xu, P.; Ren, Y. Advances in
Dual-Three-Phase Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Machines and Control
Techniques. Energies 2021, 14, 7508.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227508
Academic Editor: Yacine Amara
Received: 18 October 2021
Accepted: 5 November 2021
Published: 10 November 2021
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4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 7508. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227508
, Peilin Xu and Yuan Ren
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK;
swang104@sheffield.ac.uk (S.W.); bshao1@sheffield.ac.uk (B.S.); lyan17@sheffield.ac.uk (L.Y.);
xupeilinnuaa@gmail.com (P.X.); yuanren2020@gmail.com (Y.R.)
* Correspondence: z.q.zhu@sheffield.ac.uk
Abstract: Multiphase electrical machines are advantageous for many industrial applications that
require a high power rating, smooth torque, power/torque sharing capability, and fault-tolerant
capability, compared with conventional single three-phase electrical machines. Consequently, a
significant number of studies of multiphase machines has been published in recent years. This
paper presents an overview of the recent advances in multiphase permanent magnet synchronous
machines (PMSMs) and drive control techniques, with a focus on dual-three-phase PMSMs. It
includes an extensive overview of the machine topologies, as well as their modelling methods,
pulse-width-modulation techniques, field-oriented control, direct torque control, model predictive
control, sensorless control, and fault-tolerant control, together with the newest control strategies for
suppressing current harmonics and torque ripples, as well as carrier phase shift techniques, all with
worked examples.
Keywords: direct torque control; dual-three-phase; fault-tolerant control; field oriented control;
model predictive control; multiphase; multi-three-phase; permanent magnet; permanent magnet
synchronous machines; pulse-width-modulation; sensorless control; synchronous machine
1. Introduction
Compared with conventional single-three-phase electrical machines, multiphase elec-
trical machines are advantageous for many industrial applications that require high power
rating, smooth torque, power/torque sharing capability, and fault-tolerant capability. In
recent decades, there has been a significant and increasing number of published technical and
review papers that discuss the topologies, modelling methods, control strategies, pulse-width-
modulation (PWM) techniques, and applications of multiphase electrical machines [1–9].
Among these existing reviews, winding layouts, space harmonic cancellation, and
equivalent circuits of multiphase induction machines (IMs) are discussed in [1]. The
modelling and field-oriented control (vector control) of multi-three-phase (MTP) IMs are
reviewed and compared with those of their single-three-phase counterparts in [2]. The
PWM techniques and direct torque control (DTC) of dual-three-phase (DTP) IMs are stud-
ied in [3]. Additionally, the control strategies of five-phase and asymmetric six-phase IMs,
and fault tolerant control strategies are reviewed in [4,5]. The use of multiphase machines
in variable-speed applications and automotive traction applications are introduced in [6]
and [9], respectively. The research in [7] presents multilevel inverters and corresponding
PWM techniques as well as the exploitation of additional degrees of freedom. The review
of model predictive control (MPC) in multiphase machine systems is covered in [8] and [9].
However, the existing reviews mainly focus on the development of multiphase IMs with-
out a comprehensive coverage of multiphase permanent magnet (PM) machines. This
paper presents an overview of multiphase PM synchronous machines (PMSMs) and drive
control techniques.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 2 of 46

The early application of multiphase machines was in the field of ship propulsion,
which is still its main application area: five-phase PM machines [10,11], six-phase PM
machines [12], and 15 phase machines [13] are successfully applied in ship propulsion.
The increased emphasis on environmental protection has accelerated the development of
greener modes of electrified transportation, and has led to the rise of renewable energy
industries. The advantages of multiphase machines attract researchers to utilize them in
electric and hybrid electric vehicles (EVs), e.g., on-board battery chargers for EVs with
three-phase machines [14], five-phase machines [15], six-phase machines [16,17], and nine-
phase machines [18]. Besides, they are also considered preferable solutions for wind power
generation systems due to the power sharing capability [19], modularity [20], additional
degrees of freedom [21], and fault-tolerant capability [22,23] provided by their multiphase
topologies. Furthermore, electric aircraft have received much attention in the modern
commercial and military aerospace industries [24–26], where multiphase machines have
exhibited irreplaceable fault tolerance capability compared with conventional three-phase
machines in recent years.
The multiphase machines mentioned above can be classified into two kinds, according
to the number of phases: MTP (6- [27–32], 9- [33–35], 12- [36], 15- [13], . . . phase) machines
and other multiphase (4- [37], 5- [38,39], 7- [40,41], 11- [42], . . . phase) machines. Since
commercial three-phase inverters and many advanced control techniques can be utilized in
MTP machines, MTP machines have become more popular in recent years. Considering
the recent developments in PM materials, MTP PMSMs are currently especially attractive.
The MTP PM machines not only exhibit the merits of multiphase machines but also retain
the advantages of PMSMs, such as high torque density, high power density, and high
efficiency. In terms of the machine drives, the winding sets can be fed by multiple generic
and modular three-phase inverters, the DC links of which can be connected to the same
or independent power sources. This means that the drive topologies do not need to be
redesigned and the power can be freely exchanged among several isolated systems through
multiphase windings.
Multiphase PMSMs are composed of several three-phase winding sets, with a spe-
cific displaced angle β between two adjacent sets, as shown in Figure 1. A1 , B1 , and
C1 represent the winding axes of the first three-phase set; A2 , B2 , and C2 represent the
winding axes of the second three-phase set; iA1 , iB1 , and iC1 are the three-phase currents
of the first set; and iA2 , iB2 , and iC2 are the three-phase currents of the second set. The
value Vdc represents the DC-link voltage. The displaced angle β can be flexibly designed
according to the machine slot/pole number combinations to achieve different resultant
electromagnetic performances. Generally, for DTP PMSMs, 0 and 30 degs. are the most
common angle displacements between the two sets of three-phase windings [27,28]. The
0 deg. type features more freedom in winding layouts, while the 30 deg. type provides
higher torque density, reduced stator magnetomotive force (MMF) harmonics, lower torque
ripples under healthy conditions, and lower unbalanced magnetic force (UMF) under
faulty conditions [27]. Compared with the most general three-phase machines, it is worth
noting that the MTP machine system provides the advantages of reduced torque ripple,
increased torque density, increased efficiency, fault-tolerant capability, reduction of DC-link
capacitors, and more control freedom.
This paper attempts to provide an up-to-date review of MTP PMSM systems, with
a focus on DTP PMSMs, as tabulated in Table 1. Several important topics are grouped
and introduced with reference to the existing body of research. It should be noted that
while the major topics of MTP PMSM systems in the existing review work are covered,
this paper provides a comprehensive overview of machine topologies, modelling methods,
PWM techniques, field oriented control, direct torque control, model predictive control,
sensorless control, and fault-tolerant control, together with the newest control strategies for
suppressing current harmonics and torque ripples, as well as carrier phase shift techniques.
Worked examples, which were developed at the University of Sheffield, are presented in
each section, whenever possible, to support the discussions.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 46
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 3 of 46

B1
B2 Am
...
B3 A3
... N A2
Bm β
A1
S

C1 ...
C2 C3 Cm

(a)
+

B1
iA1 iA2
A2
iB1 B2 iB2
Vdc β
iC1 A1 iC2
C1
C2
DTP machine
-

(b)
Figure 1. Winding
Figure axes
1. Winding of of
axes MTP PMSMs.
MTP (a)(a)
PMSMs. MTP; (b)(b)
MTP; DTP machine
DTP and
machine inverters.
and inverters.

Table
This paper 1. Topics
attempts to and relevant
provide references. review of MTP PMSM systems, with a
an up-to-date
Topics
focus on DTP PMSMs, as tabulated in Table 1. SeveralTypical
References
important
Papers
topics are grouped and
introduced with reference to the existing body of research. It should be noted that while
Barcaro, et al., 2010, [27], University of Padova, Italy
the major topics of MTP PMSM systems in the existing
Abdel-Khalik, et al., 2015,review work are
[29], Alexandria covered,
University, this pa-
Egypt
Design of multi-three-phase PMper provides a [27–53]
machine comprehensive overview Chen, ofet machine topologies,
al., 2014, [33], University ofmodelling
Sheffield, UK methods,
PWM techniques, field oriented control, Xu, et al., 2018, [46], University of Sheffield, UK
direct torque control, model predictive control,
Li, et al., 2020, [50], University of Sheffield, UK
sensorless control, and fault-tolerant control, together with the newest control strategies
Karttunen, et al., 2012, [54], Lappeenranta University of Technology, Finland
for suppressing current harmonics and torque Hu, et al.,ripples, asUniversity
2017, [58], well as carrier phase
of Sheffield, UK shift tech-
Modelling of multi-three-phase PM machine
niques. Worked [54–67]
examples, which were Zhao, developed at University
et al., 1995, [62], the University of Sheffield, USA
of Wisconsin-Madison, are pre-
Zabaleta, etto
sented in each section, whenever possible, al.,support
2017, [63],the
Liverpool John Moores University, UK
discussions.
Che, et al., 2014, [73], Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Vector control [54–58,68–84] Karttunen, et al., 2017, [70], Lappeenranta University of Technology, Finland
Table 1. Topics and relevant references.
Yan, et al., 2021, [81], University of Sheffield, UK
Bojoi, et al., 2005, [85], Power Electronics Innovation Center at Politecnico di
Topics References Typical Papers Torino, Italy
Direct torque control [85–100]
Barcaro, et al., 2010,
Ren, et[27], University
al., 2015, of Padova,
[87], University ItalyUK
of Sheffield,
Abdel-Khalik, et al.,Shao,2015,et [29],
al., 2021, [91], University
Alexandria of Sheffield,
University, UK
Egypt
Design of multi-three-phase Barrero, et al., 2009, [101], University of Seville,
[27–53] Chen, et al., 2014, [33], University of Sheffield, UK Spain
PMModel
machine
predictive control [101–117] Duran, et al., 2011, [103], University of Malaga, Spain
Xu, et al.,
Luo,2018,
et al., [46], University
2019, [113], of Sheffield,
City University of HongUK Kong, HK, China
Li, et al., 2020, [50], University of Sheffield, UK
Marouani, et al., 2008, [129], Ecole Militaire Polytechnique, Algeria
PWM techniques Karttunen,
[118–141] et al., 2012,
Suhel, [54], Lappeenranta
et al., 2008, University
[130], Sarvajanik of Technology,
College of Engineering Finland
and Technology, India
Yazdani, et al., 2009, [138], Fairchild Semiconductor, USA
Modelling of multi-three- Hu, et al., 2017, [58], University of Sheffield, UK
Zhou, et al., 2016, [139], Harbin Institute of Technology, China
[54–67]
phase PM machine Zhao, et al., 1995, Almarhoon,
[62], University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
et al., 2017, [159], University of Sheffield, UK
Sensorless control Zabaleta, et al., 2017,
[142–161] [63], Liverpool
Almarhoon, John
et al., 2017, [160],Moores
UniversityUniversity,
of Sheffield, UK
UK
Che, et al., 2014, [73], Liu, et al., 2021,John
Liverpool [161], Moores
UniversityUniversity,
of Sheffield, UK
UK
[54–58,68–
Vector control Karttunen, et al., 2017, [70], Lappeenranta University of Technology, Finland
84]
Yan, et al., 2021, [81], University of Sheffield, UK
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 4 of 46

Table 1. Cont.

Topics References Typical Papers

Fault tolerant control
Carrier phase-shift techniques
Barcaro, et al., 2011, [162], University of Seville, Spain
Cheng, et al., 2016, [170], Southeast University, China
[162–190]
Wang, et al., 2003, [176], University of Sheffield, UK
Hu, et al., 2021, [185], University of Sheffield, UK
Miyama, et al., 2018, [193], Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Japan
[191–201] Han, et al., 2019, [194], Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China
Zhang, et al., 2020, [196], Harbin Institute of Technology, China

2. Various MTP and DTP PMSM Topologies

There are many machine topologies for MTP PMSMs. Various surface-mounted and
interior PM rotor topologies can be employed [53] and will not be described here, since
for MTP PMSMs, the major difference is in the stator winding configurations, which are
associated with slot/pole number combinations. In this section, the focus will be on DTP
PMSMs according to:
• Slot/pole number combinations;
• Angle displacement between two sets of three-phase windings;
• Coil pitch of windings.
Since there are two sets of three-phase windings in DTP PMSMs, the slot number
should be a multiple of six to install the windings. For DTP PMSMs with slot number
Ns (Ns = 6 k, k is an integer number) and pole number 2p (p is the number of pole pairs),
various angle displacements between two sets of three-phase windings and coil pitches
can be chosen, according to the coil electromotive force (EMF) phasor diagram.
It should be noted that the angle displacements are analyzed based on the unit machine
of each machine (the greatest common divisor (Ns , 2p) = 1). For a unit machine, the feasible
angle displacements can be 0◦ or 360◦ /Ns (60◦ /k), where k is an integer. Besides 0◦ and
60◦ /k, if k is even, 30◦ is another feasible angle displacement. Thus, the feasible angle
displacements in DTP PMSMs considering different slot/pole number combinations are
shown in Table 2. For example, the feasible angle displacements in a 24-slot/20-pole PMSM
are 0◦ and 30◦ , the same as those in a 12-slot/10-pole PMSM. In Table 2, the cells of the
machines that share the same unit machine are marked with the same background color,
and the relationship between the background colors and the corresponding unit machines
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 46
are also shown beneath Table 2.
Table 2. Feasible angle displacements (β) of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations.
Table 2. Feasible angle displacements (β) of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations.

2p2p
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 1010 12
12 14
14 1616 1818 2020 22 24 24 26 26 2828 3030
Ns N s
6 6 0 0 0 0 ** ** 0 0 00 **
** 00 00 **** 0 0 0 ** ** 0 0 00 ** **
12 12 0/30
0/30 0 0 ** ** 0 0 0/30
0/30 **
** 0/30
0/30 00 **** 0 0 0/30
0/30 ** ** 0/300/30 0 0 ** **
18 18 0/200/20
0/20 0/20 0 0 0/200/20 0/20
0/20 00 0/20 0/20
0/20 0/20 **** 0/20
0/20 0/20
0/20 0 0 0/200/200/200/20 0 0
24 24 0/15/30
0/15/300/300/30** ** 0 0 0/15/30
0/15/30 **
** 0/15/30
0/15/300 0 **** 0/30
0/30 0/15/30
0/15/30 ** **0/15/30 0/30
0/30 ** **
0/15/30
30 30 0/120/12
0/12 0/12** ** 0/12
0/12 00 **
** 0/12 0/12
0/12 0/12 **** 0 0 0/12
0/12 ** ** 0/120/120/12
0/12 ** **
36 36 0/10/30
0/10/300/200/200/30
0/30 0/20
0/20 0/10/30
0/10/30 00 0/10/30
0/10/30 0/20
0/20 **** 0/20
0/20 0/10/30
0/10/30 0 0 0/10/30 0/20
0/200/30
0/10/30 0/30

Note
Note

** Unfeasible slot/pole combinations for DTP PMSMs.

* Unfeasible slot/pole combinations for DTP PMSMs.
It is well known that a winding factor (Kw) is the product of the distribution factor
It is well known that(Kd) a winding
and pitch factorfactor
(Kp). For(K
all w ) isPMSMs,
DTP the product
the windingoffactor
the isdistribution
computed basedfactor
on
(Kd ) and pitch factor (Kp its unit all
). For machine.
DTPFor a unit DTP
PMSMs, thePMSM, the distribution
winding factor is factor is determined
computed based byonits its
slot/pole number combination and angle displacement, and the coil pitch factor can be
unit machine. For a unitcalculated
DTP PMSM, the distribution
by its slot/pole factor
number combination andiscoildetermined
pitch number. by its slot/pole
number combination and angle With adisplacement, and the
specific slot/pole number coil pitch
combination factor
and angle can be calculated
displacement, the distribu- by
tion factor in DTP PMSMs can be obtained. Since the symmetrical characteristics of the
its slot/pole number combination and coil pitch number.
coil EMF phasor diagrams are different when k is odd or even, the calculation of distribu-
tion factors should take “k is odd” and “k is even” into consideration, respectively. When
k is odd, take an 18-slot/14-pole PMSM as an example, the coil EMF phasor diagrams with
0° and 20° angle displacements are shown in Figure 2a,b, respectively.

12 17 12 17
7 4 7 4
A2
2 9 2 9
A1
A2
15 14 15 14

Coil EMF phasor 10

20deg.
1 10
20deg.
1 A1
A2 A1
diagram 5 6 5 6

18 11 A2 18 11
A1
 ** Unfeasible slot/pole combinations for DTP PMSMs.

It is well known that a winding factor (Kw) is the product of the distribution factor
(Kd) and pitch factor (Kp). For all DTP PMSMs, the winding factor is computed based on
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 its unit machine. For a unit DTP PMSM, the distribution factor is determined 5 ofby
46 its

slot/pole number combination and angle displacement, and the coil pitch factor can be
calculated by its slot/pole number combination and coil pitch number.
With
With aa specific
specificslot/pole
slot/polenumber
number combination
combination andand angle
angle displacement,
displacement, the distribu-
the distribution
tion factor
factor in DTP
in DTP PMSMs PMSMs can
can be be obtained.
obtained. Since Since the symmetrical
the symmetrical characteristics
characteristics of the
of the coil
coil
EMFEMF phasor
phasor diagrams
diagrams are different
are different whenwhen k is or
k is odd odd or even,
even, the calculation
the calculation of distribu-
of distribution
factors
tion should
factors taketake
should “k is“k
odd” and “k
is odd” andis even” into consideration,
“k is even” respectively.
into consideration, When kWhen
respectively. is
odd, take an 18-slot/14-pole PMSM as an example, the coil EMF phasor diagrams with 0 ◦
k is odd, take an 18-slot/14-pole PMSM as an example, the coil EMF phasor diagrams with
◦
0°and
and2020°angle displacements
angle displacements areare
shown
shownin Figure 2a,b,2a,b,
in Figure respectively.
respectively.

12 17 12 17
7 4 7 4
A2
2 9 2 9
A1
A2
15 14 15 14

Coil EMF phasor 10

20deg.
1 10
20deg.
1 A1
A2 A1
diagram 5 6 5 6

18 11 A2 18 11
A1
13 16 13 16
8 3 8 3

B2 B1
B1 7, 15, 11' 7, 3', 11'
2, 6', 16' B2
2, 6', 16' A2
A2 14, 10', 18'
0deg. 1, 9, 5' 20deg. A1
Phase coils A1 1, 15', 5'
14, 10', 18'
C2
3, 13, 17' C1
C1 C2
13, 9', 17'
8, 4', 12' 8, 4', 12'

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure2.2.EMF
EMFphasor
phasor diagrams of18
diagrams of 18slot/14
slot/14 pole
poleDTP
DTPPMSMs
PMSMswith withdifferent
different angle
angle displacements.
displacements.
Numerical number represents the number of coil. (a) β = 0°;
◦ (b) β =
Numerical number represents the number of coil. (a) β = 0 ; (b) β = 20 .20°.
◦

ItItcan
can be seen
seenininFigure
Figure2 that the the
2 that relative layouts
relative of theof
layouts EMF
thephasors used in one
EMF phasors used three-
in one
phase winding
three-phase set areset
winding identical for these
are identical fortwo angle
these twodisplacements. Thus, theThus,
angle displacements. distribution
the distri-
factorsfactors
bution of the 18of slot/14 pole PMSM
the 18 slot/14 with 0◦ with
pole PMSM and 20 ◦ angle displacements are both 0.945,
0° and 20° angle displacements are both
according to the coil EMF phasor diagram.
0.945, according to the coil EMF phasor diagram. Similarly, Similarly, it can be further deduced
it can be furtherthat when kthat
deduced
is
when odd, the
kPEER angle
is odd, the angle displacement between two sets of three-phase windings affect
displacement between two sets of three-phase windings does not does not
Energies 2021, 14,
thex FOR REVIEW factor. Furthermore, if k is odd, the distribution factor can be calculated as 6 of
distribution 46
affect the distribution factor. Furthermore, if k is odd, the distribution factor can be calcu-
lated as



sin π6 sin π6
Kd = π =

  , k is odd. (1)
k sin 6k
Ns
sin π
Ns
𝐾 6= = , 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. (1)
When k is even, the angle displacement can be and For example, in 0◦ , 60◦ /k 30◦ .
When k is even, the angle displacement can be 0°, 60°/k and 30°. For example, in a 24
a 24 slot/14 pole PMSM, 0◦ , 15◦ , and 30◦ displacements are feasible. The EMF phasor
slot/14 pole PMSM, 0°, 15°, and 30° displacements are feasible. The EMF phasor diagrams
diagrams of the machine with these angle displacements are shown in Figure 3.
of the machine with these angle displacements are shown in Figure 3.

12 5 22 12 5 22 12 5 22
19 15 19 15 19 15
2 8 A1 2 8 2 8 A2
A2
Coil 9 1 9 1 9 1
16 18 16 18 A1 16 18
A1
EMF 23
15deg.
11
A2
23
15deg.
11 23
15deg.
11
A1 A1
6 4 A1 6 4 6 4
phasor 13 21 13 21 13 21
A2
diagram A2 20
3 7
14 20
3 7
14 A2 20
3 7
14
10 17 24 10 17 24 10 17 24

B2 B1 B1
B1 2, 19, 21', 4' 9, 19, 7', 21' 2, 19, 7', 14'
B2
9, 16, 7', 14' A2 A2
2, 16, 14', 4'
8, 18, 6', 20' B2 1, 8, 13', 20'
A2 9, 16, 21', 4'
Phase 0deg. 11, 18, 13', 20' 15deg. A1
30deg.
1, 11, 23', 13' A1
A1
coils 1, 8, 6', 23'
11, 18, 23', 6'

C2 C1
3, 10, 5', 12' 3, 17, 5', 15'
C1 C2 C1 C2
17, 24, 15', 22' 10, 24, 12', 22' 3, 10, 22', 15' 17, 24, 12', 5'

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. EMF phasor diagrams of 24 slot/14 pole DTP PMSMs with different angle displacements. (a) β = 0°; (b) β = 15°;
Figure 3. EMF phasor diagrams of 24 slot/14 pole DTP PMSMs with different angle displacements.
(c) β = 30°.
(a) β = 0◦ ; (b) β = 15◦ ; (c) β = 30◦ .
Comparing the coil EMF phasor diagrams in Figures 2 and 3, it can be observed that
the layouts of the coil EMF phasors utilized in one winding set in a 24 slot/14 pole DTP
PMSM are very different with different angle displacements. According to Figure 3, the
distribution factors of the machine with 0°, 15°, and 30° angle displacements can be com-
puted as 0.958, 0.966, and 0.991, respectively. Based on the analyses above, it could be
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 6 of 46

Comparing the coil EMF phasor diagrams in Figures 2 and 3, it can be observed
that the layouts of the coil EMF phasors utilized in one winding set in a 24 slot/14 pole
DTP PMSM are very different with different angle displacements. According to Figure 3,
the distribution factors of the machine with 0◦ , 15◦ , and 30◦ angle displacements can be
computed as 0.958, 0.966, and 0.991, respectively. Based on the analyses above, it could
be inferred that for the Ns -slot (Ns = 6 k, k is even) DTP PMSMs with β = 0◦ , β = 60◦ /k
and β = 30◦ , the numbers of EMF phasors used in the distribution factor calculation are
k, k/2, and k/2, respectively, and the angles between the phasors are 60◦ /k, 120◦ /k, and
60◦ /k, respectively. Overall, the distribution factor calculation in this condition can be
summarized as
sin( π6 ) 6 sin( π6 )

◦
 = , β=0
k sin( 6k )
π Ns sin( Nπs )





(6) 12 sin( π6 ) ◦
 sin π
60
Kd = k sin π = 2π , β = k , k is even. (2)

 2 ( 3k ) N s sin ( Ns )

 ksin( 12π) = 12 sin( 12π ) , β = 30◦

 π π

2 sin( 6k ) Ns sin( Ns )

From Equation (2), it can be deduced that for the 24 slot/14 pole DTP PMSM, when k is
even, Kd (β = 0◦ ) = cos(π/6 k) × Kd (β = 60◦ /k) = cos(π/12) × Kd (β = 30◦ ). Thus, Kd (β = 30◦ )
is higher than Kd (β = 0◦ ) by about 3.53%. In DTP PMSMs with a 30◦ angle displacement,
the superiority in distribution factors over the counterparts with 0◦ angle displacement
contributes to higher fundamental EMF and larger output torque. In accordance with
Equations (1) and (2), the distribution factors of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole
number combinations considering different angle displacements are provided in Table 3.
Table 3. Distribution factors (Kd ) of DTP PMSMs with different slot numbers considering different
angle displacements.

Ns Angle Displacement, β (◦ ) Distribution Factor, Kd

6 0 1
0 0.966
12
30 1
18 0/20 0.960
0 0.958
24 15 0.968
30 0.991
30 0/12 0.957
0 0.956
36 10 0.960
30 0.990

In DTP PMSMs, the calculation of the pitch factor is the same as that in single-three-
phase PMSMs. It is well known that a pitch factor can be calculated by the angle difference
between the pole-pitch and coil-pitch, which can be determined by the slot/pole number
combination and the coil pitch number, y. The diagram of the pole-pitch and coil-pitch in
PMSMs is shown in Figure 4. Accordingly, the pitch factor for the v-th harmonic is
 
2π 2πy
−
 = cos v Ns − 2py π ,
 
2p Ns
K p−v = cosv (3)
2 2Ns p

where y is the coil pitch in terms of the number of slot pitches.

 𝐾 = cos 𝑣 =

Energies 2021, 14, 7508 7 of 46

where y is the coil pitch in terms of the number o

2πy/Ns

2π/2p
Figure 4. Diagram of pole−pitch and coil−pitch in PMSMs.
Figure 4. Diagram of pole−pitch and coil−pitch in PM
Since the working harmonic is the p-th harmonic in Ns -slot/2p-pole DTP PMSMs, the
pitch factor of the working harmonic is

Since the working harmonic is the p-th harm

Ns − 2py Ns − 2py
   
K p = cos p π = cos π . (4)
2Ns p 2Ns
pitch factor of the working harmonic is
With Equation (4), the pitch factors of DTP PM machines with different slot/pole
number combinations considering coil pitch numbers varying from 1 to 4 are shown in
Table 4. In Table 4, the high pitch factors (>0.866) are marked with a pink background
𝐾 = cos 𝑝
color. It should be mentioned that some values are 0 in Table 4, because the feasibility 𝜋
of DTP winding configurations are not considered in the calculation. It is necessary to
double-check whether the slot/pole and coil pitch number combinations are feasible before
With Equation (4), the pitch factors of DT
utilizing them.
Table 4. Pitch factors (Kp ) of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations and coil pitch number.
number combinations y=1
considering coil pitch nu
Ns
2p
2 4 Table
6 8 4.10 In12 Table
14 164, the
18 high22 pitch
20 24 26factors
28 30 (>0.86
6
12
0.500
0.259
0.866
0.500
color. It should be mentioned that some values a
1.000 0.866 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.866 1.000
0.707 0.866 0.966 1.000 0.966 0.866 0.707 0.500 0.259 0.000 0.259 0.500 0.707
18 0.174 0.342 0.500 0.643 0.766 0.866 0.940 0.985 1.000 0.985 0.940 0.866 0.766 0.643 0.500
24 0.131 0.259 DTP
0.383 0.500winding configurations
0.609 0.707 0.793 0.866 0.924 0.966 0.991are1.000 not
0.991 considered
0.966 0.924
30 0.105 0.208 0.309 0.407 0.500 0.588 0.669 0.743 0.809 0.866 0.914 0.951 0.978 0.995 1.000
36 0.087 0.174 ble-check
0.259 whether
0.342 0.423 0.500 0.574 0.643 the
0.707 slot/pole
0.766 0.819 0.866and
0.906 coil pitch n
0.940 0.966
y=2
2p
2 4
utilizing
6 8 10
them.
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns
6 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000
12 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.866 1.000
18 0.342 0.643 0.866 0.985 0.985 0.866 0.643 0.342 0.000 0.342 0.643 0.866 0.985 0.985 0.866
24 0.259 0.500 0.707 0.866 0.966 1.000 0.966 0.866 0.707 0.500 0.259 0.000 0.259 0.500 0.707
30 0.208 0.407 0.588 0.743 0.866 0.951 0.995 0.995 0.951 0.866 0.743 0.588 0.407 0.208 0.000
36 0.174 0.342 0.500 0.643 0.766 0.866 0.940 0.985 1.000 0.985 0.940 0.866 0.766 0.643 0.500
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 8 of 46

Table 4. Cont.

y=3
2p
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns
6 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 1.000
12 0.707 1.000 0.707 0.000 0.707 1.000 0.707 0.000 0.707 1.000 0.707 0.000 0.707 1.000 0.707
18 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.866 1.000
24 0.383 0.707 0.924 1.000 0.924 0.707 0.383 0.000 0.383 0.707 0.924 1.000 0.924 0.707 0.383
30 0.309 0.588 0.809 0.951 1.000 0.951 0.809 0.588 0.309 0.000 0.309 0.588 0.809 0.951 1.000
36 0.259 0.500 0.707 0.866 0.966 1.000 0.966 0.866 0.707 0.500 0.259 0.000 0.259 0.500 0.707
y=4
2p
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns
6 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000
12 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000 0.866 0.866 0.000
18 0.643 0.985 0.866 0.342 0.342 0.866 0.985 0.643 0.000 0.643 0.985 0.866 0.342 0.342 0.866
24 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.866 1.000
30 0.407 0.743 0.951 0.995 0.866 0.588 0.208 0.208 0.588 0.866 0.995 0.951 0.743 0.407 0.000
36 0.342 0.643 0.866 0.985 0.985 0.866 0.643 0.342 0.000 0.342 0.643 0.866 0.985 0.985 0.866
1. High pitch factors (>0.866)
Note 2. Pitch factor = 0 suggests unfeasible winding configuration.
3. The feasibility of the specific slot/pole and pitch number combination is determined in Tables 2 and 4.

In addition to the calculated results shown in Table 4, the pitch factors in some
slot/pole number combinations can be further improved with other coil pitch numbers.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEERFor example, in a 12 slot/2 pole PMSM, the pitch factor is 1 with y = 6. Overall,
REVIEW the
9 of 46
pitch factors (Kp ) of DTP PM machines with different slot/pole number combinations and
optimized coil pitch numbers are summarized in Table 5.
Table 5. Pitch factors (Kp) of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations and optimized coil pitch numbers.
Table 5. Pitch factors (Kp ) of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations and optimized coil pitch numbers.
2p
2p 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns
6 1.000 0.866 ** 0.866 1.000 ** 1.000 0.866 ** 0.866 1.000 ** 1.000 0.866 **
6 1.000 0.866 ** 0.866 1.000 ** 1.000 0.866 ** 0.866 1.000 ** 1.000 0.866 **
12 1.000 1.000 ** 0.866 0.966 ** 0.966 0.866 ** 1.000 0.866 ** 0.866 1.000 **
12 1.000 1.000 ** 0.866 0.966 ** 0.966 0.866 ** 1.000 0.866 ** 0.866 1.000 **
18 18 1.000
1.000 0.985 1.000
0.985 1.000 0.985
0.985 0.985 0.866
0.985 0.866 0.985
0.985 0.985
0.985 **
** 0.985
0.985 0.985
0.985 0.866
0.866 0.985
0.985 0.985
0.985 1.000
1.000
24 24 1.000
1.000 1.000 ****
1.000 1.000
1.000 0.966 ****
0.966 0.966
0.966 0.866
0.866 **
** 0.966
0.966 0.991
0.991 **** 0.991
0.991 0.966
0.966 ****
30 30 1.000
1.000 0.995 ****
0.995 0.995
0.995 1.000 ****
1.000 0.995
0.995 0.995
0.995 **
** 0.866
0.866 0.995
0.995 **** 0.978
0.978 0.995
0.995 ****
36 36 1.000
1.000 1.000 1.000
1.000 1.000 0.985
0.985 0.985 1.000
0.985 1.000 0.966
0.966 0.985 ** 0.985
0.985 0.940
0.940 0.866
0.866 0.985
0.985 0.985
0.985 0.966
0.966

Note Note

** Unfeasible slot/pole combinations for DTP PMSMs.

** Unfeasible slot/pole combinations for DTP PMSMs.

To achieve
To achieve thefactors
the pitch pitch factors in5,Table
in Table 5, the corresponding
the corresponding coil numbers
coil pitch pitch numbers are
are shown
shown
in Table 6. in Table 6.

Table 6. Optimized coil pitch number of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations.

2p
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns
6 3 1 ** 1 3 ** 3 1 ** 1 3 ** 3 1 **
12 6 3 ** 1 1 ** 1 1 ** 3 4 ** 4 3 **
18 9 4 3 2 2 1 4 1 ** 1 4 1 2 2 3
24 12 6 ** 3 2 ** 2 1 ** 1 1 ** 1 1 **
30 15 7 ** 4 3 ** 2 2 ** 1 4 ** 8 1 **
36 18 9 6 4 4 3 3 2 ** 2 2 1 4 4 1
Note
** Unfeasible slot/pole combinations for DTP PMSMs.

In Table 6, the cells using the same coil pitch number are marked with the same back-
ground color. However, it should be noted that the coil pitch numbers shown in Table 6
 24 1.000 1.000 ** 1.000 0.966 ** 0.966 0.866 ** 0.966 0.991 ** 0.991 0.966 **
30 1.000 0.995 ** 0.995 1.000 ** 0.995 0.995 ** 0.866 0.995 ** 0.978 0.995 **
36 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.985 0.985 1.000 0.966 0.985 ** 0.985 0.940 0.866 0.985 0.985 0.966

Note
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 ** Unfeasible slot/pole combinations for DTP PMSMs.
9 of 46

To achieve the pitch factors in Table 5, the corresponding coil pitch numbers are
shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Optimized coil pitch number of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations.
Table 6. Optimized coil pitch number of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations.

2p 2p
2 24 4 6 6 8 8 1010 12
12 14
14 16 16 18 18 2020 22 22 24 2426 2628 30
28 30
Nss
N
6 6 3 31 1 ** ** 1 1 3 3 **
** 33 1 1 ** ** 1 1 3 3 ** ** 3 31 **1 **
12 12 6 63 3 ** ** 1 1 1 1 **
** 11 1 1 ** ** 3 3 4 4 ** ** 4 43 **3 **
18 18 9 94 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 11 44 1 1 ** ** 1 1 4 4 1 1 2 22 32 3
24 24 12 12 6 6 ** ** 3 3 2 2 **
** 22 1 1 ** ** 1 1 1 1 ** ** 1 11 **1 **
30 30 15 15 7 7 ** ** 4 4 3 3 **
** 22 2 2 ** ** 1 1 4 4 ** ** 8 81 **1 **
36 36 18 18 9 9 6 6 4 4 4 4 33 33 2 2 ** ** 2 2 2 2 1 1 4 44 14 1
Note
Note
** Unfeasible
** Unfeasible slot/pole combinations slot/pole combinations for DTP PMSMs.
for DTP PMSMs.

In Table 6, the cells using the

In Table same
6, the cells coil
usingpitch
the samenumber
coil pitchare marked
number withwith
are marked thethesame
same back-
background color. However, it should be noted that the coil pitch numbers shown in
ground color. However, it should be noted that the coil pitch numbers shown inTable 6
were chosen to enhance the pitch factor only. In practice, it is preferable to use a lower coil
Table 6 were chosen to enhance the pitch factor only. In practice, it is preferable to use a
pitch number, especially 1, because a lower coil pitch number means a shorter end-wind-
lower coil pitch number, ingespecially
length. When 1,ybecause a lower
= 1, the tooth coil pitchwindings
coil concentrated number canmeans a shorter
be utilized to significantly
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
end-winding length. When y = 1, the
ease fabrication. tooth
Hence, it iscoil concentrated
necessary to considerwindings can be
coil pitch number 10 of 46in the
utilized
thoughtfully
design of DTPHence,
to significantly ease fabrication. PMSMs. According to the distribution
it is necessary to consider factors andpitch
coil pitch factors
number calculated
thoughtfully in the design above,oftheDTP
winding factors ofAccording
PMSMs. DTP PMSM with to thedifferent slot/pole number
distribution factorscombinations
and
and different angle displacements are summarized in Table 7.
Table 7. Winding factors pitch(Kfactors calculated
w) of DTP PMSMs withabove, the slot/pole
different windingnumberfactorscombinations
of DTP PMSM with different
and different slot/pole
angle displace-
ments. number combinations and different angle displacements are summarized in Table 7.
Table 2p
7. Winding factors (Kw ) of DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations and different angle displacements.
β (°) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns
2p
6 β
0 1.000 0.866 **6 0.866 1.000 ** 1.000 0.866
2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18** 0.866
20 1.000 24**
22 1.000
26 280.866 30 **
Ns (◦ )
12 0 0.966 ++ ** ++ 0.933 ** 0.933 ++ ** ++ 0.837 ** 0.837 ++ **
6 0 1.000 0.866 ** 0.866 1.000 ** 1.000 0.866 ** 0.866 1.000 ** 1.000 0.866 **
12 30
0 1.000
0.966 ++
++ **
** ++++ 0.966
0.933 **
** 0.933 ++++
0.966 ** ** ++
++ 0.866
0.837 **** 0.866
0.837 ++ ++ ** **
18 0/20
30 0.960
1.000 0.945
++ ** 0.945
++ 0.945
0.966 ++
** 0.945 ++
0.966 0.945 ** ** 0.945
++ 0.945
0.866 **++ 0.945
0.866 ++0.945 ** ++
18 24 0
0/20 0.958
0.960 ++
0.945 ** ++
0.945 0.925
0.945 **
++ 0.925 0.945
0.945 ++ ** ** ++
0.945 0.949
0.945 ++** 0.949
0.945 0.945++ ++ **
24 0
15 0.958
0.966 ++
++ **
** ++++ 0.925
0.933 **
** 0.925
0.933 ++++ ** ** ++
++ 0.949
0.958 **** 0.949
0.958 ++ ++ ** **
15
30 0.966
0.991 ++
++ **
** ++++ 0.933
0.958 **
** 0.933
0.958 ++++ ** ** ++
++ 0.958
0.983 **** 0.958
0.983 ++ ++ ** **
30 30
0/12 0.991
0.957 ++ ** ++
0.951 ** 0.951 0.958
+ **
** 0.958
0.951 ++0.951 ** ** ++
++ 0.983
0.951 **** 0.983
0.951 ++0.951 ** **
30 0/12 0.957 0.951 ** 0.951 + ** 0.951 0.951 ** ++ 0.951 ** 0.951 0.951 **
36 0 0.956 ++ ++ ++ 0.942 ++ 0.924 ++ ** ++ 0.898 ++ 0.867 ++ ++
36 0 0.956 ++ ++ ++ 0.942 ++ 0.924 ++ ** ++ 0.898 ++ 0.867 ++ ++
10
10
0.960
0.960
++
++
++
++
++++
0.945
0.945
++
++
0.927
0.927 ++
++ **
** ++
++
0.902
0.902 ++
++ 0.870
0.870 ++
++ ++
++
30
30 0.990
0.990 ++
++ ++
++ ++++ 0.975
0.975 ++
++ 0.956 ++++
0.956 ** ** ++
++ 0.930
0.930 ++++ 0.897
0.897 ++ ++ ++++

NoteNote

** Unfeasible
** Unfeasible slot/pole
slot/pole combinations
combinations forPMSMs.
for DTP DTP PMSMs. ++Refer
++Refer to its
to its unit unit machine.
machine.

ComparedCompared with [46]

withwhere the winding
[46] where the windingfactors onlyonly
factors a 0◦a angle
taketake displacement
0° angle displacement into
into
consideration, the winding
consideration, factorsfactors
the winding shownshownconsidered variousvarious
considered possiblepossible
angle displacements.
angle displace-
Moreover,
ments.theMoreover,
pitch factors can befactors
the pitch furthercan improved
be furtherwith the optimized
improved with thecoil pitch numbers
optimized coil pitch
(as shown
numbersin Tables 4 andin5)Tables
(as shown in some slot/pole
4 and number
5) in some combinations.
slot/pole Thus, the winding
number combinations. Thus, the
factorswinding
can alsofactors can alsoinbethese
be increased increased in these
slot/pole slot/pole
number number combinations.
combinations. For instance,Forthein-
windingstance, thefor
factor winding factor for
a 36 slot/10 a 36DTP
pole slot/10
PMSMpole with a 0◦ angle
DTP PMSM withdisplacement
a 0° angle displacement
is 0.924
(y = 3),iswhile
0.924 (y = 3),be
it can while it can be
improved toimproved
0.942 withtoy0.942
= 4. with y = 4.
BasedBasedon the onanalyses
the analyses above,
above, thethe topologies
topologies ofofthe
theDTP
DTPPMSMs
PMSMs proposed
proposedand/or
and/or an-
alyzed in existing research are summarized in Table 8. The angle
analyzed in existing research are summarized in Table 8. The angle displacements and coil displacements and coil
pitch numbers
pitch numbers in these
in these machines
machines are also
are also provided
provided in Table
in Table 8. The
8. The blank
blank cells
cells inin Table8 8
Table
suggest more feasible topologies
suggest more feasible topologies in this area. in this area.

Table 8. Various DTP PMSM topologies in existing research.

2p
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns
6 ** ** ** ** **
β=0°/30°, y=1, [27]
12 ** ** ** ** **
β=0°/30°, y=1, [29]
β=0°/20°, y=2, β=0°/20°, y=1,
 winding factors can also be increased in these slot/pole number combinations. For in-
stance, the winding factor for a 36 slot/10 pole DTP PMSM with a 0° angle displacement
is 0.924 (y = 3), while it can be improved to 0.942 with y = 4.
Based on the analyses above, the topologies of the DTP PMSMs proposed and/or an-
alyzed in existing research are summarized in Table 8. The angle displacements and coil
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 10 of846
pitch numbers in these machines are also provided in Table 8. The blank cells in Table
suggest more feasible topologies in this area.

Table 8. Various DTP PMSM topologies in existing research.

Table 8. Various DTP PMSM topologies in existing research.
2p
2p 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ns
6 6 ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ****
β = 0◦ /30y=1,
β=0°/30°, ◦,
[27]
12 ** y = 1, [27] ** ** ** **
12 ** β=0°/30°,
◦ y=1,
◦ [29]
** ** ** **
β = 0 /30 ,
β=0°/20°, y=2, y = 1, [29] β=0°/20°, y=1,
18 **
= 0◦ /20◦ ,
β[31] β = 0◦ /20◦ , [33]
18 **
y = 2, [31] y = 1, [33]
β=0°/30°,
◦ y=2,
◦ [30] ◦β=0°/30°,
◦ y=2,
β = 0 /30 , β = 0 /30 , β=0°/15°/30°,
24 ** β=0°/15°/30°,
y = 2, [30] y=2, **
y = 2, [43] [43] ** β = 0◦ /15◦ /30◦ , ** **
24 ** ** ** y=1, [47] ** **
β=0◦ /15 ◦ /30◦ ,
[46] 30◦ , y=1, [45]
β =β=30°, y = 1, [47]
y = 2, [46] y = 1, [45]
30 ** ** ** ** **
30 ** ** ** ** **
36 36 ** **

Note
Note

****Unfeasible
Unfeasibleslot/pole
slot/polecombinations
combinations
forfor
DTPDTP PMSMs.
PMSMs.

3. Modelling of MTP PMSMs

The modelling of MTP PMSMs can be divided into two categories: multiple individual
three-phase models [54–61] and vector space decomposition (VSD) models [62–67]. The
former considers the machine as multiple single-three-phase submachines, and the model is
straightforwardly derived from the synchronous dq-axis model of the three-phase machine.
The VSD model uses a mathematical transformation to separate the variables of different
orders into multiple orthogonal subspaces. In this context, it is convenient to formulate the
machine model by using a set of decoupled subspaces. The advantages and disadvantages
of the two modelling approaches are summarized in Table 9.
Table 9. Modelling of MTP PMSMs.

Modelling Methods Multiple Individual Three-Phase VSD

1. Decoupled and simpler models in several subspaces.
1. Straightforward.
Advantages 2. Simpler controller design.
2. Modular modeling and control of each three-phase set.
3. Easier to regulate the harmonics in control strategy.
1. Additional coupling among sets. 1. Less capable of dealing with the unbalance issues due to
Disadvantages 2. Complexity of model and control increases as number of asymmetry among the sets.
sets increases. 2. More complex to achieve active power/torque sharing.

3.1. Multiple Individual Three-Phase PMSM Model

Multiphase PMSMs are composed of multiple individual three-phase sets, and thus
the model of MTP PMSMs can be considered as the sum of the models of all three-phase
machines with extra coupling voltage terms. For each three-phase set, the machine model
in a synchronous dq frame is conducted. In particular, the two individual three-phase
model of a DTP PMSM is shown in Figure 5.
 Multiphase PMSMs are composed of multiple individual three-phase sets, a
the model of MTP PMSMs can be considered as the sum of the models of all thre
machines with extra coupling voltage terms. For each three-phase set, the machine
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 in a synchronous dq frame is conducted. In particular, the two individual
11 of 46 thre
model of a DTP PMSM is shown in Figure 5.

q− axis
-

uq2
Lq
+
iq2
-

uq1
Mq Lq
+ d− axis
iq1 Md

Ld
-
N Ld id2 ud2
+
-
S id1 ud1
+

Figure
Figure 5.5.Two
Two individual
individual threethree−phase
−phase modelsmodels of DTPinPMSMs
of DTP PMSMs in dq−axis frame.
dq−axis frame.

The corresponding voltage equations are as follows [58]:


The corresponding

voltage

equations
 
are as follows

[58]:
  
ud1 Rs + L s − ωe Lq i M s − ω e Mq id2 0
uq1
= 𝑢 ωe L d 𝑅Rs +
+ L𝐿q s 𝑠 −𝜔 +𝐿 ωe M
d1
iq1
d
𝑖d Mq s𝑀 𝑠 iq2−𝜔 𝑀 ωe ψ𝑖f d
+ (5) 0
=
d
+ +
  𝑢 𝜔 𝐿  𝑅 +  𝐿 𝑠 𝑖 𝜔 𝑀 𝑀 𝑠 𝑖  𝜔𝜓
ud2 Rs + Ld s − ωe Lq id2 Md s − ω e Mq id1 0
= + + (6)
uq2 ωe Ld Rs + Lq s iq2 ω e Md Mq s iq1 ωe ψ f d
𝑢 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑠 −𝜔 𝐿 𝑖 𝑀 𝑠 −𝜔 𝑀 𝑖 0
𝑢 =
where Rs is the stator resistance, + and ψ f d is the PM flux
ωe is the electrical angular speed,
𝑖 𝑖 + 𝜔𝜓
linkage;
𝜔 𝐿 𝑅 d1
+ 𝐿 q1
𝑠 d1
𝜔 𝑀 q1
𝑀 𝑠
s represents the derivative; u , u , i , and i represent the dq-axis voltages and currents of the
first winding set, and ud2 , uq2 , id2 , and iq2 represent the voltages and currents of the second winding
set. The values Ld and Lq are the dq-axis inductances. The values Md and Mq are the dq-axis
mutual inductances, which denote the magnetized coupling between the two winding sets. The
electromagnetic torque in the multiple individual three-phase model can be expressed as

3 h




i
Te = p ψ f d iq1 + iq2 + Ld − Lq id1 iq1 + id2 iq2 + Md − Mq id1 iq2 + id2 iq1 (7)
2
and the inductances are:
L d = Md + L σ
(8)
L q = Mq + L σ
where Lσ is the leakage inductance.

3.2. VSD Machine Model

The vector space decomposition (VSD) approach [62] is prevailing in the modeling of multiphase
machines because the complex high-order electromagnetic system can be clearly simplified as two-
order subsystems in many decomposed subspaces, which makes it easy to achieve independent
current regulation in these decoupled subspaces. The VSD transformation for the DTP machine is
given by:

FA1
 
√ √
Fα 1 −√1/2 −1/2 3/2 − 3/2 0
   
√

 FB1 

 Fβ  1 0 − 3/2 3/2 1/2 1/2 −1  FC1 
 Fz  = 3 
     (9)
1 1 −√1/2 −
√ 1/2 −1 √1/2 1/2 
√  FA2 

Fz2 0 − 3/2 3/2 0 3/2 − 3/2  FB2 
FC2

where F can be the voltage, current, or flux linkage. The voltage and current can be decomposed into
the αβ and z1 z2 subspaces by using (9). The fundamental component and the harmonics with order of
m = 12n ± 1 (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), i.e., m = 11, 13, 23, 25, etc., are mapped in the αβ subspace and the mth
values are mapped in the z1 z2 subspace, where m = 6n ± 1 (n = 1, 3, 5, . . .), i.e., m = 5, 7, 17, 19, etc.
 Energies 2021, 14, 7508 12 of 46

(see Figures 6 and 7). After the VSD transformation, the DTP PMSM can be described by the
following models:
uαβ = Rs iαβ + sψαβ (10)
ψαβ = Lsαβ iαβ + ψ f e jθe (11)
uz1 z2 = Rs iz1 z2 + sψz1 z2 (12)
ψz1 z2 = Lσ iz1 z2 (13)
 
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 46
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Te = 3P ψα i β − ψβ iα 13 of 46 (14)

where u, i, and ψ are the voltage, current, and flux linkage. The value ψ f is the PM flux linkage. The
value θe is the electrical rotor angle.

Rs Ls Ls Rs L Lσ
Rs Rs σ

uz1z2 uz1z2
uαβ uαβ eαβ eαβ

iαβ iαβ iz1z2 iz1z2

β z2 z2
β
F1
F13, 25,F...13, 25, ...
F1 F7, 19, F
...
7, 19, ...

F11, 23,F...11, 23, ... F5, 17, F

...
5, 17, ...

α α z1 z1
(a) (a) (b) (b)
FigureFigure
Figure
6. Equivalent
6. Equivalent
6. Equivalent
circuits
circuits and definition
and definition
circuits
of in
of axes
and definition
axes
VSD
of axes
in model
VSD model of PMSM.
of DTP
in VSD model
DTP PMSM.
(a) αβ(a)
of DTP PMSM.
αβ subspace.
subspace.
(a) αβ subspace.
(b)
(b) z1z2(b)z1z2 subspace.
subspace.
z z subspace.
1 2

(a) (a) (b) (b) (c) (c)

FigureFigure
Figure 7.
7.Currents
Currents
7. Currents and
and spectra
and spectra spectra of
of a typical
of a typical DTP PMSM
DTP PMSM (24−slot/10−pole).
(24 −slot/10−Top:
(24−slot/10−pole). pole).Top:
Top:phase
phase phasecurrents;
currents;
currents; bottom:
bottom:bottom:spectra.
spectra.
spectra. (a)
(a)Phases,
(a) Phases,Phases,
(b)
(b) αβ subspace,
subspace, (c)
(c) z1z2
z z
(b) αβ subspace, (c) z1z2 subspace.
αβ 1 2
subspace.
subspace.

4. Electromagnetic
4. Electromagnetic Performance
Performance Analysis
Analysis underunder Healthy
Healthy and Open-Circuit
and Open-Circuit Conditions
Conditions
According
According to thetoanalyses
the analyses presented
presented above,
above, a 24 slot/10
a 24 slot/10 pole PMSM
pole PMSM and aand a 24 slot/22
24 slot/22
pole PMSM can be equipped with DTP windings with 0°, 15°,
pole PMSM can be equipped with DTP windings with 0°, 15°, and 30° angle displace- and 30° angle displace-
ments, respectively [46,47]. The coil EMF phasors and the winding arrangements of theof the
ments, respectively [46,47]. The coil EMF phasors and the winding arrangements
two machines
two machines with with different
different winding
winding configurations
configurations are shown
are shown in Figures
in Figures 8 and8 9.
andIt 9. It
should be mentioned that the coil pitch numbers in the two machines are 2 and 1 in orderorder
should be mentioned that the coil pitch numbers in the two machines are 2 and 1 in
to obtain
to obtain high high winding
winding factors,
factors, respectively.
respectively. The winding
The winding connections
connections of Phase
of Phase A in Athein the
machines with different configurations are summarized
machines with different configurations are summarized in Table 10. in Table 10.
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 13 of 46

Figure 6 shows the equivalent circuits in two subspaces and the definition of the axes.
The value eαβ represents the back-EMF mapped in the αβ subspace. It should be noted
that the energy conversion occurs in the αβ subspace, and the electromagnetic torque is
only relevant to the variables in this subspace. Unlike those in the single three-phase
machine, the current harmonics mapped in z1 z2 subspace are limited by the resistance and
leakage inductance, which are usually small. This causes serious current harmonics in this
subspace, as the 5th and 7th values shown in Figure 7.

4. Electromagnetic Performance Analysis under Healthy and Open-Circuit Conditions

According to the analyses presented above, a 24 slot/10 pole PMSM and a 24 slot/22 pole
PMSM can be equipped with DTP windings with 0◦ , 15◦ , and 30◦ angle displacements,
respectively [46,47]. The coil EMF phasors and the winding arrangements of the two
machines with different winding configurations are shown in Figures 8 and 9. It should be
mentioned that the coil pitch numbers in the two machines are 2 and 1 in order to obtain
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWhigh winding factors, respectively. The winding connections of Phase A in the machines
14 of 46
with different configurations are summarized in Table 10.

2 21 16 2 21 16 2 21 16 2 21 16
7 11 7 11 7 11 7 11
12 6 A1 12 6 12 6 A2 12 6
A2
17 1 17 1 17 1 17 1 A
Coil EMF 22 20
A2
22
15deg.
20 A1 22
15deg.
20
A1
22 20
15deg. 15deg.
3 15 3 15 3 15 3 15
phasor di- A1 A1
8 10 8 10
8 10 A1 8 10
agram 13 5 13 5 13 5 A 13 5
A2 A2
A2 18 24 18 24 18 24 18 24
23 19 23 19 23 19 23 19
4 9 14 4 9 14 4 9 14 4 9 14

B2 B1 B1 B
B1 19, 17, 18', 20' 7, 17, 19', 5' 7, 12, 19', 24' 7, 12, 17, 22
B2
17, 22, 19', 24' A2 A2 19', 24', 5', 10'
12, 22, 24', 10'
6, 20, 8', 18' B2 1, 6, 13', 18'
A2 17, 22, 5', 10'
Phase 0deg. 20, 15, 13', 18' 15deg. A1
30deg.
A1 A
A1 1, 15, 3', 13' 20, 15, 3', 8' 6, 1, 20, 15
coils 1, 6, 3', 8' 3', 8', 13', 18'
C2 C1
4, 23, 2', 21' 23, 9, 11', 21' C
C1 C2 C1 C2 23, 4, 9, 14
9, 14, 11', 16' 4, 14, 2', 16' 4, 23, 11', 16' 9, 14, 2', 21' 2', 21', 16', 11

A1+ A2+ A2+ A+

A1- A2- A1- A-

A1- A1- A1- A-

Winding
A1+ A1+ A2+ A+
arrange- A2- A1- A2- A-

ment
A2+ A1- A1- A+

A2+ A2- A1- A+

A2- A2- A2- A-

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure 8. Two
8. Two slot-pitch
slot-pitch winding
winding arrangementsand
arrangements andEMF
EMFphasor
phasordiagrams
diagrams for for 24
24 slot/10
slot/10pole
poleDTP
DTPPMSMs
PMSMswith
withdifferent
different
angle displacements [46]. (a) DTP, β = ◦0°; (b) DTP, β = 15°;
◦ (c) DTP, β = 30°;◦ (d) single three-phase.
angle displacements [46]. (a) DTP, β = 0 ; (b) DTP, β = 15 ; (c) DTP, β = 30 ; (d) single three-phase.
21 10 23 21 10 23 21 10 23 21 10 23
8 12 10. Phase A coil8 connections
Table 12 in DTP PMSMs.
8 12 8 12
19 1 19 1 19 1 A2 19 1
A2 A2
6 14 6 14 6 14 6 A 14
Machines Angle Displacement, β 17 Coil Connection3 (A1) Coil Connection3 (A2)
Coil EMF 17 3 A1 17 3 A1
A1
17

0◦ 16 1-30 -6-80 16 130 -15-180 -20

15deg. 15deg. 15deg. 15deg.
4 16 4 4 4 16
phasor di- 24 slot/10 pole15 A1
A2 15 5 A2 15◦ 5 15
1-30 -130 -155 15
6-80 -180 -205
agram 2 2 slot-pitch
18 coils 2 18 2 18 A 2 18
A1
13 7
A1
13
30◦7 A2 13
30 -80 -15-20
7 13
1-6-130 -187
0
24 20 24 20 ◦ 24 20 24 20
11 22 9 11 22 9 0 11 22 9
14-16-13 0 -150 11 22 9
1-3-2 0 -40
24 slot/22 pole
B1 15◦ 14-16-20 -40 1-3-130 -150
B2 1 slot-pitch coil B1 B
B1
8, 6, 5', 7'
19, 17, 18', 20'
8, 6, 20', 18'
30◦ 0
8, 19, 7', 20' 1-14-2 -13
0 0
8, 19, 6, 173-16-4 -15
0
B2 A2
5', 18', 7', 20'
19, 17, 5', 7' A2 B2 1, 14, 2', 13'
A2 1, 3, 13', 15' 6, 17, 18', 5'
Phase 0deg. 1, 3, 4', 2'
15deg. A1 30deg.
A1 A
A1 3, 16, 4', 15'
1, 14, 3, 16
coils 16, 14, 15', 13' 16, 14, 4', 2'
4', 15', 2', 13'
C2
11, 9, 12', 10' C
C1 C1 C1 C2 24, 11, 22, 9
24, 22, 23', 21' C2 11, 24, 12', 23' 22, 9, 10', 21'
24, 22, 12', 10'
11, 9, 23', 21' 21', 10', 23', 12'

A2- A1- A1- A-

 arrange- A2- A1- A2- A-

ment
A2+ A1- A1- A+

A2+ A2- A1- A+

A2- A2- A2- A-

Energies 2021, 14, 7508 (a) (b) (c) (d) 14 of 46

Figure 8. Two slot-pitch winding arrangements and EMF phasor diagrams for 24 slot/10 pole DTP PMSMs with different
angle displacements [46]. (a) DTP, β = 0°; (b) DTP, β = 15°; (c) DTP, β = 30°; (d) single three-phase.

21 10 23 21 10 23 21 10 23 21 10 23
8 12 8 12 8 12 8 12
19 1 19 1 19 1 A2 19 1
A2 A2
6 14 6 14 6 14 6 14 A
Coil EMF 17 3 A1 17 3 A1 17 3 17 3
15deg. 15deg. 15deg.
A1 15deg.
4 16 4 16 4 16 4 16
phasor di- A1
15 5
A2 15 5 A2 15 5 15 5
agram 2 18 2 18 2 18 A 2 18
A1 A1
13 7 13 7 A2 13 7 13 7
24 20 24 20 24 20 24 20
11 22 9 11 22 9 11 22 9 11 22 9

B1
B2 B1 B
B1 8, 6, 20', 18'
19, 17, 18', 20' 8, 19, 7', 20' 8, 19, 6, 17
8, 6, 5', 7' 5', 18', 7', 20'
B2 A2
19, 17, 5', 7' A2 B2 1, 14, 2', 13'
A2 1, 3, 13', 15' 6, 17, 18', 5'
Phase 0deg. 1, 3, 4', 2'
15deg. A1 30deg.
A1 A
A1 3, 16, 4', 15'
1, 14, 3, 16
coils 16, 14, 15', 13' 16, 14, 4', 2'
4', 15', 2', 13'
C2
11, 9, 12', 10' C
C1 C1 C1 C2 24, 11, 22, 9
24, 22, 23', 21' C2 11, 24, 12', 23' 22, 9, 10', 21'
24, 22, 12', 10'
11, 9, 23', 21' 21', 10', 23', 12'

A2- A1- A1- A-

A2+ A2+ A1+ A+

Winding A2- A1- A2- A-

arrange- A1- A2+ A2- A2+ A2- A2+ A- A+

A1+ A1+ A2+ A+

ment
A1- A2- A1- A-

A1+ A1+ A1+ A+

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure 9. Single
9. Single tooth−coil
tooth −coil (1(1slot
slot−pitch
−pitchwinding)
winding)arrangements
arrangementsand EMF
and phasor
EMF diagrams
phasor for 24
diagrams forslot/22 pole single
24 slot/22 pole and
single
DTP PMSMs with different angle displacements [47]. (a) DTP, β = 0°; (b)◦ DTP, β = 15°; ◦(c) DTP, β = 30°; ◦(d) single
and DTP PMSMs with different angle displacements [47]. (a) DTP, β = 0 ; (b) DTP, β = 15 ; (c) DTP, β = 30 ; (d) single
three−phase.
three−phase.
With the winding arrangements shown in Figures 8 and 9 and Table 10, the winding
factors of the DTP PMSMs with different slot/pole number combinations, different angle
displacements, and different coil pitch numbers are given in Table 11.
Table 11. Winding factors of DTP PMSMs with different winding configurations.

Angle Displacement, β 0◦ 15◦ 30◦

24-slot/10-pole, y = 2
Kd 0.958 0.968 9.991
Kp 0.966 0.966 0.966
Kw 0.925 0.933 0.958
24-slot/22-pole, y = 1
Kd 0.958 0.968 9.991
Kp 0.991 0.991 0.991
Kw 0.949 0.958 0.980

From the winding factors of the fundamental components shown in Table 11, it can be
seen that 24 slot/22 pole machines feature higher winding factors than their 24 slot/10 pole
counterparts. Since the higher winding factor suggests higher fundamental back-EMF
components and average output torque, it is assumed that the 24 slot/22 pole DTP PMSM
features the highest output torque performance. Furthermore, among the same machines
with 0◦ , 15◦ , and 30◦ angle displacements, the 30◦ machine features the highest winding
factor and the 15◦ machine features a higher winding factor than the 0◦ machine.
To demonstrate the analyses of the winding factors in this section and to show the
electromagnetic performances of DTP PMSMs, the back-EMF and torque characteristics
of 24-slot/22-pole DTP PMSMs with tooth-coil (y = 1) and different angle displacements
under different conditions are also presented. For the DTP PMSMs with 0◦ , 15◦ , and
 EMF components and average output torque, it is assumed that the 24 slot/22 pole DTP
PMSM features the highest output torque performance. Furthermore, among the same
machines with 0°, 15°, and 30° angle displacements, the 30° machine features the highest
winding factor and the 15° machine features a higher winding factor than the 0° machine.
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 To demonstrate the analyses of the winding factors in this section and to show15the of 46
electromagnetic performances of DTP PMSMs, the back-EMF and torque characteristics
of 24-slot/22-pole DTP PMSMs with tooth-coil (y = 1) and different angle displacements
under different conditions are also presented. For the DTP PMSMs with 0°, 15°, and 30°
30◦ angle
angle displacements
displacements underunder healthy
healthy conditions,
conditions, the stator
the stator MMFsMMFs and spectra
and spectra of eachofcon-
each
condition are shown in Figure
dition are shown in Figure 10. 10.

2 1.0
0deg. 15deg. 30deg. 0deg.

Normalized MMF (p.u.)

0.8
1 15deg.

MMF (p.u.)
0.6 30deg.
0
0.4
-1 0.2

-2 0.0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Rotor position (mech. deg) Harmonics

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure10.10.
Stator MMF
Stator MMFdistributions
distributionsand thethe
and spectra forfor
spectra 24 slot/22 polepole
24 slot/22 DTPDTP
PMSMs withwith
PMSMs different
differ-
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW angle displacements underunder
healthy conditions. (a) Stator 16
of ofstator
46
ent angle displacements healthy conditions. (a) MMF
Statordistributions. (b) Spectra
MMF distributions. (b) Spectra of
MMFs.
stator MMFs.

It can
It can be seen
be seen thatthat
thethe amplitudes
amplitudes of the
of the working
working harmonics
harmonics (the(the
11th11th harmonics)
harmonics) areare
similar in the three machines, and the amplitudes of the different
similar in the three machines, and the amplitudes of the different angle displacements angle displacements
correspond
correspond to their
to their winding
winding factors.
factors. Although
Although thethe
MMFMMF distributions
distributions of the
of the three
three angle
angle
displacements
displacements looklook similar,
similar, theirtheir harmonic
harmonic contents
contents are different.
are different. The The
(12 k(12 k ± (k
±5)-th 5)-th (k is
is an
an integer)
integer) harmonics,
harmonics, i.e., thei.e.,
5th,the 5th,
7th, 7th,and
17th, 17th, andharmonics,
19th 19th harmonics, are eliminated
are eliminated in the
in the 30°
30◦displacement,
angle angle displacement,while the while
(24 the
k ± 1)-th ± is
(24 k (k 1)-th (k is an integer)
an integer) harmonics, harmonics, i.e.,23rd,
i.e., the 1st, the 1st,
23rd, and 25th harmonics for the 15 ◦ angle displacement are cancelled. The phase- and
and 25th harmonics for the 15° angle displacement are cancelled. The phase- and line-
line-back-EMFs
back-EMFs of the DTP of the DTP PMSMs
PMSMs with these with these
angle angle displacements
displacements can be obtained
can be obtained by using by
the finite element method; the values are presented in Figure 11a–c. The spectraspectra
using the finite element method; the values are presented in Figure 11a–c. The of the of
the phase- and line-back-EMFs are presented
phase- and line-back-EMFs are presented in Figure 11d. in Figure 11d.

50 50
A1 A2 A1 A2
25 A1B1 A2B2 25 A1B1 A2B2
Back-EMF (V)

Back-EMF (V)

0 0

-25 -25

-50 -50
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (Elec. degree) Rotor position (Elec. degree)

(a) (b)
50 40
A1 A2 A1-0deg A1-15deg
25 A1B1 A2B2 30
Back-EMF (V)

Back-EMF (V)

A1-30deg A1B1-0deg

0 20 A1B1-15deg A1B1-30deg

-25 10

-50 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 1 3 5 7 9 11
Rotor position (Elec. degree) Harmonics

(c) (d)
Figure 11. 11.
Figure Phase−and line−back−EMFs
Phase−and line−back−EMFs and spectra for the
and spectra for24−slot/22−pole
the 24−slot/22DTP
−polePMSMs with dif-
DTP PMSMs with
ferent angle displacements, 400 rpm. (a) β = 0°; (b) β◦= 15°; (c) β =
◦ 30°; (d)spectra.
◦
different angle displacements, 400 rpm. (a) β = 0 ; (b) β = 15 ; (c) β = 30 ; (d)spectra.

As Asshown in Figure
shown 11, the
in Figure 11, displacements
the displacementsbetween the phase-
between and line-back-EMFs
the phase- and line-back-EMFsof
theoftwo winding sets are 0°, 15°, ◦
and ◦
30°, ◦
respectively, in the three machines.
the two winding sets are 0 , 15 , and 30 , respectively, in the three machines. The The funda-
mental amplitude
fundamental in the 30°inangle
amplitude ◦ angle displacement
the 30displacement is about is3.53%
aboutwhich
3.53%iswhich
higheris than that
higher than
in the ◦
that0°incounterpart, and 2.3%and
the 0 counterpart, higher
2.3%than thatthan
higher in the the 15◦ counterpart,
15°incounterpart,
that which is in agree-
which is in
mentagreement
with theirwith their winding
winding factors. factors.
The electromagnetic torque performances of the machines with different angle dis-
placements under healthy conditions are shown in Figure 12. The input current angle of
each angle displacement is adjusted to maximize the output torque. It can be seen that the
machine with 30° displacement produces the highest output torque, followed by the 15°
machine and the 0° machine. Besides the advantages in average torque, the 30° angle dis-
placement features the lowest torque ripple among the three angle displacements because
of the cancellation of the 6th torque harmonics. The torque ripple of the 15° angle displace-
ment is slightly lower than that of its 0° counterpart.
 the two winding sets are 0°, 15°, and 30°, respectively, in the three machine
mental amplitude in the 30° angle displacement is about 3.53% which is hig
in the 0° counterpart, and 2.3% higher than that in the 15° counterpart, whi
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 ment with their winding factors. 16 of 46

The electromagnetic torque performances of the machines with differ

placements under healthy conditions are shown in Figure 12. The input cu
eachThe electromagnetic torque performances of the machines with different angle dis-
angle displacement is adjusted to maximize the output torque. It can be
placements under healthy conditions are shown in Figure 12. The input current angle
machine
of each anglewith 30° displacement
displacement is adjusted toproduces theoutput
maximize the highest output
torque. It cantorque,
be seen follow
◦ displacement produces the highest output torque, followed by
machine and the 0° machine. Besides the advantages in average torque, the
that the machine with 30
the 15◦ machine and the 0◦ machine. Besides the advantages in average torque, the 30◦
placement features the lowest torque ripple among the three angle displacem
angle displacement features the lowest torque ripple among the three angle displacements
of the cancellation
because of the
of the cancellation 6th
of the 6thtorque harmonics.
torque harmonics. The torque
The torque ripple ofripple
the 15◦ of the 15° a
angle
◦
ment is slightly
displacement lower
is slightly lowerthan
than that
that ofofitsits
0 0° counterpart.
counterpart.

370

360
Torque (Nm)

350

340
0deg. 15deg. 30deg.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 330
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (Elec. degree)

Figure 12.
Figure 12.Electromagnetic torque performances
Electromagnetic of 24 slot/22 pole
torque performances DTPslot/22
of 24 PMSMs pole
with different
DTP PMSMsangle with
Besides
displacements the
under healthy
healthy conditions,
condition.
displacements under healthy condition. the three-phase open-circuit (OC) cond
oneBesides
winding set isconditions,
the healthy open-circuited and the
the three-phase other works
open-circuit continuously,
(OC) condition, in which is al
Thewinding
one electromagnetic torque
set is open-circuited performances
and the of the machine
other works continuously, with different
is also considered. The a
electromagnetic torque performances of the machine with different
ments under OC conditions are shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that theangle displacements
under OC conditions are shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that the 15◦ displacement
ment features
features the highestthe highest
torque outputtorque output
under these under
conditions these
instead of conditions instead of th
the 30◦ displacement
menthealthy
under underconditions.
healthy conditions.

200

190
Torque (Nm)

180

170
0deg. 15deg. 30deg.
160
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (Elec. degree)

Figure
Figure Electromagnetic
13.13. torque performances
Electromagnetic of 24 slot/22 pole
torque performances ofDTP PMSMs with
24 slot/22 poledifferent angle
DTP PMSMs wit
displacements under three-phase OC conditions.
gle displacements under three-phase OC conditions.
It should also be mentioned that the average torques produced under OC conditions
(FigureIt13) are clearly
should alsolower than those produced
be mentioned that the under healthytorques
average conditions (Figure 12).under
produced
To maintain the torque capability of the machine, the input currents need to be increased.
(Figure 13) are clearly lower than those produced under healthy conditio
The variations of average torque with input current amplitudes in the machines with
To maintain
different the torque
configurations undercapability of the
three-phase OC machine,
conditions the input
are shown currents
in Figure 14. It canneed to
be concluded that the 15 ◦ displacement offers the best over-rating capability under three-
The variations of average torque with input current amplitudes in the mach
phase OC conditions, compared with its 0◦ and 30◦ counterparts. The superiority of the
ferent configurations under three-phase OC conditions are shown in Figur
over-rating capability in the 15◦ displacement under three-phase OC conditions can be
concluded
explained that
by its the 15°
relatively low displacement offers the
sub-harmonic distributions best
[47]. over-rating
Furthermore, capability
it is also
phase OC conditions, compared with its 0° and 30° counterparts. The sup
over-rating capability in the 15° displacement under three-phase OC con
explained by its relatively low sub-harmonic distributions [47]. Furthermore
 ferent configurations under three-phase OC conditions are shown in Figur
concluded that the 15° displacement offers the best over-rating capability
phase OC conditions, compared with its 0° and 30° counterparts. The sup
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 17 of 46
over-rating capability in the 15° displacement under three-phase OC cond
explained by its relatively low sub-harmonic distributions [47]. Furthermore
gested that the 15° winding configuration features the lowest PM demagn
suggested that the 15◦ winding configuration features the lowest PM demagnetization
among the
risk among thethree winding
three winding configurations,
configurations, becausebecause the peak
the peak values of fluxvalues
densitiesof flux
◦
duced
producedby
bythe armature
the armature reaction
reaction are theare theinlowest
lowest in the 15°
the 15 winding winding
configuration configura
[47].

400
0deg.
15deg.
300 30deg.
Torque (Nm)

200
increase of current
100

0
0 150 300 450 600
Current (A)

Average
Figure 14.14.
Figure Averagetorque outputoutput
torque with increased currents for 24
with increased slot/22 pole
currents for DTP PMSMspole
24 slot/22 with DTP P
different angle displacements under three-phase OC conditions.
ferent angle displacements under three-phase OC conditions.
5. Control Methods
5.1.Control
5. Field Oriented Control (FOC)
Methods
The most common control method in DTP drives is the well-known field-oriented
5.1. Field
control Oriented
(FOC, or vectorControl
control). It(FOC)
is comprised of inner current loops and an outer speed
loop, as
Theshown
mostin Figure
common values ω r *,method
15. The control iq *, id *, iz1 *,inandDTPiz2 * are the reference
drives is thevalues for
well-known
the speed and currents, respectively. It should be noted that iq * is the tracking maximum
control (FOC, or vector control). It is comprised of inner current18loops
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW torque per ampere (MTPA) to operate. The values ω r , iq , id , iz1 , iz2 are the measured of 46
and a
loop, as shown
values (feedback in Figure
values) 15. The
for the speed and values
currents,ω r , iq , id , iz1
* *
respectively. * *
The , and
values iz2ud,qare
* arethe
the refere
outputs of the current proportional integral (PI)
the speed and currents, respectively. It should be noted controllers, and then u are obtained
α,β that iq is the
* by track
transformation, as the input of the modulation strategy to generate the proper switching
torque
SABC and per
SXYZ. ampere
signals SABC
The value(MTPA)
and SXYZ . The value θto
θs represents operate.
the electrical Therotor values ωr, iq, three-phase
angle. Unlike
s represents the electrical rotor angle. Unlike three-
id, iz1, iz2 are ma-the me
chines, the DTP machine suffers from large low-order current harmonics due to its inher-
(feedback
phase machines,values)
the DTP formachine
the speed suffersand
from currents,
large low-order respectively. The values
current harmonics due ud,q a
ent low impedance for the 5th and 7th harmonics, which may be caused by back-EMF
to
of its inherent
the current low impedance
proportional for the 5th and
integral (PI) 7th harmonics,
controllers, which may
and then be caused
uα,β arethebyobtaine
distortion,
back-EMF inverter
distortion,non-linearity, modulation
inverter non-linearity, strategies,
modulation and asymmetry
strategies, [8,9]. Hence,
and asymmetry [8,9].
mation,
Hence, theas thedevelopment
recent development
recent input
of FOC ofmainly
the modulation
of FOC focuses thestrategy
mainlyonfocuses current to generate
on theharmonic
current reduction
harmonic the forproper
DTP
reduction swi
machines.
for DTP machines.

Vdc
ωr* iq* uq uα
PI + PI dq SABC
ωr* -
+
id* iq - ud uβ
MTPA PI αβ SXYZ
id+ - uz1
iz1*
PI
+
iz2* - uz2 SVPWM
PI
+
-
iz2 iz1 θs θs

dq iα
iβ αβ-z1z2
αβ

abcxyz
Iab, Ixy
DTP-
dθ /dt
PMSM

Figure 15.
Figure 15. FOC
FOC diagram
diagram for
for DTP
DTP PMSMs.
PMSMs.

One way to reduce current harmonics is the use of double synchronous reference
frames current control, which is based on the two individual dq-axis modelling method
and controls the two sets of windings separately. It has been introduced into DTP IMs
[55,56] and PMSMs [54,57,58,68–78] and provides benefits such as its excellent steady-
state performance, easy implementation in practical applications, and its ability to sup-
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 18 of 46

One way to reduce current harmonics is the use of double synchronous reference
frames current control, which is based on the two individual dq-axis modelling method and
controls the two sets of windings separately. It has been introduced into DTP IMs [55,56]
and PMSMs [54,57,58,68–78] and provides benefits such as its excellent steady-state per-
formance, easy implementation in practical applications, and its ability to suppress the
current unbalance resulting from asymmetries between the two sets of three-phase wind-
ings [54,57]. However, the two-individual current control may develop instability issues if
a strong magnetic coupling between two sets exists, as concluded in [58,68]. Therefore, the
VSD current control is proposed in FOC to overcome these drawbacks [68], as well as in 0◦
and 60◦ DTP topologies [79]. Because the PI regulator has the inherent drawbacks of the
limited control capability to the AC components, synchronous frame PI controllers [69–71]
and resonant controllers [68,72–74] are introduced in DTP drives as alternatives through
which to suppress the 5th and 7th harmonic components (AC components). It is noted that
the resonant (PIR) [72,73] or quasi-resonant (QPIR) [75] controller parallel with PI regulator
(PIR) provides infinite gain at the resonant frequency and, therefore, the AC components
(the 5th and 7th harmonic components) in the z1 –z2 subspace can be suppressed effectively
with a resonant controller. Moreover, other alternatives, such as the disturbance observer
(DOB) [76], the extended state observer (ESO) [77] and the virtual impedance [78] are also
extended to DTP PMSMs to obtain benefits in terms of performance and robustness. In
particular, a multiple synchronous reference frame (MSRF) current harmonic regulation
technique, proposed in [80,81] is able to decouple not only the 5th and 7th harmonics, but
also the 11th and 13th harmonics in DTP PMSMs. This concept of the MSRF technique also
features the potential to be extended to other multi three-phase machine systems.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Taking results in [68,78] as examples, it is clear from Figures 16a and 17a that 19 ofthe
46
phase current suffers from large current harmonics, especially the 5th and 7th harmonics,
when no compensation approaches are employed in the harmonic-related subspace. By
utilizing resonant [68] and the virtual impedance [78] current regulators, the phase current
harmonics
harmonics can
can be reduced significantly,
be reduced significantly, as
as shown
shown in
in Figures
Figures 16b
16b and
and 17b,
17b,where and iix
whereiia and
a x
are the stator currents in phases a and x, respectively.
are the stator currents in phases a and x, respectively.

Phase current

Spectra

(a) (b)
Figure 16.
Figure 16. Measured currents and
Measured currents and spectra
spectra for
for PIR
PIR method
method [68].
[68]. Top:
Top: phase
phase currents
currentsin
inphase
phaseaa (i(iaa)) and
and xx (i
(ixx);); bottom:
bottom: spectra.
spectra.
(a) without
(a) without compensation
compensation and
and (b)
(b) with
with compensation.
compensation.

Another relevant research activity is related to torque enhancement. In the DTP

machines, injecting the low-order harmonics into the PM shaping and phase currents
are both effective ways to increase the torque capability of the machines [82–84]. In [82]
and [83], zero-sequence current components (the third current harmonics) injection is
Phase current employed in DTP-IMs [82] and DTP-PMSMs [83], respectively, as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 19 shows the finite element analysis (FEA) and experimental results with or without
the third current harmonic injection. It is obvious that the torque improves significantly in
both 12 slot/8 pole and 12 slot/10 pole machines, and the experimental results validate
the torque enhancement as well. Furthermore, 5th and 7th current harmonics injection
is investigated in [84]. According to the results of relevant research, the improvement of
the overload torque due to the third-order current harmonic injection can be up to 15%.
However, the improvement of the overload torque for the 5th and 7th harmonic injection is
Spectra
 Spectra
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 19 of 46

(a) (b)
only 7%, although it offers the benefits of its simple hardware structure and the lack of the
Figure 16. Measured currents andextra
spectra for PIR method
requirement [68].
of current Top: phase
sensors, currents
compared inmethod
to the phase aof(iathird
) andcurrent
x (ix); bottom: spectra.
harmonic
(a) without compensation and (b)injection.
with compensation.
The value Im represents the amplitude of the phase current.

Phase current

Spectra

(a) (b)
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 46
Energies
Figure 17.2021, 14,17.
Measured
Figure x FOR PEER
MeasuredREVIEW
currents and and
currents spectra for
spectra forvirtual impendence
virtual impendence method
method [78].phase
[78]. Top: Top:currents
phaseincurrents
phase a (iain x20(ixof
phase
) and );a 46
(ia) and x
bottom: spectra. (a) without compensation and (b) with
(ix); bottom: spectra. (a) without compensation and (b) with compensation.compensation.

I(θ) I(θ)
I(θ) I(θ)
Another relevant research activity is related to torque enhancement. In the DTP m
chines, injecting the low-order m I harmonics into the PM shaping and phase I 1.15I
m
currents are b
m
mI I 1.15Im m
⅙I
effective ways to increase the torque θ
capability of the machines [82−84]. m
⅙I m
θ
In [82] and [8
θ θ
zero-sequence current components (the third current harmonics) injection is employed
DTP-IMs [82] and DTP-PMSMs [83], respectively, as shown in Figure 18. Figure 19 sho
the finite element analysis (a)
(a)
(FEA) and experimental results (b)
(b)
with or without the third c
rent harmonic
Figure 18. injection. It(a)isNoobvious that the torque improves significantly in both
Figure
Figure 18.Current
18.
Current waveforms.
Current waveforms.
waveforms. (a) No harmonic
(a)
harmonicinjection
No harmonic
injectioncurrent
injection (Sine).
(Sine).(b)
current
current (b)Third
(Sine). harmonics
(b)
Third injec-
Third harmonics
harmonics injec-
slot/8
tion pole
current
injection
tion current and
(Sine12
(Sine slot/10
+ +3rd)
current (Sine
3rd) + 3rd)pole
[83].
[83]. [83]. machines, and the experimental results validate the torq
enhancement as well. Furthermore, 5th and 7th current harmonics injection is investiga
in [84]. According to the results of relevant research, the improvement of the overlo
torque due to the third-order current harmonic injection can be up to 15%. However,
improvement of the overload torque for the 5th and 7th harmonic injection is only 7
although it offers the benefits of its simple hardware structure and the lack of the ex
requirement of current sensors, compared to the method of third current harmonic in
tion. The value Im represents the amplitude of the phase current.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 19.
19.FEA
FEA and
andexperimental
experimental results
results for
forthird
thirdcurrent
currentharmonic
harmonicinjection
injection[83].
[83].(a)
(a)FEA
FEA results
resultsofof
Figure 19. FEA and experimental results for third current harmonic injection [83]. (a) FEA results
the torque
theof torque for 12
for 12 slot/10 pole and 12 slot/10 pole DTP−SPMSM. (b) Measured torque of
ofaof
the torque for slot/10 polepole
12 slot/10 andand12 12slot/10 polepole
slot/10 DTP−SPMSM.
DTP−SPMSM. (b) (b)
Measured
Measured torque
torque a a
12−slot/10−pole
12−slot/10−pole DTP-SPMSM.
DTP-SPMSM.
12−slot/10−pole DTP-SPMSM.
5.2.
5.2.Direct
DirectTorque
TorqueControl
Control(DTC)
(DTC)
Direct
Direct torque control(DTC)
torque control (DTC)aims
aimstotocontrol
controldirectly
directlythe
thestator
statorflux
fluxand
andthe
thetorque
torqueby
by
selecting the appropriate inverter state. DTCs can be classified into three categories:
selecting the appropriate inverter state. DTCs can be classified into three categories:
switching-table
switching-tablebased
basedDTCDTC(ST-DTC)
(ST-DTC)[85−95],
[85−95],the
theduty-ratio-based
duty-ratio-basedST-DTC
ST-DTC(D-DTC)
(D-DTC)
[96,97]
[96,97]and
andspace
spacevector
vectormodulation
modulationDTC
DTC(SVM-DTC)
(SVM-DTC)[98,99].
[98,99].
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 20 of 46

5.2. Direct Torque Control (DTC)

Direct torque control (DTC) aims to control directly the stator flux and the torque
by selecting the appropriate inverter state. DTCs can be classified into three categories:
switching-table based DTC (ST-DTC) [85–95], the duty-ratio-based ST-DTC (D-DTC) [96,97]
and space vector modulation DTC (SVM-DTC) [98,99].
The ST-DTC was firstly adapted to DTP machines in [85], which employs, when it only
employed flux and torque hysteresis regulators and a look-up table to impose machine
flux and torque, as shown in Figure 20. The ω r *, Ψs *, and Te * are the reference values for
the speed, stator flux, and torque, respectively. The values ω r , Ψs , and Te are the measured
values (feedback values) for the speed, stator flux, and torque, respectively. The values
Iab and Ixy represent the measured currents in phases A, B, X, and Y. The value Vdc is
the dc-link voltage. The values Vs and Is represent the stator voltage and current after
transformation. The method offers the benefits of fast response and dynamic performance,
but suffers from large current harmonics, as concluded in [86–91]. The Redesign of the
torque and flux regulators is investigated in [86], where it reduced current harmonics and
torque ripples effectively, albeit with at the cost of complicating the control structure. In
order to reduce current harmonics and maintain a simple structure, the reduction of current
harmonics for ST-DTC has recently focused on the definition of switching table and virtual
vectors (VVs) selection strategy, which was first investigated in [87]. By employing two
groups of space VVs (i.e., virtual voltage vector) and setting the amplitude of the synthetic
voltage vector to zero in harmonic-related subspaces [87,88], the stator current harmonics
can be significantly reduced. The switching look-up table in [87] is shown in Figure 21 and
Table 12. Further, the back-EMF harmonics are considered and selectively [90] and fully [91]
compensated in an ST-DTC employing a virtual vector based on two or three groups of VVs,
respectively. Additionally, the authors of [100] introduced an additional current loop to
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW determine the optimal dwell times of applied voltage vectors; the current harmonics caused 21 of 46

by back-EMF distortion were reduced as well. Furthermore, the reduction of torque ripple
using virtual VVs, and the improvement of the performance by employing a non-linear
observer
reducingarethealso analyzed
torque in [92]
ripples, two and [93,94],
virtual respectively.
voltage Forsynthesized
vectors are reducing theandtorque ripples,
a five-level
two virtual
torque voltage
regulator vectors arecorresponding
is employed synthesized and a five-level
in [88]. torquethe
In summary, regulator is employed
experimental results
corresponding
for conventionalin [88]. In summary,
ST-DTCs the experimental
and ST-DTCs proposed results for are
in [87,88] conventional
summarized ST-DTCs and
and com-
ST-DTCs proposed
pared in Figure 22. in [87,88]
It is clear are
thatsummarized and compared
the current harmonics in Figure 22.
are effectively It is clear that
compensated and
the current harmonics are effectively compensated and torque ripples are
torque ripples are reduced as well when virtual voltage vectors are employed, compared reduced as well
when virtual voltage
to conventional ST-DTC.vectors are employed, compared to conventional ST-DTC.

Vdc
1
Ψs* -Hψ
+- Hψ
SABC
Ψs -1 Switching
SXYZ
Look-up
1
ωr* Te* -HT Table
PI 0 HT
+ +
- -
ωr Te -1

Vs Voltage
Flux &
Estimation &
Torque Vdc
Current
Estimation
Transformation
Is Iab, Ixy
DTP-
dθ /dt
PMSM

Figure 20.
Figure 20. ST
ST−DTC
−DTC diagram
diagram for
for DTP
DTP machines.
machines.

26 β 27
IV
18 19 10 11
30
25

22 50 9
43
 dθ /dt

Energies 2021, 14, 7508 21 of 46

Figure 20. ST−DTC diagram for DTP machines.

26 β 27
IV
18 19 10 11
30
25

22 50 9
43

VII

I
20 α
54 13 41

38
33
52 53 45
44
X
36 37

Figure 21. VVs and sections in [87].

Figure 21. VVs and sections in [87].
Table 12. Switching table of virtual vector ST−DTC [87].

Table
ψs 12. Switching
Te Itable of IIvirtual vector
III ST−DTC
IV [87].
V VI
1 V 27 , V 10 V 26 , V 19 V 18 , V 30 V 22 , V 50 V 54 , V 20 V 52 , V 38
1 0 V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63
−1 V 37 ,V 44 V 45 , V 33 V 41 , V 13 V 9 , V 43 V 1 , V 25 V 27 , V 10
ψs T e I II III IV
1 V 26 , V 19 V 18 , V 30 V 22 , V 50
V 54 , V 20 V 52 , V 38 V 36 , V 53
−1 0 V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63
V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63 V 0 , V 63
1−1 V ,V
V 36 , 27
V 53 10 37 , V 44
V V ,V
V26
45 , V 3319
V 41 , V 13 18 V 9 ,30 V ,V
V 43 V , V50
V 11 , V
2225
ψs T VII VIII IX X XI XII
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1 0e V,V 0 63 0 V,V
63 0 63 V,V 22V of0,46V63
1 V 36 , V 53 V 37 , V 44 V 45 , V 33 V 41 , V 13 V 9 , V 43 V 11 , V 25
1 −1 0 V ,V
V 0 , V3763 44V 0 , V 63 V V ,V
450 , V 6333 V 0 , V 63 41 V 0 ,13 V ,V
V 63 V 0 ,VV963, V43
−1 V 26 , V 19 V 18 , V 30 V 22 , V 50 V 54 , V 20 V 52 , V 38 V 36 , V 53
0 11V , V
0 63 V 44, V 45 33
V , 26
37 VV0, V6319
V , V V0, V63 V 41, V13
V18 , V 30 V0, VV63 , V 22 V0,VV6350
9 ,V V , V11 25
43
V, V5410, V20
VV,27V
0 63
−1 −1 V 0 , VV63 , V V 0 , V 63
−1 0−V01 , V
27 10
V 27V,V0, V63V , VV
10
26
26
19
19
18
VVV0180,,,V
,V 30
V 63 V
63
V 30
22 , VV0 , V63VV
50 54
V
V 22 , V 50 0, V
V , V 63
,V063
20
54 ,V 20
V V,0V
V 52V
52
, V 63
38
, V63
, V038
−1 V36, V53 V37, V44 V45, V33 V41, V13
ψs Te VII VIII IX X
1 V36, V53 V37, V44 V45, V33 V41, V13
1 0 V0, V63 V0, V63 V0, V63 V0, V63
−1 V26, V19 V18, V30 V22, V50 V54, V20
−1 1 V37, V44 V45, V33 V41, V13 V9, V43

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure22.
22.Experimental
Experimentalcomparison
comparisonfor forconventional
conventionalST−DTC,
ST−DTC,ST−DTC
ST−DTCproposed
proposedinin[87]
[87]and
andST−DTC
ST−DTCproposed
proposedinin[88].
[88].
Top: phase currents in phases a (i a) and x (ix); bottom: torque. (a) Conventional ST−DTC. (b) ST−DTC proposed in [87]. (c)
Top: phase currents in phases a (ia ) and x (ix ); bottom: torque. (a) Conventional ST−DTC. (b) ST−DTC proposed in [87].
ST−DTC proposed
(c) ST−DTC in [88].
proposed in [88].

However, although virtual voltage vector injections are effective at reducing current
harmonics and torque ripples, switching-table-based DTCs (ST-DTCs) still suffer from
two inherent drawbacks:
• The look-up table in DTC leads to variable switching frequency, which is not suitable
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 22 of 46

However, although virtual voltage vector injections are effective at reducing current
harmonics and torque ripples, switching-table-based DTCs (ST-DTCs) still suffer from two
inherent drawbacks:
• The look-up table in DTC leads to variable switching frequency, which is not suitable
for high-power applications;
• The hysteresis regulator inevitably causes large torque and flux ripples in ST-DTC.
Hence, the duty-ratio-based ST-DTC (which divides one sampling period into two in-
tervals and applies active vectors and zero vectors together) was adapted to DTP machines
in [96] and obtained the reduction of torque ripples, but it still suffered from drawbacks,
such as its variable switching frequency [97]. Therefore, SVM-DTC, presented in Figure 23,
was adapted to DTP drives to deal with the torque and flux ripple as well as the variable
switching frequency. It employs torque, flux PI controllers and space vector modulation
to replace the hysteresis regulators and look-up table in ST-DTC, as shown in Figure 24.
The values um and uT are the outputs of the torque, flux PI controllers; after transformation,
uα and uβ are obtained as the inputs of SVPWM to generate the switching signals SABC
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW and SXYZ . The value θ s represents the electrical rotor angle. In this way, the flux23 and
of 46 torque

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

ripples can be reduced significantly, and constant switching frequency can be achieved, but this
23 of 46
method features the disadvantage of a deteriorating dynamic response, as analyzed in [96,97].

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure
Figure 23. 23. Measured
Measured results
results for for duty−ratio−based
duty − ratio − based DTC
DTC [96],
[96],PWM−based
PWM − basedDTCDTC [97],[97],
andand
SVM−DTC.
SVM Top: phase
−DTC. currents
Top: phase currents
Figure 23. Measured
in phases a (ia) and xresults for duty−ratio−based
(ix); bottom: DTC [96], PWM−based
torque. (a) Duty−ratio−based DTC
DTC [96]. [97],
(b) and SVM−DTC.
PWM−based DTC Top:
[97]. phase currents
(c) SVM−DTC.
in phases a (iaa) (iand
in phases x (ix x(i);x);bottom:
a) and torque.(a)(a)
bottom: torque. Duty−ratio−based
Duty−ratio−based DTC
DTC [96]. (b) [96]. (b) PWM
PWM−based −based
DTC [97]. (c)DTC [97]. (c) SVM−DTC.
SVM−DTC.

Vdc
Vdc
Ψ*
Ψs* s
+-
+- PI
PI
SABC SABC
Ψs Ψs um um uα uα
jθs SXYZ SXYZ
ejθs e
*
ωrω
* *
r Te*Te
PI PI PI PI SVPWM
SVPWM
+ + + +
- ω
* * - -
- ω
r r Te Te ut ut uβ uβ
θs θs θs θs

Vs VsVoltageVoltage
Flux &
Flux & Estimation &
Torque
Torque
Estimation & Vdc Vdc
Current
Current
Estimation
Estimation Transformation
Is Is Transformation
Iab, IxyI
ab, Ixy
DTP-
dθ /dt DTP-
dθ /dt PMSM
PMSM

Figure 24.
Figure SVM−DTC
SVM
24.24. diagram
−DTC for DTP
diagram machines.
forDTP
DTP machines.
Figure SVM−DTC diagram for machines.
5.3. Model Predictive Control (MPC)
5.3. Model Predictive Control (MPC)
Model predictive control (MPC) is based on a model of the real system, also called
Model predictive
the “predictive control
model”, and (MPC)
is used is based
to predict on a evolution.
its future model of the
Thereal system,is also
prediction car- called
theout
ried “predictive model”,
for possible and states
switching is used
toto predict its
determine future
which oneevolution.
minimizesThe prediction
a defined cost is car-
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 23 of 46

5.3. Model Predictive Control (MPC)

Model predictive control (MPC) is based on a model of the real system, also called the
“predictive model”, and is used to predict its future evolution. The prediction is carried
out for possible switching states to determine which one minimizes a defined cost function.
The basic MPC structure is shown in Figure 25. The values idt+1 , iqt+1 are the predictive
currents at instant t + 1, which are calculated by the measured currents idt , iqt at instant
t. Next, the proper switching signals SABC and SXYZ are obtained by the cost function.
According to the different cost functions, three different control constraints are included,
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 46
namely the current predictive control (MPCC), the torque predictive control (MPTC), and
the flux predictive control (MPFC).

Vdc
ωr* iq*
SABC
+
- id*
ωr MTPA SXYZ
Cost
idt+1 function
Predictive model iqt+1

θs θs
Voltage vector idt
selection
dq iα
iqt iβ αβ-z1z2
αβ

abcxyz
Iab, Ixy
DTP-
dθ /dt
PMSM

Figure25.
Figure 25.MPC
MPCdiagram
diagramfor
forDTP
DTPPMSMs.
PMSMs.

TheMPCC
The MPCCwas wasfirstly
firstlyadapted
adaptedto toDTP
DTPdrives
drivesinin[101],
[101],where
whereonlyonlythe
the1212outer
outervectors
vectors
of
of the
the 64 VVs VVs(the
(thelargest)
largest)are areemployed
employed to to reduce
reduce thethe computation
computation burden.
burden. The func-
The cost cost
function is expressed
tion is expressed as: as:
𝑔 = |𝑖∗∗− 𝑖 t+1| + 𝑖∗ ∗− 𝑖 t+1 + 𝜆(|𝑖 ∗ ∗− 𝑖 t+| 1+ |𝑖 ∗ ∗− 𝑖 t+ |). (15)
       
g = iα − iα  + i β − i β  + λ iz1 − iz1  + iz2 − iz2 1  . (15)
where λ is a weighting factor between phase currents in the αβ and z1z2 subspaces; 𝑖 ∗ , 𝑖 ∗ ,
∗ ∗
𝑖 ∗ , 𝑖 ∗ λ are
where is athe
weighting factor between
current references in thephase
αβ and currents and z1 z2 subspaces;
in the αβrespectively;
z1z2 subspaces, and 𝑖 ,iα𝑖, i β ,,
∗ , i ∗ are the current references in the αβ and z z subspaces, respectively; and i t+1 , i t+1 ,
i𝑖z1 ,z2𝑖 are the predictive currents in the αβ and 1 2 z1z2 subspaces at instant t + 1 calculatedα β
tby
+1the t+measured
1 currents at instantint. the αβ and z1 z2 subspaces at instant t + 1 calculated
iz1 , iz2 are the predictive currents
by theItmeasured
is notablecurrents
that the atcomputation
instant t. burden increases significantly for multiphase ma-
chines, It iswhile
notablethethat
VVs theincrease
computationexponentially with the number
burden increases of phases.
significantly Furthermore,
for multiphase ma-
MPCC methods with the cost function of minimizing current
chines, while the VVs increase exponentially with the number of phases. Furthermore, harmonics and reducing
computation
MPCC methods costwith
are the
investigated
cost functionin [102] and [103], respectively.
of minimizing current harmonics The selected voltage
and reducing
vector combined
computation cost with a zero vector,innamely,
are investigated [102] and one-step modulation predictive
[103], respectively. The selected current con-
voltage
trol (OSPC),
vector combined or PWM-MPCC,
with a zero vector,is introduced in, where
namely, one-step the current
modulation harmonics
predictive currentwere sup-
control
pressed or
(OSPC), further and the steady-state
PWM-MPCC, is introduced performance
in, where the improved effectively.were
current harmonics However, the ac-
suppressed
tive vectors
further and thein [102−104]
steady-state areperformance
the same asimproved
those in [101], whereHowever,
effectively. only the largest vectors
the active are
vectors
employed.
in [102–104]Although
are the samesome asimproved techniques
those in [101], whereare onlyutilized in [102−104],
the largest vectors theare system
employed. still
suffers from
Although some current
improvedharmonics
techniquescaused by uncontrolled
are utilized in [102–104],harmonics-related
the system still components.
suffers from
current
Hence, harmonics
a virtual VVs caused by uncontrolled
strategy synthesized harmonics-related
by the largest and components. Hence, a virtual
the second-largest actual
VVs
vectorsstrategy synthesized
(synthesized by the
by two largest
groups and the
of VVs) wassecond-largest
introduced toactualMPCC vectors
for DTP (synthesized
machines,
by
as two groups
described inof VVs)Similar
[105]. was introduced to MPCC
to the virtual vector for DTP machines,
approach in the DTC as method,
described theinvirtual
[105].
Similar
vectorsto the virtual
ensure null z1vector approach
–z2 voltages in the DTC
on average method,
during the virtual
the sampling vectors
period, ensure
thereby null
reduc-
ing the current harmonics. Moreover, two groups of virtual vectors (synthesized by three
groups of VVs) aiming at harmonic currents reduction are introduced in [106], and the
deadbeat current control method is also introduced to reduce the computing time with
the increase of the number of employed VVs [106]. This technique for two groups of syn-
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 24 of 46

z1 –z2 voltages on average during the sampling period, thereby reducing the current har-
monics. Moreover, two groups of virtual vectors (synthesized by three groups of VVs)
aiming at harmonic currents reduction are introduced in [106], and the deadbeat current
control method is also introduced to reduce the computing time with the increase of the
number of employed VVs [106]. This technique for two groups of synthesized virtual
vectors is further refined in [107,108], where a two-step procedure and a dual virtual vector
are involved to compensate the harmonics caused by machine asymmetries, dead time
effects, and back-EMF harmonics, respectively. Furthermore, some MPCC methods aiming
at other optimal goals are also developed to reduce the current harmonics. For example,
torque ripple reduction and DC-link voltage utilization increase are analyzed in [109,110].
Moreover, an autoregressive model with exogenous variables and a disturbance observer
are employed to compensate for the effects of parameter mismatch errors and unmodelled
dynamics in [111,112], respectively.
MPTC aims at minimizing the torque ripple and flux ripple, and the cost function can
be expressed as:    
g = Te∗ − Tet+1  + λψs∗ − ψst+1 . (16)
   

where λ is a weighting factor between torque and stator flux; Te∗ and ψs∗ are the torque and
stator flux references, respectively; and Tet+1 and ψst+1 are the predictive torque and stator
flux at instant t+1 calculated by measured torque and stator flux at instant t.
The viability of the MPTC is investigated in [113], where the virtual vector strategy is
employed to reduce current harmonics in the MPTC. Similarly, the selected voltage vector
combined with a zero vector is also introduced in [114] and [115] to reduce the torque
ripple and flux ripple, and fixed switching frequency in MPTC, respectively. Further, a
deadbeat-based MPTC is introduced in [116] to reduce both the harmonic currents and
computation time simultaneously.
A MPFC for DTP machines was first evaluated in [117], and the cost function for
MPFC is expressed as:
       
g = Te∗ − Tet+1  + λ1 ψs∗ − ψst+1  + λ ψz1
 ∗ t +1   ∗ t +1 
− ψz1  + ψz2 − ψz2  . (17)
   

where λ1 and λ2 are the weighting factors between torque and stator fluxes in the αβ
∗ and ψ∗ are the stator fluxes references in the z and
and z1 z2 subspaces, respectively; ψz1 z2 1
t +1 t +1
z2 subspaces, respectively; and ψz1 and ψz2 are the predictive stator fluxes in the z1 z2
subspaces at instant t + 1 calculated by measured torque and stator flux at instant t.
In this way, the current harmonics and the torque ripple reduce simultaneously. In
summary, these three types of control strategies are compared and summarized in Table 13
with different characteristics.
Table 13. Control schemes for DTP PMSMs.

FOC DTC MPC

Steady-state performance High Low Normal
Dynamic performance Slow Fast Fast
Switching frequency Fixed Variable Variable
Implementation complexity Normal Simple Complex
Parameter sensitivity Normal Normal High
Sensorless No Yes No
PWM modulator Yes No No
Computation burden Low Low High
Robustness High High Low
 Energies 2021, 14, 7508 25 of 46

6. PWM Techniques for FOC

6.1. Linear Region
As DTP machines are attracting interest for their use in high-power applications, vari-
ous pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques have been developed. They can be classi-
fied into three main categories: carrier-based PWM (CPWM), zero-sequence injection-based
PWM (ZSPWM), and space vector PWM (SVPWM). The CPWM method is implemented by
comparing reference signals to carrier signals to determine the duty cycle for the inverter
switches [118]. Particularly if the reference signals are sinusoidal, the CPWM is called
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW sinusoidal PWM (SPWM), which is widely used in common three-phase machine 26 of 46drives.
One of the drawbacks of CPWM is the lack of control degrees with which to achieve a
better performance [118–120]. Therefore, a phase-shift SPWM and a sawtooth carrier-based
PWM
and [120], were investigated
respectively, where in DTPangle
phase machines shiftstoand
reduce
the common-mode
shape of carriervoltagewaves in [119,120],
were
respectively, where phase angle shifts and the shape of carrier
modified to reduce the common-mode voltage. Details about the carrier shift technique in waves were modified
to reducecan
DTP machines thebecommon-mode
found in Appendix voltage.
A. Details about the carrier shift technique in DTP
machines can be found in Appendix
Another drawback of CPWM is its low A.DC bus voltage utilization. This can be im-
Another drawback of CPWM
proved by injecting zero-sequence components, is its namely
low DCZSPWM.bus voltageis theutilization.
method is imple-This can be
mented by injecting a zero-sequence component into the reference voltage in each three- is im-
improved by injecting zero-sequence components, namely ZSPWM. is the method
plemented
phase set. A common by injecting a zero-sequence
zero-sequence signal is added component intoofthe
to two sets referencesinusoidal
three-phase voltage in each
signals, designated as single-zero-sequence injection PWM (SZIPWM) [121,122].three-phase
three-phase set. A common zero-sequence signal is added to two sets of Corre- si-
nusoidal signals, designated as single-zero-sequence injection PWM (SZIPWM) [121,122].
spondingly, two different zero-sequence signals for the two sets of sinusoidal signals are
Correspondingly, two different zero-sequence signals for the two sets of sinusoidal signals
employed, designated as double-zero-sequence injection PWM (DZIPWM) [56,123,124].
are employed, designated as double-zero-sequence injection PWM (DZIPWM) [56,123,124].
When double-zero-sequences are injected in DTP drives, DC bus utilization and current
When double-zero-sequences are injected in DTP drives, DC bus utilization and current har-
harmonics improve significantly compared with single-zero-sequence injection, as con-
monics improve significantly compared with single-zero-sequence injection, as concluded
cluded in [56,123,124]. On the basis of this technique, the different magnitudes of the zero-
in [56,123,124]. On the basis of this technique, the different magnitudes of the zero-sequence
sequence injection components are further investigated in symmetrical six-phase ma-
injection components are further investigated in symmetrical six-phase machines [125] to
chines [125] to compensate for unbalanced loads. In [126], “trapezoidal-like” zero-se-
compensate for unbalanced loads. In [126], “trapezoidal-like” zero-sequence signals are
quence signals are injected to improve the performance in terms of current distortion and
injected to improve the performance in terms of current distortion and common-mode
common-mode voltage reduction.
voltage reduction.
In multiphase inverters,
In multiphase the number
inverters, of switching
the number states increases
of switching in accordance
states increases in accordancewith with
the phase number. For example, there are 64 switching states for DTP inverters.
the phase number. For example, there are 64 switching states for DTP inverters. It would be It would
be more complicated
more complicated to analyze andand
to analyze select proper
select proper switching
switching states
statesinin
DTPDTPmachines
machinescom- compared
pared with
with three-phase machines. According to the VSD method
three-phase machines. According to the VSD method in Section in Section 3: 3:
Modelling,
Modelling, the
the space VVs
space cancan
VVs be transformed
be transformed intointo
two twodifferent subspaces:
different the αβthe
subspaces: subspace
αβ subspaceand the and the
z1 - z2 subspace, as shown in Figure 26. It is notable that the groups of voltage
z1 − z2 subspace, as shown in Figure 26. It is notable that the groups of voltage vectors vectors from
largestfrom
to smallest
largest magnitude in the αβ subspace
in the αβare definedareas defined
L(D1), ML(D 2), M(D3), and
as L(D
to smallest magnitude subspace 1 ), ML(D2 ), M(D3 ),
S(D4), and this αβ subspace magnitude-based definition has no physical
and S(D4 ), and this αβ subspace magnitude-based definition has no physical meaning, as meaning,
listed as
in Table 14.
listed in Table 14.

26 β 27 28
z2 29

18 19 10 11 12 13 21
20
30 30
2 31 24 59 25 D1 4 31 24 61 25 D4
58 3 60 5 D2
D2
16 14 17 15D
9
8 22 9 23
D3
22 50 42 3
14 44 52 17
23 51 D4 8 43
15
26
42D1 16 53
6 28 29 57 6 27 57
62
34
35 1
α 62 36
37 1 z1
20 10 55
48 12 47 13 41 40 11 18 19 49
54 21 46
55 46 49 40 47 54 41 48
4 61 2 59
38 60 32 39 5
33
38 58 32 39 3
33
52 45 51
53 44 42 43 50

36 37 34 35

(a) (b)
Figure Figure
26. Space
26.VVs forVVs
Space DTPfor
inverters. (a) αβ subspace.
DTP inverters. (b) z1z2 subspace.
(a) αβ subspace. (b) z1 z2 subspace.

Table 14. Magnitudes of voltage vector in different subspaces.

Magnitude
VVs Group
αβ Subspace z1z2 Subspace
√6 + √2 √6 − √2
L (D1) 𝑈 𝑈
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 26 of 46

Table 14. Magnitudes of voltage vector in different subspaces.

Magnitude
VVs Group
αβ Subspace z1 z2 Subspace
√ √ √ √
L (D1 ) 6+ 2 6− 2
√6
Udc √6
Udc
ML (D2 ) 2 2
3 Udc 3 Udc
M (D3 ) 1 1
U
√ 3 √ dc
U
√ 3 √ dc
S (D4 ) 6− 2 6+ 2
6 Udc 6 Udc
Where Udc is the amplitude of the dc-link voltage.

The SVPWM based on the VSD method was first analyzed in DTP-IMs in [127],
where the 12 largest vectors in the αβ subspace were utilized. However, this approach is
incompetent and generates significant lower-order harmonics due to its lack of control
over the components in the z1 z2 subspace. Hence, the utilization of 4 active VVs in the
2 largest vectors (4 L) to control the components in both subspaces is proposed in [62]. It is
termed the 12 sector SVPWM strategy. Further, the SVPWM selected from 2 L + 2 ML [128],
3 L + 1 ML [129], 2 L + 1 ML + 1 M [130] are introduced, namely, the 24 sector SVPWM
strategy. As stated in previous research, the 24 sector SVPWM method is easier to imple-
ment using DSP microcontrollers and results in less total harmonic distortion (THD) in the
output waveforms of the converter, but it has a lower maximum modulation index due
to the introduction of VVs with smaller amplitudes. Further, the concepts of discontinu-
ous SVPWM [131], synchronized SVPWM [132], SVPWM using five active vectors [133]
are investigated in DTP machines, and modulation restraints for SVPWM, i.e., the linear
modulation range of z1 z2 subspace under an assured modulation index of the fundamental
voltage, are investigated in [134], due to the existence of modulation coupling between the
αβ subspace and the z1 z2 subspace.
These three types of PWM techniques are compared and summarized in Table 15. It is
notable that the SVPWM strategies can be implemented by finding their CPWM equivalent,
which is simpler to implement in the hardware. This requires finding the proper zero-
sequence injection to the original sinusoidal reference signals, as concluded in [135,136].
Table 15. PWM techniques for DTP PMSMs.

CPWM(SPWM) ZIPWM SVPWM

Maximum modulation index 1 1.154 1.154
Redundant switching states No No Yes
Reduction of z1 z2 currents No No Yes
Implementation complexity Simple Simple Complex

6.2. Overmodulation Region

In [137,138], an overmodulation (OVM) strategy is proposed on the basis of SVPWM
in [62], where the desired voltage vector in the αβ subspace was synthesized using two
adjacent active vectors. This resulted in large current harmonics in the z1 –z2 subspace.
OVM strategies require a group of harmonics in line-neutral voltages to attain an increase
in the modulation index, which inherently generates significant low-order harmonics
in the z1 − z2 subspace. To reduce harmonics in the OVM region, two different space-
vector-based OVM (SVOVM) techniques are proposed in [139,140], which use four active
VVs (2 L + 2 ML) and five active VVs (2 L + 1 M + 2 S), respectively. With these vectors,
by formulating an optimization problem to achieve minimum root-mean-square (RMS)
voltage in the z1 − z2 subspace, the current harmonics can be reduced effectively in DTP
drives. Further, an OVM technique modulated by two separately three-phase inverters
(TINV-based OVM) rather than the six-phase inverter described in [139,140], is proposed
in [141], where the computational cost is significantly reduced without the involving
complex six-dimensional transformation discussed in previous studies.
 Energies 2021, 14, 7508 27 of 46

7. PWM Techniques for ST-DTC

As mentioned above, for the FOC method, two adjacent vectors, or virtual vectors, are
employed to synthesize all the VVs in one sector. However, in the ST-DTC method, only
one voltage vector or virtual voltage vector is employed to achieve flux linkage and torque
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 46
control, according to the output of the stator flux and torque hysteresis regulators and the
prefixed switching table. Hence, PWM techniques for ST-DTC are totally different from the
methods used in DTP drives described in Section 6.
In [85], In
the[85],
ST-DTC is analyzed
the ST-DTC for DTPfor
is analyzed machines. Firstly, Firstly,
DTP machines. the αβ subspace is divided
the αβ subspace is divided
into 12 into
sectors, and appropriate VVs are obtained through instantaneous
12 sectors, and appropriate VVs are obtained through instantaneous control control of the of the
stator flux andflux
stator torque. Subsequently,
and torque. in orderintoorder
Subsequently, decrease the computation
to decrease burdenburden
the computation and and
maximize the utilization
maximize of DC bus
the utilization of DCvoltage, only theonly
bus voltage, 12 largest
the 12 VVs in VVs
largest the αβ
insubspace are
the αβ subspace are
employed (L), as shown
employed in Figure
(L), as shown 27. In this
in Figure way,
27. In thisthe method
way, proposed
the method in [85]in(ST-DTC-
proposed [85] (ST-DTC-L)
L) is easy to implement,
is easy but itbut
to implement, suffers from large
it suffers from stator currentcurrent
large stator harmonics, since only
harmonics, sincetheonly the
requirements of stator
requirements offlux in flux
stator the αβ subspace
in the and torque
αβ subspace are considered,
and torque and stator
are considered, flux flux in
and stator
in the z1the
z2 subspace is uncontrollable.
z1 z2 subspace is uncontrollable.

β z2
26 27

18 11

22 9
9 52
22 42
26
27
α 36 37
18 z1
54 41 11
54 41

52 45

36 37

(a) (b)

SA SA
SB SB
SC SC

SX SX
SY SY
SZ SZ
Ts Ts

(c) (d)
Figure 27. PWM27.
Figure techniques in [85]. (a)
PWM techniques inVoltage
[85]. (a)vector
Voltageselection strategies
vector selection in αβ subspace.
strategies (b) Voltage
in αβ subspace. (b) Voltage
vector selection strategies in z1z2 subspace. (c) PWM switching sequences for V9. (d)
vector selection strategies in z1z2 subspace. (c) PWM switching sequences for V9. (d) PWMPWM switch-
switching
ing sequences for V11.
sequences for V11.

In orderIntoorder
control the components
to control in the in
the components z1zthe
2 subspace and reduce current harmon-
z1 z2 subspace and reduce current harmonics,
ics, the the
authors of [87] employed an ST-DTC
authors of [87] employed an ST-DTC method method basedbased
on VVs oninVVs
L and ML
in L groups
and ML groups
(ST-DTC-L + ML). Since
(ST-DTC-L + ML). theSince
VVs the
in the
VVsL and MLLgroups
in the and ML have the same
groups have direction
the sameindirection
the in
αβ subspace while the opposite direction in the z z subspace, the amplitude
the αβ subspace while the opposite direction in the z1 z2 subspace, the amplitude of the
1 2 of the com-
ponentscomponents
in the z1z2 subspace
in the z1 z2can be set to
subspace canzero, astoshown
be set inshown
zero, as Figurein28a,b;
Figuresubsequently,
28a,b; subsequently,
the corresponding
the corresponding harmonic currents are decreased. Furthermore, intoorder
harmonic currents are decreased. Furthermore, in order implement
to implement
standard centralization PWM sequences, three adjacent vectors in
standard centralization PWM sequences, three adjacent vectors in the L group the L group are
areem-
employed
ployed to synthesize
synthesize the
the virtual
virtual vectors,
vectors, which
which are
are equivalent
equivalent toto the
the virtual
virtual vectors
vectors synthesized
syn-
thesizedbybythethevectors
vectorsininthetheLLand
andMLMLgroups.
groups.For Forexample,
example,the
thevirtual
virtualvectors
vectors synthesized
synthe- by
sized byV9-V11-V27
V9-V11-V27ininthe theLLgroups
groupsare areemployed
employedtotoreplacereplacethe
thevirtual
virtualvectors
vectors synthesized
synthe- by
sized byV11-V25
V11-V25totoobtain
obtainstandard
standardPWM PWMsequences,
sequences, asas shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 28c,d.
28c,d.
 Energies
Energies 2021, 14, x2021, 14, 7508
FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 46 28 of 46

β z2
26 27

19 10 13 20
18 11
30 30
25 25

22 9 42
22 50 9 44
43 52 27 53
26 37
20
α 10 36 18 z1
13 41 11 19
54 54 41

38 38
33 33
52 45 43
53 44 50

36 37

(a) (b)
Ts Ts

SA SA
SB SB
SC SC

SX SX
SY SY
SZ SZ
TD4/2 TD3 TD4/2 TD3/2 TD4-3/2 TD4 TD4-3/2 TD3/2

(c) (d)
Figure 28. PWM28.
Figure techniques in [87]. (a)
PWM techniques inVoltage
[87]. (a)vector selection
Voltage strategies
vector selection in αβ subspace.
strategies (b) Voltage
in αβ subspace. (b) Voltage
vector selection strategiesstrategies
vector selection in z1z2 subspace. (c) PWM(c)
in z1z2 subspace. switching sequences
PWM switching for V11-V25.
sequences (d) PWM(d) PWM
for V11-V25.
switching sequences
switching for V9-V11-V27.
sequences for V9-V11-V27.

In [90,91],
In the 5th and
[90,91], the 7th5th back-EMF harmonicsharmonics
and 7th back-EMF are considered in DTP machines.
are considered in DTPBe- machines.
cause the 5th and
Because the7th5th back-EMF
and 7th harmonics
back-EMF that possessthat
harmonics phase possessshifts phase
are unaligned
shifts arewith
unaligned
the VVswith
in thetheL VVs
and ML in the groups,
L andthe MLST-DTC
groups,based on the VVs
the ST-DTC based in on
thethe L and VVsMLin groups
the L and ML
can onlygroups
compensate
can only compensate for the selective order back-EMF harmonics, as[90].
for the selective order back-EMF harmonics, as concluded in concluded
Hence, in [90].
orderHence,
to obtain composite
in order vectors
to obtain aligned vectors
composite with back-EMFaligned with harmonic compo-
back-EMF harmonic
nents, the VVs in thethe
components, M VVs group in are
the employed
M group are to employed
combine with the VVswith
to combine in the
theLVVs
andinML the L and
groups ML
(STDTC-L
groups +(STDTC-L
ML + M)+inML [91], dueinto
+ M) their
[91], duedifferent directionsdirections
to their different with VVswith in the
VVsLin the L
and MLand ML groups,
groups, as shown as in
shown
Figure in 29a,b.
FigureIn 29a,b. In this
this way, theway,
back-EMFthe back-EMF harmonics harmonics
can be can be
fully compensated;
fully compensated; consequently,
consequently, the current
the current harmonics harmonics
caused caused by back-EMF by back-EMF
distortiondistortion
can be reduced. Further, proper PWM techniques with VVs selection from the L, ML, andML, and
can be reduced. Further, proper PWM techniques with VVs selection from the L,
M groupsM groups are proposed
are proposed in [91] toinobtain
[91] tostandard
obtain standard PWM sequences.
PWM sequences. For example, For example,
V59 is V59
selectedisinstead
selected of instead of V3 towith
V3 to combine combine
V10-V27withinV10-V27
order toingenerate
order tostandardgeneratePWM standard se- PWM
quences,sequences,
as shown as in shown
Figuresin Figure
29c,d, 29c,d,
where TD2where TD2 ,TTD4D3are
, TD3, and , and theTdwelling
D4 are the dwelling
times for thetimes for
appliedthe applied
voltage voltage vectors.
vectors.
The results of the use of different PWM techniques in ST-DTCs are summarized in
Figure 30, from β which it can be deduced that virtual vector synthesis z2 by VVs in multiple
groups are26 effective 27
at reducing the current harmonics. However, from the perspective
19 13
of dc18 bus voltage 10 utilization,
11 ST-DTC-L + ML and ST-DTC-L 30
20+ ML + M are lower than
30 4 31 24 61
2 31 24 59 25
ST-DTC-L, 58 which3 is a clear disadvantage, as summarized
25
8
60 in Table 5
23
16.
16 15
9 44 22 9
22 50 23 8 15 42 16
43 53
6 57 6 26 27 57

20
62 1 α 10
62
36
37 1
z1
48 47 40 18 55 19
54 13 41 11
55 40 47 54 41 48
4 61 2 59
38 60 32 39 5 38 58 32 39 3
33 33
52 45 43
53 44 50

36 37

(a) (b)

Energies 2021, 14, 7508
and ML groups, as shown in Figure 29a,b. In this way, the back-EMF harmonics can be
fully compensated; consequently, the current harmonics caused by back-EMF distortion
can be reduced. Further, proper PWM techniques with VVs selection from the L, ML, and
M groups are proposed in [91] to obtain standard PWM sequences. For example, V59 is
selected instead of V3 to combine with V10-V27 in order to generate standard PWM se- 29 of 46
quences, as shown in Figures 29c,d, where TD2, TD3, and TD4 are the dwelling times for the
applied voltage vectors.

β z2
26 27
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 46
19 10 13 20
18 11
30
30 4 31 24 61
2 31 24 59 25 60 5
25
58 3
8 23
16 15
9 44 22 9
22 50 23 8 15 42 16
43 53
6 57 Ts
6 26 27 57 Ts
20
62 1 α 10
62
36
37 1
z1
48 47 40 18 55 19
54 13 41 11
55 SA 40 47 SA 54 41 48
4 61 2 59
38 60 32 39 5 38 58 32 39 3
SB 33 SB 33
52 45 43
53 44 50
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW SC SC 30 of 46
36 37
SX SX
SY (a) SY(b)
SZ Ts SZT
s
TD2/2 TD3/2 TD4 TD3/2 TD2/2 TD3/2 TD4/2 TD2 TD4/2 TD3/2

SA SA
SB (c) SB (d)
SC C S
Figure 29. PWM techniques in [91]. (a) Voltage vector selection strategies in αβ subspace, (b) Voltage
SX SX
vector selection strategies in z1z2 subspace, (c) PWM switching sequences for V3-V10-V27, (d) PWM
SY SY
switching sequences for V10-V27-V59.
SZ SZ
TD2/2 TD3/2 TD4 TD3/2 TD2/2 TD3/2 TD4/2 TD2 TD4/2 TD3/2
The results of the use of different PWM techniques in ST-DTCs are summarized in
Figure 30, from(c) which it can be deduced that virtual vector (d) synthesis by VVs in multiple
Figure 29.groups
PWM are effective
techniques in at
[91]. reducing
(a) Voltage the current
vector harmonics.
selection strategies in However,
αβ from
subspace,
Figure 29. PWM techniques in [91]. (a) Voltage vector selection strategies in (b) the perspective
αβVoltage
subspace, of
(b) Voltage
dc bus
vector selection voltage
strategies inutilization,
z 1z2 subspace,ST-DTC-L
(c) PWM + ML
switchingand ST-DTC-L
sequences for + ML +
V3-V10-V27,M are
(d) PWMlower
vector selection strategies in z1 z2 subspace, (c) PWM switching sequences for V3-V10-V27, (d) PWM than ST-
switchingDTC-L,
sequences for V10-V27-V59.
which is a clear disadvantage, as summarized in Table 16.
switching sequences for V10-V27-V59.
The results of the use of different PWM techniques in ST-DTCs are summarized in
Figure 30, from which it can be deduced that virtual vector synthesis by VVs in multiple
groups are effective at reducing the current harmonics. However, from the perspective of
dc bus voltage utilization, ST-DTC-L + ML and ST-DTC-L + ML + M are lower than ST-
DTC-L, which is a clear disadvantage, as summarized in Table 16.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure30.
30.Experimental
Experimentalresults.
results.Top:
Top:phase
phasecurrents
currentsininphases
phasesa a(ia(i
) aand x (i
) and ).xBottom:
xx(i spectra.
). Bottom: (a) ST−DTC−L
spectra. (a) ST−DTC[85]. (b)
−L [85].
ST−DTC−L + ML [87]. (c) ST−DTC−L + ML + M [91].
(b) ST−DTC−L + ML [87]. (c) ST−DTC−L + ML + M [91].

Table16.
Table PWMtechniques
16.PWM techniquesfor
forST-DTC
ST-DTCin
inDTP
DTPmachines.
machines.
(a) (b) (c)
L L spectra. (a) ST−DTC−L
Figure 30. Experimental results. Top: phase currents in phases a (ia) and x (ix). Bottom: LL++ML
ML [85]. (b) LL ++ ML
ML + M
ST−DTC−L + ML [87]. (c) ST−DTC−L + ML Maximum
+ M [91]. modulation
Maximum modulation index index 1.12
1.12 11 0.894
0.894
Utilization
Utilization ofofdcdclink
linkvoltage
voltage 0.644U
0.644U DC DC 0.577U
0.577U DC
DC 0.512U
0.512UDC DC
Table 16. PWM techniques z1for ST-DTC in DTP machines.
Reduction
Reduction of of z−1-zz22 currents
currents Worse
Worse Normal
Normal Good
Good
Implementation complexity Simple Normal Complex
Implementation complexity L Simple L + ML Normal
L + ML + M Complex
Maximum modulation index 1.12 1 0.894
8. Sensorless
Utilization of dc link Control
voltage 0.644UDC 0.577UDC 0.512UDC
ReductionSensorless
of z1-z2 currents Worse
control aims to Normal
remove the rotor Goodthe control system,
position sensor from
Implementation complexity Simple Normal Complex
and thus features advantages in PMSM drives in the form of cost reduction, system down-
sizing, and reliability enhancement [142]. The sensorless control of conventional three-
8. Sensorless
phaseControl
PMSMs has been thoroughly studied so far, and the control approaches can be clas-
Sensorless control aims to remove the rotor position sensor from the control system,
ergies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW mate, online, the back-EMF [143−148] and flux linkage [149−1
damental excitation, from which the rotor position can be fu
rotor position estimation is more applicable in high-speed re
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 30 of 46
sified into
curacy at two categories:
low-speed and model-based
zero-speed sensorless
conditions control dueand tosalient-
the m
less control.
verter The former
nonlinearity, as usually
well as utilizes its lowthe mathematical ratio.
signal-to-noise modelThe of
8.mate,
usually
online,
Sensorless makes
Control the back-EMF [143−148] and flux linkage [149−153] asso
use of the salient effect by injecting high freque
damental
Sensorlessexcitation,
control aims to from
remove which
the rotortheposition
rotor sensor
positionfrom can be further
the control sys- ext
the
rotor
tem, rotor
andposition position;
thus features estimation hence,
advantages inis it
more
PMSM is suitable
applicable
drives for
in the formin the low-speed
high-speed
of cost and
regions bu
reduction, system
erence
downsizing, to
curacy atPMSMs
andthe injected
reliability
low-speed signals,
enhancement
and zero-speed the
[142]. The control
sensorless
conditions approaches
control
due to thecan
of conventional
model’sbe g
three-phase has been thoroughly studied so far, and the control approaches can
and
verter
be pulsating
nonlinearity,
classified [157]
into two categories: HF
as well signal
as its low
model-based injection;
control pulsating
signal-to-noise
sensorless ratio.HF The signal
and salient-effect-based salient-
sensorless control. The former usually utilizes the mathematical model of the machine
vided
usuallyinto makes pulsating
use of thesinusoidal
salient effect and pulsating
by injecting
to estimate, online, the back-EMF [143–148] and flux linkage [149–153] associated with
highsquare-wave
frequency (HF H
thefundamental
the rotor
The position;
excitation,hence,
sensorless fromcontrol
which it isthesuitable
approaches for can
rotor position thementioned
below-speed and
above
further extracted. zero-sp
This belo
kind of rotor position
erence to the injected estimation is
signals, more applicable
the and
control in high-speed
approaches regions but suffers
can be grouped a
three-phase PMSMand
from inaccuracy at low-speed systems,
zero-speed conditions can duebe also
to the extended
model’s uncertainty to the
and
and pulsating
inverter [157]
nonlinearity, HF assignal
as well its low injection;
signal-to-noise pulsating HF signal injection
ratio. The salient-effect-based
garding MTP PMSMs, thanks to thehigh additional degrees of
vided into pulsating sinusoidal and pulsating square-wave
control usually makes use of the salient effect by injecting frequency (HF) signalsHF to signal
niques
calculate theof rotorrotor position
position; estimation
hence, it is suitable have and
for the low-speed been proposed
zero-speed range. in r
With reference to the injected signals, the control approaches can be grouped as rotat- to th
The sensorless control approaches mentioned above belong
strates
three-phase
ing [154–156] theandsuperiority
PMSM [157]
pulsating HFof
systems, MTP
signaland PMSMs
canpulsating
injection; be also inHFextended
the
signalarea of
to sensorles
injections the
can beMTP fa
further
used divided
anMTP into pulsating
auxiliary sinusoidal
resistor and pulsating square-wave HF signal injections.
garding PMSMs, thanksnetwork to measure
to the additional degrees
The sensorless control approaches mentioned above belong to the category of single-
theofthird freedomha
phase
niques sets
three-phase ofPMSM (Figure
rotor position
systems, 31).
and can According
estimation
be also extended to to
have thethephase
been proposed
MTP relationship
family. in recent be
However, y
regarding MTP
strates theharmonic PMSMs, thanks
superiorityEMFs, to the
of MTPthe additional
PMSMs degrees of freedom,
in the area many novel
of sensorless tech-
the
niquesthird
of rotor position estimation have been proposed estimator in Figure
in recent years, 32 cancontrol
which demonstrates be em
used
position
the an auxiliary
superiority (Figure
of MTP PMSMs resistor
33). network
in the area to measure
of sensorless control. The the
authorthird
of [158]harmonic
used
an auxiliary
phase resistor
sets network
(Figure 31).toAccording
measure the third harmonic
to the phaseEMFs of two three-phase
relationship between th
sets (Figure 31). According to the phase relationship between the fundamental and the
the harmonic
third third harmonic EMFs, the
EMFs, the estimator estimator
in Figure 32 can bein Figureto32
employed can betheemployed
calculate rotor t
position
position (Figure
(Figure 33). 33).

Figure 31. Measurement of the third harmonic EMFs using addition

Figure
Figure31. Measurement of the thirdof
31. Measurement harmonic EMFsharmonic
the third using additional
EMFsresistor network
using [158].
additional resisto
e3_set1 E3sin3(Δθr)
+ E3sin3(Δθr)
e3_set1 + PID I θr
- PID I θr
e3_set2 -
e3_set2

θr θr
sin3sin3

θr θr
cos3cos3

Figure 32. Rotor position estimator using third harmonic EMFs of two three-phase sets [158].
Figure 32.
Figure 32.Rotor
Rotorposition
positionestimator usingusing
estimator third third
harmonic EMFs ofEMFs
harmonic two three-
of tw
d rotor
(rad)
rotor

6
rad)

6
 cos3qr

Energies 2021, 14, 7508

Figure 32. Rotor position estimator using third harmonic
31 of 46

Third harmonic Estimated rotor

back EMFs (V) position (rad)
6
4
2

-0.5

0.5
50 100 150 200
Time (ms)
Figure 33. Measured third harmonic back-EMFs and estimated rotor position [158].
Figure 33. Measured third harmonic back-EMFs and estim
Unlike [158], the auxiliary resistor network is not required in [159,160]. The zero-
sequence carrier voltage between the neutral points of two winding sets are measured
after injecting HF carrier signals, and the rotor position can be derived from the measured
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Unlike [158], the auxiliary resistor network is n
voltage. The injected HF carrier signals can be classified into pulsating injection [159] and
33 of 46
rotating injection [160], as shown in Table 17.
quence carrier voltage between the neutral points o
It is clear that after the pulsating and rotating HF signals are injected, the voltage
difference between two isolated neutral points includes the zero-sequence carrier voltage
injecting HF carrier signals, and the rotor position ca
𝑢 u0sn1n2, which
, whichisisrelevant
relevant toto the rotor position
positionandandinjected
injectedsignals.
signals.Using
Usingthe thedemodulation
demodula-
tion functions,
functions, thethe estimated
estimated errors
errors cancan
be be calculated
calculated andand
thenthen utilized
utilized to compensate
to compensate forfor
the
age. The injected HF carrier signals can be classifi
the estimated
estimated rotor
rotor position.
position. There
There areare clear
clear biases
biases andand ripples
ripples in the
in the estimated
estimated rotor
rotor po-
position,
sition,
whichwhich
can becan be eliminated
eliminated by optimizing
by optimizing theshift
the phase phase shiftϕangle
angle between 𝜑 between the signals
the injection injec-
rotating injection [160], as shown in Table 17.
of two
tion three-phase
signals sets. Specifically,
of two three-phase the optimal
sets. Specifically, thephase
optimalshift angles
phase areangles
shift π/2 andare π/2
2π/3 for
and
thefor
2π/3 pulsating injection
the pulsating and rotating
injection injection,
and rotating respectively.
injection, The overall
respectively. control
The overall system
control sys-is
shown
tem in Figure
is shown 34. 34.
in Figure
Table 17. Rotor position estimation using zero-sequence carrier voltage be
uhf1
udq1∗ ++
uabc1
idq1∗ + Current
dq SVPWM
ω∗ + regulator DTP
Speed
+ uhf2
Pulsating
-
Injection [159]
abc
u +
regulator
∗
+
-
Current udq2∗ abc2
&6-phase
VSI PMSM
ω idq2
-
regulator
HF signal
injection
idq1 iabc1
LPF dq
idq2 iabc2
LPF abc
θre u0sn1n2
I PI Demodulation BPF

Rotor position estimation using zero-sequence carrier voltage

Figure
Figure34.
34.Overall sensorlesscontrol
Overall sensorless control system
system usingusing zero-sequence
zero-sequence carrierinvoltage
carrier voltage DTP PMinmachine
DTP PM ma-
[159,160].
chine [159,160].

In terms of the rotor position errors caused by the parameter uncertainty, [161] pro-
posed a simple correction method to compensate the rotor position error for the DTP PM
machine system, as shown in Figure 35.

Rs Ls Vector control Vector control Rs Ls

of set1 of set2
idq1 idq2
Adaptive + - Adaptive
idq2 observer observer idq1
 2𝑈 ∑
2𝑈 ∑ 𝐿𝐿 ∆𝐿
∆𝐿 2𝑈 ∑ 𝐿 ∆𝐿 5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
𝐿𝐿 −
− 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −𝜔
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡𝑡 +
+ 2𝜃 2𝜃 + + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 + 2𝜃 +
2𝐿 +
2𝐿 + 2𝑀
2𝑀 − − 2𝑀
2𝑀 − − 4𝐿
2𝐿 4𝐿+𝑀 𝑀
2𝑀− −− 2𝐿2𝑀
2𝐿 𝑀𝑀 − − 4𝐿 𝑀 − 2𝐿 𝑀
∑
∑ 𝐿
𝐿 −−
− ∆𝐿
∆𝐿 ∑ 𝐿 − ∆𝐿 66 6
22 2
𝜋𝜋 𝜋 𝜑
𝜑 5𝜋 𝜑
5𝜋 𝜑 𝜑 5𝜋 𝜑
× 𝑠𝑖𝑛
× 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝜔 𝑡𝑡 + + 2𝜃2𝜃 + +
× 𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝜔 𝑡 + 2𝜃 + 𝜃 −
− −− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − − + + − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − +
44 4 22 66 22 2 6 2
𝑢𝑢 𝑢 𝜑𝜑 𝜋𝜋 𝜑 𝜑 𝜑 𝜋 𝜑
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 −
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ++ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 2𝑈
2𝑈 ∆𝐿
∆𝐿 2𝑈 ∆𝐿 2𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋 32 of 46
22 44 22 2 4 2 ++ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔
+ 𝑡𝑡 − − 4𝜃 4𝜃 + + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 4𝜃 +
𝜋𝜋 𝜋 ∑
∑ 𝐿
𝐿 −− ∆𝐿
∆𝐿 ∑ 𝐿 − ∆𝐿 66 6
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝜔 𝑡𝑡 − − 2𝜃 2𝜃 − −+𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛 ++ 𝜔 𝑡 − 2𝜃 − 𝜃 + 𝜑
𝜑 2𝜋 𝜑
2𝜋 𝜑 𝜑 2𝜋 𝜑
44 4 −− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − − + + − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − +
Table 17. Rotor position estimation 𝜑𝜑 using𝜋𝜋zero-sequence 𝜑 𝜑
𝜑 𝜋 voltage
carrier 𝜑 between two 22 neutral 66 22 2
points. 6 2
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − − + + − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − +
22 44 22 2 4 2
phase Optimal phasePulsating Injection
Optimal phase
Optimal 𝜋𝜋 [159] 𝜋 2𝜋
2𝜋 Rotating Injection 2𝜋 [160]
√ 𝜑𝜑 == 𝜑 = 𝜑𝜑 =
= 𝜑 =
angle 𝜑
shift angle
shift 𝜑 shift angle 𝜑 − 2Uc ( L0 − M0 )(22L2 − M2 ) L2 × 2 − 2UcL∑23 3Ls ∆L2 s sin ωc t + 2θr + 3 5π ϕ
5π
6 − 2 sin − 6 + 2 +
ϕ

∑ −∆Ls
u0sn1n2 s
2𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃 ) )
2 2 2 2
3𝜃 )) ∗ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔 𝑡 − 3𝜃 𝐿𝑃𝐹 𝑢𝑢ϕ

ϕ
) 𝐿𝑃𝐹 ∗∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝐿𝑃𝐹𝑡)𝑡) ∗∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃 )2π ϕ

2L0 +2M0 −2M2 −4L0 M0 −2L2 M2 − 2
2U𝑢
𝐿𝑃𝐹 𝑢𝑢
𝐿𝑃𝐹 ϕ
∗∗ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔
4𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔
𝐿𝑃𝐹ϕ
𝑡𝑡𝑢− 3𝜃
− c ∆L
sin ∗ω𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔 𝑡)2π∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃
ϕ

c t − 4θr + 6 − 2 sin − 6 + 2
s
sin ωc t + 2θr + θre − π4 − 2 sin π4 + 2 + sin ωc t − 2θr − θre + π4 − 2 sin − π4 + 2

∑ L2s −∆L2s
−√2𝑉 (𝐿
−√2𝑉 (𝐿 − −𝑀 𝑀π )(𝐿)(𝐿−√2𝑉 −𝑀
− 𝑀 (𝐿 )) − 𝑀 )(𝐿 − 𝑀 ) −− 𝐿𝑃𝐹
𝐿𝑃𝐹 𝑢𝑢 ∗∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔
− 𝐿𝑃𝐹 𝑡) 𝑢
𝑡) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔 𝑡)
Optimal phase shift angle ϕ
Demodulation Demodulation
Demodulation == =ϕ = 2 ∗∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃 )
) ϕ = 2π
∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃 3 )
𝐿𝐿 𝐿
2𝐿 +
2𝐿 + 2𝑀
2𝑀 − − 2𝑀 −
2𝑀 − 4𝐿
2𝐿 4𝐿+2V𝑀
√ 𝑀
2𝑀 −−
− 2𝐿2𝑀
2𝐿 𝑀𝑀 − − 4𝐿 𝑀 − 2𝐿 𝑀 − LPF(u0sn1n2 2𝑈 ∗2𝑈cos(∑ ∑ω𝐿 c𝐿 ∆𝐿
t))∆𝐿
∗ sin(2θre ) −2𝑈 LPF∑ (u𝐿0sn1n2 e
∆𝐿 ∗ sin(ωc t)) ∗ cos(2θr ) =
Demodulation e
LPF (u0sn1n2 ∗ 4sin(ωc t − 3θr )) =
− c ( L0 − M0 )( L2 − M2 ) 2
2 2 ∗ sin (2∆θ )
2 == −
− 2U∗
∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2∆𝜃)
c=𝑠𝑖𝑛(2∆𝜃)
∑ L−
s ∆Ls ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2∆𝜃)
∗∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2∆𝜃)
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2∆𝜃) ∗2L𝑠𝑖𝑛(2∆𝜃) ∑∑ 𝐿𝐿 − − ∆𝐿 ∆𝐿− ∑ L2s −∆L2s ∑∗𝐿sin− (2∆θ )
L
2 +2M2 −2M2 −4L M −2L M − 2
0 0 2 0 0 2 2 2 ∆𝐿
88 88 88 88

Rotor position

Rotor position
Rotor position

Rotor position
66 66 66 66

(rad)

(rad)
(rad)

(rad)
44 44 44 44
22 22 22 22
Test results
Test results with-
with- Test results
00 with- 00 00 00
Test results without phase shift 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4

error (rad)

error (rad)
out phase
out phase shift
shift out phase
Estimation

Estimation
error (rad)

error (rad)
shift

Estimation

Estimation
00 00 00 00
-0.4
-0.4 -0.4
-0.4 -0.4
-0.4 -0.4
-0.4

00 0.5
0.5 11 00 1.50.5
1.50.5 22 11 1.5
1.5 0022 0.5
0.5 1100 1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5 22 11 1.5
1.5 22
Time (s)
Time (s) Time (s)
Time (s) Time (s)
Time (s) Time (s)
Time (s)

88 88 88 88
Rotor position

Rotor position
Rotor position

Rotor position
66 66 66 66
(rad)

(rad)
(rad)

(rad)
44 44 44 44
22 22 22 22
Test results
Test results with
with Test results with
00 00 00 00
optimal phase
Test results with optimal phase optimal
shift phase optimal0.4phase
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4
error (rad)

error (rad)
Estimation

Estimation
error (rad)

error (rad)
Estimation

Estimation
shift
shift shift
00 00 00 00
-0.4
-0.4 -0.4
-0.4 -0.4
-0.4 -0.4
-0.4

00 0.5
0.5 1100 1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5 22 11 1.5
1.5 00 22 0.5
0.5 1100 1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5 22 11 1.5
1.5 22
Time (s)
Time (s) Time (s)
Time (s) Time (s)
Time (s) Time (s)
Time (s)

Notes:
Notes: The values ωc and Uc are theNotes: The
angularThe valuesand
values
frequency 𝜔Notes:
𝜔 and The
and
Notes:
amplitude 𝑈 of
𝑈
The are
are
values
values
injection𝜔𝜔 signals,
the angular
the angular
and 𝑈respectively.
𝑈
frequency
andfrequencyare the
are and
theand amplitude
amplitude
angular
angular
The frequency
frequency
value of injection
θr is of
the injection
and
and
real signals,
signals,
amplitude
amplitude
rotor respectively.
position, respectively.
of
of
and injection
injection The value
The value
signals,
signals,
θre is the estimated 𝜃𝜃position.
is
is
respectively.
respectively.
rotor The
The valueϕ𝜃𝜃is the
The value
value is phase shift
is
the
angle between the injection signalsthe realsets.
real
of two rotor
rotor
The ∆θ
position,
position,
valuethe and
and
is
the realthe 𝜃
𝜃 is
is the
the
estimation
real rotor
rotor position, and 𝜃𝜃 is
estimated
estimated
error.
position, and The rotor
rotor
values position.
position.
is theL and M
the estimatedThe
The value
value
denote
estimated rotorthe 𝜑
𝜑 is
is the
the
inductance
rotor position. phase
phase
position. The and value 𝜑
shift
shift
mutual
The value 𝜑 is
angle
angle between
between
inductance
is the
the the injection
the
of machine.
phase
phase shift
shift injectionvalues L0 the
Thebetween
angle
angle between M0 denote the phase
andinjection
the injection
average inductance and mutual inductance.
signals of
signals The values
of two
two L2The
sets.
sets. and
The M2 denote
value
value
signals
signals of ∆𝜃
of∆𝜃
twois
two the
is amplitudes
the
the
sets.
sets. estimation
estimation
The
The value
value of the
∆𝜃
∆𝜃 phase
error.
error.
is the
is thesecond-order
The
The values LL and
values
estimation
estimation inductance
and M
error.
error.M denote
denoteand
The values
The mutual
the
the
values inductance.
inductance
inductance
LL and
and M andThe
and
M denote
denote thevalues
mutual
mutual
the ∑ Ls and
inductance
inductance
inductance
inductance and
and∆Lmutual
s are theinductance
mutual average and differential
inductance
synchronous inductances, respectively. The value u0sn1n2 is the voltage between two neutral points. The function LPF() means low pass filter function. The value Act_pos means the actual rotor position. The
of machine.
of machine. TheThe values
values
of
of machine.
machine.and M
LL00 and MThe
The denote
00 denote
values
values the
the
L
L phase
00 phase
and
and MM average
average
denote
00 denote inductance
inductance
the
the phase
phase and mutual
and
average
average mutual inductance.
inductance.
inductance
inductance and
and The values
The
mutual
mutual values LL22 and
and M
inductance.
inductance. M
The
The
22 values
values LL22 and
and M M22
values Est_Pos_V0n1n2 and Est_Pos_Vn1n2 mean the estimated rotor position. The value Est_error means the estimation error.
denote the
denote the amplitudes
amplitudes of the
of
denote
denote the
the phase
thephase second-order
second-order
amplitudes
amplitudes of the
of inductance
inductance
the phase
phase and mutual
and
second-order
second-order mutual inductance.
inductance.
inductance
inductance The values
The
and mutual
and values
mutual ∑ 𝐿𝐿 and
∑
inductance.
inductance.and The
The∆𝐿values
∆𝐿 ∑
are the
are
values ∑ 𝐿𝐿 and
the ∆𝐿 are
and ∆𝐿 are the
the
average and
average and differential
differential synchronous
synchronous
average
average inductances,
inductances,
and differential
and differential respectively.
respectively.
synchronous
synchronous The value
The
inductances,
inductances, value 𝑢𝑢
respectively.
respectively. is
is thevalue
the
The
The value 𝑢𝑢 between
voltage
voltage between two
two
is the
is the neutral
neutral
voltage
voltage between two
between two neutral
neutral
points. The
points. The function
functionpoints.
LPF() means
LPF()
points. means low pass
low
The function
The functionpass filter
filter
LPF()
LPF() function.
function.
means
means The value
The
low pass
low pass value Act_pos means
Act_pos
filter function.
filter function. means the actual
the
The value
The value actual
Act_pos
Act_pos rotor
rotor position.
position.
means
means The values
The
the actual
the actual values
rotor position.
rotor position. The
The values
values
Est_Pos_V0n1n2 and
Est_Pos_V0n1n2 and Est_Pos_Vn1n2and
Est_Pos_Vn1n2
Est_Pos_V0n1n2
Est_Pos_V0n1n2 mean
mean
and the estimated
the estimatedmean
Est_Pos_Vn1n2
Est_Pos_Vn1n2 rotor position.
rotor
mean position. The value
The
the estimated
the estimated value
rotor Est_error
rotor Est_error means
means
position. The
position. The theEst_error
the
value
value estimation
estimation
Est_error error.the
error.
means
means the estimation
estimation error.
error.

It is
It is clear
clear that
that after
after the
the
It is pulsating
pulsating
clear andthe
and
that after rotating
rotating HF signals
HF
pulsating signals are injected,
are
and rotatinginjected, the voltage
the
HF signals voltage
are injected, the voltage
difference between
difference between two isolated
two isolated
difference neutral
neutral
between twopoints
points includes
includes
isolated the
the
neutral zero-sequence
zero-sequence
points carrier
carrier
includes the voltage carrier voltage
voltage
zero-sequence
 θre u0sn1n2
I PI Demodulation BPF

Rotor position estimation using zero-sequence carrier voltage

Figure 34. Overall sensorless control system using zero-sequence carrier voltage in DTP PM ma-
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 33 of 46
chine [159,160].

In terms of the rotor position errors caused by the parameter uncertainty, [161] pro-
In terms of the rotor position errors caused by the parameter uncertainty, [161] pro-
posed a simple correction method to compensate the rotor position error for the DTP PM
posed a simple correction method to compensate the rotor position error for the DTP PM
machine system, as shown in Figure 35.
machine system, as shown in Figure 35.

Rs Ls Vector control Vector control Rs Ls

of set1 of set2
idq1 idq2
Adaptive + - Adaptive
idq2 observer observer idq1
udq1 set1 θr1e Δθre θr2
e
set2
udq2
Updated
controller

Figure
Figure 35.35. Rotor
Rotor position
position correction
correction using
using adaptive
adaptive observers
observers inin
thethe DTP
DTP PMPM machine
machine system
system [161].
[161].

The The outputs

outputs ofoftwotwo adaptive
adaptive observers
observers represent
represent thethetwotwo estimated
estimated rotor
rotor positions
positions inin
two three-phase subsystems. However, due to the uncertain resistance
two three-phase subsystems. However, due to the uncertain resistance and inductance, and inductance, the
two estimated positions are not identical, and the difference between
the two estimated positions are not identical, and the difference between the estimated the estimated rotor
positions
rotor is relevant
positions to thetocurrent
is relevant distribution
the current of the of
distribution two thethree-phase sets, which
two three-phase sets,indicates
which
that currents with nonidentical amplitudes and phases in two
indicates that currents with nonidentical amplitudes and phases in two sets amplify sets amplify that difference.
that
Accordingly, extra fundamental current is injected in [161] to achieve
difference. Accordingly, extra fundamental current is injected in [161] to achieve the rotor the rotor position
correction.
position The rotor
correction. Theposition difference
rotor position ∆θre is then
difference ∆𝜃 utilized
is then to tune the
utilized machine
to tune resistance
the machine
and inductance parameters in adaptive
resistance and inductance parameters in adaptive observers. observers. The PI regulators are em-in
The PI regulators are employed
the updated controller to guarantee that ∆θ e can be eliminated, and the rotor position
ployed in the updated controller to guarantee rthat ∆𝜃 can be eliminated, and the rotor
error correction
position is achieved
error correction simultaneously.
is achieved Figure 36
simultaneously. shows
Figure 36the experimental
shows results of
the experimental
rotor position error correction. The extra q-axis current of set 1 is injected at 1.5 s, and
results of rotor position error correction. The extra q-axis current of set 1 is injected at 1.5
subsequently causes additional torque and transient pulsating in position errors, as shown
s, and subsequently causes additional torque and transient pulsating in position errors, as
in Figure 36a. As the updated controller works, the rotor position errors are reduced to zero
shown in Figure 36a. As the updated controller works, the rotor position errors are
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 34 re-
of 46
at a steady-state. The extra current is removed from the system at 3.5 s, after which a short
duced to zero at a steady-state. The extra current is removed from the system at 3.5 s, after
period of pulsating occurs; the error can subsequently remain at 0 degrees. Although the
which a short period of pulsating occurs; the error can subsequently remain at 0 degrees.
position errors are corrected, the injected current in one set causes additional torque and
Although
torque andthe position errors are corrected, the injectedachieve
current insmoother
one set causes additional
pulsating inpulsating
the position in the position
estimation. estimation.
To achieve aTo smoother acorrection, correction,
the the ex-
extra currents
tra injected
are currentsinto
are both
injected
sets,into both sets,inas
as displayed displayed
Figure 36b. Thein Figure
injected36b. The injected
currents currents
feature the same
feature thebut
amplitude sametheamplitude but the opposite
opposite polarity; thus, theypolarity; thus, theyany
cannot introduce cannot introduce
additional any
torque
additional torque as the one-set injection does. Consequently, the
as the one-set injection does. Consequently, the rotor position errors can be smoothlyrotor position errors can
be smoothly regulated
regulated to 0 deg. in 0.25 s.to 0 deg. in 0.25 s.

0 0
Torque

Torque
(Nm)

(Nm)

−60 −60

−120 −120
Position error

Position error

2.5 2.5
(Deg.)

(Deg.)

0 0
−2.5 −2.5

0 0
Current

Current

−1 −1
(A)

(A)

−2 −2
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Figure 36.
Figure 36. Experimental
Experimental results
resultsof
ofrotor
rotorposition
positionerror
errorcorrection.
correction.(a)(a)
One−set current
One−set injection.
current (b)
injection.
Both set current injection [161].
(b) Both set current injection [161].

9. Fault Tolerance Control

Fault tolerance is an important property, and makes MTP machines distinct from
conventional three-phase machines. Fault tolerance control aims to utilize the additional
degrees of freedom in MTP machine systems and keeps the machine continuously oper-
ating after one (or more) phase(s) develop faults. The fault usually occurs in the power
switches and the machine windings, and faults in both the power switches and the ma-
chine windings cause short-circuit or open-circuit in MTP drives. Fault tolerance for short-
circuit faults is only feasible in MTP machines with modular structures and winding ar-
 −1 −1

Cur

Cur
((

((
Cu

Cu
−2 −2
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 34 of(b)
Figure 36. Experimental results of rotor position error correction. (a) One−set current injection. 46
Both set current injection [161].

9. Fault Tolerance Control

9. Fault Tolerance Control
Fault tolerance is an important property, and makes MTP machines distinct from
Fault tolerance is an important property, and makes MTP machines distinct from
conventional three-phase machines. Fault tolerance control aims to utilize the additional
conventional three-phase machines. Fault tolerance control aims to utilize the additional
degrees of freedom in MTP machine systems and keeps the machine continuously oper-
degrees of freedom in MTP machine systems and keeps the machine continuously oper-
ating after one (or more) phase(s) develop faults. The fault usually occurs in the power
ating after
switches andone (ormachine
the more) phase(s)
windings,develop faults.
and faults in The
bothfault usuallyswitches
the power occurs in thethe
and power
ma-
switches and the machine windings, and faults in both the power switches and the ma-
chine windings cause short-circuit or open-circuit in MTP drives. Fault tolerance for short-
chine windings cause short-circuit or open-circuit in MTP drives. Fault tolerance for
circuit faults is only feasible in MTP machines with modular structures and winding ar-
short-circuit faults is only feasible in MTP machines with modular structures and wind-
rangements [5,162−164]. In general, fault tolerance control for short-circuit faults involves
ing arrangements [5,162–164]. In general, fault tolerance control for short-circuit faults
the isolation of the faulty sets of three-phase windings, followed by the operation of the
involves the isolation of the faulty sets of three-phase windings, followed by the operation
machine with the remaining sets of windings. Compared to the fault tolerance used for
of the machine with the remaining sets of windings. Compared to the fault tolerance
short-circuit faults, the most widely investigated cases in recent research have been post-
used for short-circuit faults, the most widely investigated cases in recent research have
fault
been control strategies
post-fault control for open-circuit
strategies faults. Most
for open-circuit faultsMost
faults. can faults
be considered as open-cir-
can be considered as
cuit. The performances of post-fault control strategies against open-circuit
open-circuit. The performances of post-fault control strategies against open-circuit faults arefaults
cov-
ered in [165−185].
are covered in [165–185].
The purpose of fault tolerance control is usually to generate a rotating flux field to
The purpose of fault tolerance control is usually to generate a rotating flux field to drag
drag the rotor
the rotor using using the residual
the residual healthyhealthy
phases.phases. The control
The control strategies
strategies dependdepend on the
on the degrees
degrees of freedom of the machine. MTP machines can be grouped into
of freedom of the machine. MTP machines can be grouped into two types, according to two types, accord-
ing
theirtoconnection
their connection of neutral
of neutral points, points,
namelynamely
isolatedisolated
neutral neutral points
points and and connected
connected neutral
neutral points, as shown
points, as shown in Table 18. in Table 18.

Table 18.
Table Fault tolerant
18. Fault tolerant control
control methods
methods of
of DTP
DTP PMSM.
PMSM.
Isolated Neutral
Isolated NeutralPoint
PointType
Type Connected Neutral
Connected Neutral PointPoint Type
Type
B1 Fault tolerant control: B1 Optimal current control:
Optimal current control:
1. Simply cut off the entire 1. Maximal average torque
B2 Fault
A2 Fault tolerant set
control: B2 A 2 1. Maximal average torque
three-phase with fault. Fault 2. Minimal torque ripples
2. Minimal torque ripples
1. Simply cut off
2. Extended VSD the entire
control 3. Minimal copper loss
3. Minimal copper loss
A1 three-phase set with fault. A1
with negative sequence
2. Extended VSD control with Connected
4.
4. Uniform
Uniform distribution
distribution of of
Isolated neutral
current copper loss
negativeinjection. copper loss
points neutral points
sequence
Robust control:
Robust control:
current injection.
1. Fuzzy current control
C1 C1 1. Fuzzy current control
2. Robust speed control
C2 C2
2. Robust speed control

In terms of the isolated type, the most common approach is to cut off the three-phase
set, in which the fault occurs, from the control system; the required torque can be equally
distributed to the healthy sets. To take the DTP machine as an example, when phase A2
is faulty due to the isolated neutral point of the second set, the currents of phases B2 and
C2 are identical, and can only generate a pulsating flux field, which leads to poor torque
performance. Therefore, the second set can simply be abandoned, and the currents of the
first set should be doubled to make up for the lost torque; in other words, the available
torque and power are reduced to half of their previous rating. This case does not require
the conversion of the control to the specifically designed postfault algorithm if each set
is individually regulated, which is quite simple to implement and practical in industrial
applications, such as railway traction [168,169] and ship propulsion [10–13]. Meanwhile,
the disadvantage is clear. The healthy phases in the fault set, phases B2 and C2 , together
with the corresponding switching devices, are not utilized, and the system utilization is
not maximized.
To improve the system utilization of the machine with isolated neutral points, the
current should be redistributed to the remaining healthy phases. The pulsating flux
generated by the fault set can be decomposed into positive-sequence and negative-sequence
rotating flux. The positive-sequence flux provides average torque while the negative-
sequence flux generates the second-order torque ripple. The core purpose of this kind of
fault tolerance control is to inject negative-sequence current into the healthy set and to
counterbalance the negative-sequence flux; as a result, the average torque remains while the
 To improve the system utilization of the machine with isolated neutral points, the
current should be redistributed to the remaining healthy phases. The pulsating flux gen-
erated by the fault set can be decomposed into positive-sequence and negative-sequence
rotating flux. The positive-sequence flux provides average torque while the negative-se-
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 quence flux generates the second-order torque ripple. The core purpose of this kind 35 ofof46
fault tolerance control is to inject negative-sequence current into the healthy set and to
counterbalance the negative-sequence flux; as a result, the average torque remains while
the torque ripple is eliminated. To implement this idea, a genetic algorithm is provided in
torque ripple is eliminated. To implement this idea, a genetic algorithm is provided in [166]
[166] to optimize the stator currents, thereby maximizing the average torque or minimiz-
to optimize the stator currents, thereby maximizing the average torque or minimizing
ing the torque ripple. Furthermore, the copper loss of faulty DT-PMSM with isolated neu-
the torque ripple. Furthermore, the copper loss of faulty DT-PMSM with isolated neutral
tral
pointspoints is further
is further reduced
reduced byby minimizingthe
minimizing thed-axis
d-axiscurrent
currentofof the
the healthy
healthy three-phase
three-phase
winding [178−180].
winding [178–180].
ItItisisalso
alsopossible
possibletotouse usemodelling
modelling with
with open-circuit
open-circuit faults to achieve
faults to achieve different
different control
con-
purposes.
trol purposes. In particular,
In particular,the VSDthe VSD technique
techniquecan decouple
can decouple motor variables
motor variables in several
in several or-
thogonal subspaces, thereby controlling them independently
orthogonal subspaces, thereby controlling them independently [164,181–185]. Because the [164,181−185]. Because the
VSD
VSD technique
technique can decompose the
can decompose thenegative-sequence
negative-sequencecurrent currentininthe
thez subspace,
z subspace, thethe con-
control
trol structure in [185] is greatly simplified, as shown in Figure 37. The
structure in [185] is greatly simplified, as shown in Figure 37. The values iq *, id *, iz *, vq *, vd *, values iq*, id*, iz*, vq*,

vvdz1
*, vz1*, vz2*, vz3*, v *, v *, v *, v *, v
*, vz2 *, vz3 *, vα2 abc , vx , and vy are the reference values for the voltage and
α2 *, vβ2 *, αv *,β v *,
β2 α
* * *
β vabc *, vx *, and vy * are the reference values for the voltage
currents
and currents in different coordinate
in different systems,
coordinate respectively.
systems, The values
respectively. iabc, ix,iabc
The values iy,,iiα,β,z1,z2,z3 are the
x , iy , iα,β,z1,z2,z3
measured currents. The values V and V are the feedforward
are the measured currents. The values Vffq_d and Vffd_q are the feedforward voltages to
ffq_d ffd_q voltages to compensate
for the d-q coupling.
compensate for the The values Duty
d-q coupling. The and Duty
abc*values Dutyxyz* are the dwelling times for each switch-
abc * and Dutyxyz * are the dwelling times
ing signal.
for each switching signal.

Vffq_d
id*=0 + vd* vα2* vα*
+- PI + d -1
α2 -1 vabc* Dutyabc*
iq* vq* [Tdq] vβ2* [B] vβ* SVPWM
PI q β2
+ +
- Vffd_q +
+ vz1* [T5]-1 vx*
iz1*=0 PIR Dutyxyz*
- vz2*=0 vy* SVPWM
iα vz3*=0
id i vz*=0
[Tdq] α iβ
iq iβ ia, ib, ic
iz1
[T5]
iz2 ix, iy
iz3

Figure
Figure37.
37.Fault
Faulttolerance
tolerancecontrol
controlof
ofDTP
DTPPMSM
PMSMwith
withone−phase
one−phaseopen
openusing
usingVSD
VSDapproach
approach[185].
[185].

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW To

Toeliminate
eliminatethethenegative-sequence
negative-sequence current, a PIR
current, regulator
a PIR is employed
regulator and the
is employed 36 of 46
andfun-
the
damental electrical
fundamental frequency
electrical is utilized
frequency as the
is utilized asresonant frequency.
the resonant Figure
frequency. 38 provides
Figure the
38 provides
experimental results
the experimental under
results healthy
under and and
healthy faulty conditions.
faulty conditions.

(a) (b)
Figure 38. Measured
Figure currents
38. Measured and
currents spectra
and spectra(a)
(a)under
under healthy conditionsand
healthy conditions and(b)(b) under
under fault
fault conditions
conditions [185].[185].

The phase currents are balanced under healthy conditions, and there are few current
The phase currents are balanced under healthy conditions, and there are few current
harmonics according to the spectrum in Figure 38a. When it is converted to a faulty
harmonics
condition, according
it is clearto thethe
that spectrum
two phasein Figure
currents38a. When
of the faultitset
is converted to a faulty
are out of phase, and con-
dition, it is clear that the two phase currents of the fault set are out of phase,
the currents of the healthy set become unbalanced, which is due to the injected negative-and the cur-
rents of the healthy
sequence current,setas become unbalanced,
mentioned above. Inwhich is due
addition, to the
there are injected negative-sequence
also clear odd current
current, as mentioned
harmonics under faultyabove. In addition,
condition efficientthere are alsoisclear
suppression odd current harmonics under
lacking.
faulty condition efficient suppression is lacking.
The type with connected neutral points features more degrees of freedom because all
the healthy phases are available. In this case, the currents of phases B2 and C2 can be flex-
ibly regulated to follow different references, which means they can generate the rotating
flux field and thus provide average torque. However, the post-fault control algorithm is
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 36 of 46

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
The type with connected neutral points features more degrees of freedom because
all the healthy phases are available. In this case, the currents of phases B2 and C2 can
be flexibly regulated to follow different references, which means they can generate the
rotating flux field and thus provide average torque. However, the post-fault control
algorithm is different from the normal algorithm used in the healthy case and should be
specifically designed for this purpose; the issue becomes how to design the optimal current
reference for each healthy phase. The optimization objectives include maximal average
torque, minimal torque ripple, minimal copper loss, and uniform distribution of copper
loss [170–176]. The current harmonics may be injected to boost the average torque and
to reduce the torque ripple of DTP PMSM under open-fault conditions, as in [174]. To
automatically track the condition of an MTPA operation, the injection-based MTPA control
in three-phase machine drive is extended to the fault tolerance control of five-phase PMSM
systems under single- and double-phase fault in [175]. It should be noted that these optimal
current control approaches emphasize designing the current reference, and various current
regulators, as studied in FOC, DTC, and MPC, and can be utilized to track the designed
current references.
To avoid fault detection and algorithm switching between normal control and fault
tolerance control, the robust control attracts the attention of researchers due to its good
disturbance rejection capability. The loss of phases can be considered as a disturbance of
machine parameter variation. If this disturbance can be easily rejected by the controller,
the system can dynamically respond to the fault, and consequently the machine can still
be operated without fault detection or algorithm transition. A robust speed regulator
is used in [177] to provide average torque under both normal and post-fault conditions.
Fuzzy logic is employed to design the current regulator of a nine-phase PMSM system
in [186], as shown in Figure 39. The speed PI regulator determines the references, to which
the fuzzy logic controller can achieve fundamental current tracking even before and after
a fault occurs. This means that the amplitudes and phase angles of the currents in the
healthy phases are automatically adjusted to provide the required torque and to cover
the fault. In addition, PI regulators are used to suppress the current harmonics in the
harmonic subspaces, such as the 3rd, 5th, and 7th. Furthermore, fault-tolerant controls
in DTP machines fed by multi-level inverters are also investigated by considering both
open-circuit switch faults and phase faults in [98,187–189], which provide greater37reliability
of 46
and fault capability.

ω∗ + iq1∗ + Fuzzy logic

uq1
PI
controller ua, ub,
- -
+ u d1 Inverse uc, ...
ω 0
Fuzzy logic
controller VSD
+ - ud3, ud5,ud7
0
PI
id3, id5, id7 uq3, uq5,uq7
ia, ib, ic, ... -
iq3, iq5, iq7 id1 iq1
VSD θ
θ
Figure 39.
Figure 39. Fault
Faulttolerant
tolerantcontrol
controlwith
withfuzzy logic
fuzzy current
logic regulator
current [186].
regulator [186].

10. Conclusions
ConclusionsandandFuture
FutureWork
Work
10.1. Conclusions
10.1. Conclusions
Duetototheir
Due their excellent
excellent characteristics,
characteristics, suchsuch as high
as their theirtorque/power
high torque/power
capability,capability,
high
high efficiency, and low torque ripple, the low requirements of their DC link
efficiency, and low torque ripple, the low requirements of their DC link capacitors, their capacitors,
their efficient
efficient power/torque-sharing
power/torque-sharing capability,
capability, modular configuration,
modular configuration, and high faultand high fault
tolerance
tolerance
capability, capability,
multiphasemultiphase
(particularly(particularly
MTP) PMSMsMTP) have PMSMs havetobeen
been applied ship applied to ship
propulsion,
propulsion, electric
electric vehicles, windvehicles, wind power
power generation, generation,
and aerospace and aerospace
application. application.
They offer significantThey
potential for even wider adoption in many high-power and high-fault-tolerance applica-
tions.
This paper presented a comprehensive overview of the advances in multiphase
PMSMs’ machine topologies, modelling methods, PWM techniques, field-oriented con-
trol, direct torque control, model predictive control, sensorless control, fault-tolerant con-
Energies 2021, 14, 7508 37 of 46

offer significant potential for even wider adoption in many high-power and high-fault-
tolerance applications.
This paper presented a comprehensive overview of the advances in multiphase
PMSMs’ machine topologies, modelling methods, PWM techniques, field-oriented control,
direct torque control, model predictive control, sensorless control, fault-tolerant control,
and the newest control strategies for suppressing current harmonics and torque ripples,
as well as carrier phase shift techniques. Many worked examples, presented with the
measured results obtained at the University of Sheffield, were provided to illustrate the
effectiveness of the developed machines and techniques, as well as their excellent perfor-
mance. The emphasis was on DTP PMSMs and their control strategies, since the authors
strongly believe they are most likely to be widely applied in many industries.
Firstly, the topologies of different DTP PMSMs were summarized according to their
slot/pole number, angle displacement, and pitch number combinations. The feasibility
of different winding configurations and the calculation of winding factors with different
winding configurations were also provided in Section 2. The electromagnetic performance
of DTP PMSMs was further introduced in Section 4, based on a 24 slot/22 pole machine
considering different angle displacements. It is suggested that even for the dual three-
phase PMSMs with the same slot/pole number and pitch number combinations, their
performances are affected significantly by angle displacement. Next, aspects of MTP/DTP
modelling methods were reviewed in Section 3, including multiple individual three-phase
modelling with simple structure and implemental simplicity but with coupling in each set
of three phase wingdings, and VSD modelling with decoupling results using decoupling
transformation matrices. Subsequently, recent advances in control strategies, including
FOC, DTC and MPC, were also covered in Section 5. Particularly, current harmonics
reduction in DTP drives was on the main focus as it is a significant topic in the study of
both FOC and DTC, since DTP machines suffer from large low-order current harmonics
due to their inherent low impedance for the 5th and 7th harmonics. Besides, torque
enhancement in FOC and torque ripple reduction in DTC have also received significant
attention in recent years.
Moreover, PWM strategies for DTP were reviewed in Section 6, followed by some
novel aspects of sensorless control, which are successfully adapted from the conventional
three-phase sensorless methods. They include: back-EMF/ flux linkage-based methods,
which offer simple implementation and accuracy in high-speed regions but also demon-
strate inaccuracy under low- and zero-speed conditions due to the model’s uncertainty
and the inverter’s nonlinearity; and the method of injecting high frequency (HF) signals,
which is complicated but suitable for low-speed and zero-speed ranges. Finally, one of
the most significant merits of MTP/DTP machines, their high fault tolerance capability,
was surveyed through the fault-tolerant control discussions in Section 8. The modelling,
optimal current references, and control methods in post-fault operation were studied,
especially in open-circuit faulty conditions.

10.2. Future Work

Recent and future research activities include the development of modular MTP
PMSMs [48–50], and high-phase MTP (such as 9, 12, and 15 phases) PMSMs for high
fault tolerance applications [33,34,36], field modulation and magnetic gearing effects in
MTP PMSMs [190], advanced control techniques for MTP (>DTP) PMSMs, novel parameter
identifications, sensorless control, and fault tolerance control techniques.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.Z.; methodology and validation, S.W., B.S., L.Y., P.X.
and Y.R.; formal analysis and investigation, Z.Z., S.W., B.S., L.Y., P.X. and Y.R.; resources, Z.Z.;
writing—original draft preparation, Z.Z., S.W., B.S. and L.Y.; writing—review and editing, Z.Z., S.W.,
B.S. and L.Y.; supervision, Z.Z.; project administration, Z.Z.; funding acquisition, Z.Z. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
 Energies 2021, 14, 7508 38 of 46

Funding: This research was funded by the UK EPSRC Prosperity Partnership “A New Partnership
in Offshore Wind” under Grant No. EP/R004900/1; Sheffield-Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy
Research Centre, Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy Ltd., Sheffield, UK; GMCC & Welling Shanghai
Research Centre, Midea Group, Shanghai, China; CRRC Zhuzhou Institute Co., Ltd., Zhuzhou, China;
Dynex Semiconductor Ltd., Lincoln, UK; Zhuzhou CRRC Times Electric UK Innovation Center,
Birmingham, UK; Protean Electric Ltd., Farnham, UK; IMRA Europe S. A. S. UK Research Center,
Brighton, UK; Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult “Sheffield Power Train Research Hub” etc.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the contributions to this research field made by
current and former PhD students at the University of Sheffield, including T.Y. Liu, J. Xu, Y.X. Li, L.R.
Huang, Y.S. Hu, A. Almarhoon, and K.D. Hoang.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
The additional degrees of freedom also include the nonidentical PWM carriers. In
the control system of MTP PMSMs, the drive topology with multiple individual three-
phase converters provides the convenience and flexibility for various PWM carrier designs.
Carrier phase-shift techniques, also known as the interleaving in Figure A1, is proposed
to reduce the common-mode voltage [119,191], and are recently employed in this multi-
converter case to reduce the current harmonics, torque ripples, vibration and acoustic
noise, as well as the DC link pulsating currents [192–201]. The performance of the carrier
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
phase-shift techniques is up to the machine winding structure, the converter topology, and 10 of 1
the shifted angle of carriers.

Set1
PWM ih_set2 X
Set2 ih_set2
Y B
PWM
ih_set1 ih_set1 Z X
Without phase shift
Vdc Y
Set1 A
PWM
A
Set2
B
C
PWM C Z
With phase shift

FigureA1.
Figure A1. Switching
Switchingcurrent
currentharmonics
harmonicsofofDTP
DTPPMSMPMSMdriven
drivenbybytwo
twoparalleled
paralleledthree-phase
three-phase invert
ers withwith
inverters and and
without PWM
without PWMcarrier phase
carrier phaseshift.
shift.

For
Forthethe
DTPDTPmachine fed by fed
machine two segment
by two three-phase inverter, as studied
segment three-phase in [192,193],
inverter, as studied in
the vibration and acoustic noise of switching frequency can be reduced to half after shifting
[192,193], the vibration and acoustic noise of switching frequency can be reduced to hal
π/2 phase angle of the PWM carrier of the second set. The switching flux generated by the
after shifting
second π/2 phase
set is shifted π in theangle ofand
airgap, thecan
PWM carrier of the
counterbalance second
the one of theset.
firstThe
set, switching
which flu
generated by the second set is shifted 𝜋 in the airgap, and can counterbalance
results in the reduction of switching torque ripples and vibration. Nevertheless, due to the the one o
the first set,ofwhich
cancellation air gapresults in equivalent
flux, the the reduction of switching
impedance torque ripples
to the switching voltageand vibration. Nev
harmonics
ertheless,
is due to the cancellation
reduced simultaneously, and furtherofswitching
air gap flux, the harmonics
current equivalentare impedance to the switching
increased consider-
ably. By appropriate
voltage harmonicsmachine design
is reduced to minimize the and
simultaneously, mutual inductance
further amongcurrent
switching sets [194],
harmonic
the
areswitching
increasedcurrent harmonicsBy
considerably. canappropriate
be suppressed in the carrier
machine phase
design shift operation.
to minimize the mutual in
A DTPamong
ductance PMSM setswith[194],
each phase fed by an current
the switching H-bridgeharmonics
is studied in [195,196].
can The phase
be suppressed in the car
axes of the first set are coincident with the ones of the second set. This winding design,
rier phase shift operation.
combined with anti-phase shifting of carrier in the second set, determines the elimination
A DTP PMSM with each phase fed by an H-bridge is studied in [195,196]. The phas
of switching torque ripples, as shown in Figure A2. However, suffering from the same
axes
problem of the first the
as [192], setcoincident
are coincident
axes ofwith
two the ones of
set means themagnetized
more second set.couple,
This winding
and the design
combined with anti-phase shifting of carrier in the second set, determines the elimination
of switching torque ripples, as shown in Figure A2. However, suffering from the sam
problem as [192], the coincident axes of two set means more magnetized couple, and th
equivalent impedance regarding switching voltage harmonics is greatly reduced by th
 [195,196] connect additionally coupled inductor be
the circulating current, which has the disadvantag
Energies 2021, 14, 7508
and complexity. The carrier phase shift is extended 39 of 46

phase) PMSM, of which each phase is fed by an H

general
equivalent and impedance analytical
regarding switching framework
voltage harmonics is as well
greatly asbythe
reduced the me
anti-phase shifting of carrier. Consequently, the circulating current is serious, and [195,196]
ried out
connect based
additionally oninductor
coupled the between
evaluation of radial
inverter and machine to limit theelectroma
circulating
current, which has the disadvantages of increasing system cost, volume, and complexity.
theTheairgap.
carrier phase To shift iseliminate the torque
extended to a twelve-phase ripple and
(quadruple-three-phase) PMSM, vibr
of which each phase is fed by an H-bridge single phase inverter [197]. A general and
frequency
analytical framework (𝑓 ,as2𝑓 , the
well as 3𝑓mechanism
, …), of[198] proposed
carrier phase a selectiv
shift are carried out based
on the evaluation of radial electromagnetic forces on stator tooth faces near the airgap.
rier phasetheshift.
To eliminate The
torque ripple shifted
and vibration phase
of multiple times can be selected
the switching frequency fr
( f , 2 f , 3 f , . . . ), [198] proposed a selective torque ripple elimination using carrier phase
s s s
entshift.
spatial
The shifted phase phase can be displacement
selected from −π/2, π/2, and between twospatial
π in terms of different windin
phase displacement between two winding sets.

ih1(t)
ih(t)
ih2(t)

Air gap fh(θ,t) Air gap fh1(θ,t), fh2(θ,t)

(a) (b)
Figure A2. MMF generated by switching current harmonics. (a) Single three-phase. (b) DTP.
Figure A2. MMF generated by switching current harmon
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