SYSTEMS OF NUMBERS

Number is an item that describes a magnitude or a position. Numbers are classified into two
types, namely cardinal and ordinal numbers. Cardinal numbers are numbers which allow us to
count the objects or ideas in a given collection. Example, 1, 2, 3…. while ordinal numbers
states the position of individual objects in a sequence. Example. First, second, third….

Numerals are symbols, or combination of symbols which describe a number. The most widely
used numerals are the Arabic numerals and the Roman numerals.
Arabic numerals were simply a modification of the Hindu-Arabic number signs and are written
in Arabic digits. Taken singly, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and in combination 20, 21, 22, … 1999
…
The Roman numerals are numbers which are written in Latin alphabet. Example MCMXCIV.

The following are Roman numerals and their equivalent Arabic numbers
I=1 C = 100
V=5 D = 500
X = 10 M = 1000
L = 50
To increase the number, the following are used:
1. Bracket - To increase by 100 times.
|×|=1000
2. Bar above the number - to increase by 1000 times
x̄ =10000
3. A "doorframe” above the number - to increase by 100000 times
|x̄|=1000 000
Digit is a specific symbol or symbols used alone or in combination to denote a number For
example, the number 21 has two digits, namely 2 and 1 In Roman numerals, the number 9 is
denoted as DX. So the digits I and X were used together to denote one number and that is the
number 9.
In mathematical computations or engineering applications, a system of numbers using cardinal
numbers was established and widely used.

The number system is divided into two categories: Real numbers and Imaginary number

1. REAL NUMBERS:
A. Natural numbers - are numbers considered as "counting numbers".
Examples: 1, 2, 3…

B. Integers - are all the natural numbers, the negative of the natural numbers and the
number zero.

C. Rational numbers - are numbers which can be expressed as a quotient (ratio) of two
integers. The term "rational" comes from the word "ratio”.
Example: 0.5, 2/3, -3, 0.333….
̶ 6
In the example, 0.5 can be expressed as ½ and -3 can be expressed as hence
2
rational numbers. The number 0.333… is a repeating and non-terminating decimal. As a
rule, a non-terminating but repeating (or periodic) decimals is always a rational number.
Also, all integers are rational numbers.

D. Irrational numbers - are numbers which cannot be expressed as a quotient of two

integers.
Example: √ 2 , π , e … . .
The numbers in the examples above can never be expressed exactly as a quotient of two
integers. They are in fact, a nonterminating number with non-terminating decimal.

2. IMAGINARY NUMBER:
An imaginary number is denoted as i. In some other areas in mathematical computation,
especially in electronics and electrical engineering it is denoted as j.
Imaginary number and its equivalent:
i=√ ̶ 1

i 2=̶ 1
i 3=̶ i=̶ √̶ 1
 4
i =1

Complex number is an expression of both real and imaginary number combined.

It takes the form of a + bi, where a and b are real numbers. If a = 0, then pure imaginary
number is produced while real number is obtained when b = 0.

Absolute value of a real number is the numerical value of the number neglecting the sign. For
example, the absolute value of -5 is 5 while of -x is x. The absolute value |a| is either positive or
zero but can never be negative.

a
Common fractions are numbers which are in the form of or a/b, where a is the numerator
b
which may be any integer while b is the denominator which may be any integer greater than
zero. If the numerator is smaller than the denominator, it is called as proper fraction while
improper fraction is when the numerator is greater than the denominator.

Unit fractions are common fractions with unity for numerator and positive integer for the
denominator.
 1 1
Example: ,
5 25

Composite number is a number that can be written as product of two or more integers, each
greater than 1. It is observed that most integers are composite numbers.
Example: 6 = 2×2×3×5
231 = 3×7×11

Prime number is an integer greater than 1 that is divisible only by 1 and itself. According to the
fundamental theorem of arithmetic, “Every positive integer greater than 1 is a prime or can be
expressed as a unique product of primes and powers of primes”.
Example of prime numbers:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29 ... 1 000 000 009 649...
Example of unique product of power of primes:
360 = 23 .32 .51

Twin primes are prime numbers that appear in pair and differ by 2.
Example: 3 and 5, 11 and 13, 17 and 19...

Perfect number is an integer number that is equal to the sum of all its possible divisors, except
the number itself.
Example: 6, 28, 496...
In the case of 6, the factors or divisors are 1, 2 and 3.
1+2+3=6

Defective or deficient number is an integer number, the sum of all its possible divisor is less
than the number itself. If the sum of the possible divisors is greater than the number, it is referred
to as abundant number. There are around 30 numbers known today as perfect number and all of
which are even numbers.
Amicable numbers or friendly numbers refers to two integer numbers where each is the sum
of all the possible divisors of the other. The smallest known amicable numbers are 220 and 284.
The number 220 has the following factors/divisors: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, &
110 which when added sums up to 284, while the number 284 has the following divisors
1, 2, 4, 71, and 142 which adds up to 220.
Factorial denoted as n!, represents the product of all positive integers from 1 to n,
Example: n! = n(n-1)..3, 2, 1
If n = 0, by definition:
(n!) (n=1) = (n+1)! This is known as recursion formula
(0!)(0+1) = (0+1)!
0! (1) = 1!
0! = 1
The factorial symbol (!) was introduced by Christian Kramp in 1808.

Significant figures or digits are digits that define the numerical value of a number. A digit is
considered significant unless it is used to place a decimal point.

The significant digit of a number begins with the first non-zero digit and ends with the final digit,
whether zero or non-zero.
Examples:
1. 16.72 4 significant figures
2. 1.672x103 4 significant figures
3. 0.0016 2 significant figures
Example 2 is expressed in scientific notation and figures considered significant are 1, 6, 7 and 2
excluding 10°. Example 3 has 2 significant figures only because the 3 zeros are used only to
place a decimal.
The number of significant digits is considered the place of accuracy. Hence, a number with 3
significant digits is said to have a three place accuracy and a number with 4 significant figures
is said to have a four place accuracy.

Rounding and Truncating:

The two forms of approximations are known as rounding and truncation.
Rounding of a number means replacing the number with another number having fewer
significant decimal digits, or for integer number, fewer value-carrying (non-zero) digits.
Example: 1. 3.14159 shall be rounded up to 3.1416
2. 3.12354 shall be rounded down to 3.1235

Truncation refers to the dropping of the next digits in order to obtain the degree of accuracy
beyond the need of practical calculations. This is just the same as rounding down and truncated
values will always have values lower than the exact values.
Example: 3.14159 is truncated to 4 decimal as 3.1415

1. Revolution and its equivalent in units of angle.

1 revolution = 360 degrees
= 2π radians
= 400 grads
= 6400 mils = 6400 centissimal degree
= 6400 gons

2. Temperature.
Relation between °Celsius and °Fahrenheit
5
°C = (°F -32)
9
9
°F = °C+32
5
Absolute temperature:
°K = °C +273 °R= °F +460
Kelvin was named after British physicist, William Thompson (1824-1902) the First Baron,
Kelvin.
Rankine was named after Scottish engineer & physicist, William John Macquom Rankine
(1820-1872)
Fahrenheit was named after German physicist, Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (1686 — 1736).
Celsius (or Centigrade) was named after Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius (1701 — 1744).

3. Density of water = 1000 kg / m3

=62.4 lb/cu. ft.
=9810 N/m3
=1gram/cc

4. Read “Appendix B - Conversion” and Appendix D - “Prefixes” at the last part of this book and
be familiar with the values.
Did you know that... the symbol π (pi), which is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its
diameter was introduced by William Jones in 1706 after the initial letter of the Greek word
meaning “periphery”.

BASIC RULES OF ALGEBRA

Let a, b, and c be real numbers, variables or algebraic expressions.

1. Closure property : Addition a + b

2. Commutative property
3. Associative property
4. Identity property
5. Inverse property
: Multiplication a . b
: Addition a + b = b + a
: Multiplication a . b = b. a
: Addition (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
: Multiplication (a . b) . c = a . (b . c)
: Addition a + 0 = 0 + a = a
: Multiplication a . 0 = 0 . a = a
: Addition a + (-a) = 0 = (-a) + a
 : Multiplication a () ()
1
a
=1=
1
a
a with a ≠ 0

6. Distributive Property : Left a (b + c) = ab + ac

: Right (a + b) c = ac + bc
In item 4, 0 is called an additive identity while 1 is called a multiplicative identity. In item 5, -
a is known as additive inverse of a while 1/a is the multiplicative inverse of a.

PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY

Let a, b and c be real numbers, variables of algebraic expression

1. Reflexive property :a=a

2. Symmetric properly : If a = b, then b = a
3. Transitive property : If a = b and b = c, then a=c
4. Substitution property : If a = b, then a can be replaced by b in any expression involving a
5. Addition/Subtraction : If a = b, then a + c = b + c
: If a = b, then a – c = b - c
6. Multiplication/Division : If a = b, then ac = bc
a b
: If a = b, then = , with c ≠ 0
c c
7. Cancellation property : If a + c = b + c, then a = b
: If ac = bc and c ≠ 0, then a = b

PROPERTIES OF ZERO

Let a and b real numbers, variables or algebraic expression.

1. a + 0 = a and a – 0 = a
2. a 0 = 0
 0
3. = 0, a ≠ 0
a
a
4. is undefined
0
5. If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0. This is known as Zero-Factor Property

PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTS

The exponential notation states that if a is a real number, variable, or algebraic expression
and n is a positive number, then

a n=a . a . a … a

n factors

Properties: Examples:

1. a m . a n=a m+n 2
4 +4 =4
3 2 +3
=4
5

m 3
a m−n x 8−3
2. n
=a 3
=x = x 5
a x

3. ¿ ¿

4. ( ab )m=a m bm ( 2 x ) 4=24 x 4 =16 x 4

5. ()a m am
b
= m
b ()
2 4 24 16
x
= 4= 4
x x

6. a m/ n=√n a m 4 x =√ (4 x)
5 /3 3 5

−m 1 1
7. a = m
x−5= 5
a y
8. a 0=1 , a≠ 0 ¿
 PROPERTIES OF RADICALS

In the expression√n a , n is called the index, a the radicand while the symbol √ is called the
radical or radical symbol.
Properties: Examples:

1. √n am =¿ √3 82=¿
2. √n a . √n b= √n a b √3 5 . √3 675=√3 5 (675)=√3 3375=15

√
√ √
√3 50 = 3 50 = 3 5
n
a na
3. n = , b ≠ 0 √
√b b √3 10 10
4. √ √ a= √ a
m n mn
√ √ 15=√ 15
4 8

5. ¿ ¿

6. √n an =|a| √4 (−12)4 =|−12|=12, For n = even number √n an =a

√3 (−15)3=−15 , For n = odd number

Surd is a radical expressing an irrational number. The surd is described after the index of the

radical. For example, √ 3 is a quadratic surd, √3 3 is a cubic surd, √4 3 is a quartic surd & so on.

Pure surd, sometimes called as entire surd contains no rational number and all its terms are

surds. For example√ 3 + √ 2 . A mixed surd contains at least one rational number. 5√ 3 is a mixed

surd because 5 is rational number while √ 3 is a surd. A binomial surd is an expression of two

terms with at least one term is a surd. For example, 5 +√ 2. A trinomial surd is an expression of

three terms with at least two of them are surds and cannot be expressed as a single surd,

otherwise it will become a binomial surd. Example 5 +√ 2+ √ 3 .

SPECIAL PRODUCTS
 Let x, y and Z be real numbers, variables or algebraic expression.

1. Sum and difference of same terms : (x + y)(x—y) = x 2− y 2

Or Difference of two squares

2. Square of a binomial : (x + y¿2 = x 2+ 2 xy + y 2

: (x - y¿2 = x 2−2 xy+ y 2

3. Cube of a binomial : (x + y¿3 = x 3+ 3 x 2 y +3 x y 2 + y 3

` : (x −¿ y¿3 = x 3−3 x 2 y +3 x y 2 − y 3

4. Difference of two cubes : x 3− y 3= ( x− y ) ¿

5. Sum of two cubes : x 3 + y 3= ( x + y ) ¿

6. Square of a trinomial : (x + y + x)2=x 2 + y 2 + z 2+2 xy +2 xz+ 2 yz

PROPERTIES OF PROPORTION

a x
a) If = , then a:x = y:d
y d

a c a b
b) If = , then =
b d c d

a c b d
c) If = , then =
b d a c

a c a−b c−d
d) If = , then =
b d b d

a c a+b c +d
e) If = , then =
b d b d

a c a+b c +d
f) If = , then =
b d a−b c−d
 Note in item (a), quantities a & d are called extremes and x & y are called means. If x =y,

this is known as the mean proportional. In the ratio x/y, the first term x is called antecedent

while the second term y is called the consequent.

If x = y, the means are known as mean proportional

THE REMAINDER THEOREM & FACTOR THEOREM

If a polynomial in an unknown quantity x is divided by a first degree expression in the same

variable, (x — k), where k may be any real or complex number, the remainder to be expected

will be equal to the sum obtained when the numerical value of k is substituted for x in the

polynomial. Thus,

Remainder = f(x)

x→k

If the polynomial is divided by (x — k) will result to a remainder of zero, then the value (x — k)

is a factor of the polynomial. This is known as the Factor Theorem.

Both remainder theorem and factor theorem were suggested by a French Mathematician, Etienne

Bezout (1730 - 1783).

Tips:

1. Least Common Denominator (LCD) — refers to the product of several prime numbers

occurring in the denominators, each taken with its greatest multiplicity.

For example: LCD of 8, 9, 12 and 15 is 360

What is the LCD of 8, 9, 12 and 15?

Soln: 8 = 23
9 = 32
12 = 3 x 22
15 = 3 x 5
LCD = 23x 32 x 5 = 360

2. Least Common Multiple (LCM) — refers to the smallest integer that is a multiple of

each of the given numbers.

What is the least common multiple of 15 and 18?

Soln: 15 = 3 x 5
18 = 3 x 2
LCM =*32 x 2 x 5 = 90
By principle, the LCD may be regarded as LCM and vice versa.

3. Greatest Common Factor (GCF) — refers to the largest integer which is a factor of

each of the given numbers.

What is the greatest common factor of 70 and 112?

Soln: 70 = 2 x 5 x 7
12 = 24 x 7
Taking the common factors of both 70 and 112 which are 2 and 7, then, GCF = 2 x 7 = 14

Note that 2 and 7 are the common to both 70 and 112.

Did you know that...? The two long parallel lines (=) as a symbol for equality was introduced by

Robert Recorde in 1557.

 QUADRATIC EQUATION

The general quadratic equation is expressed as:

A x 2 + Bx + C = 0,

where a, b and c are real numbers and with a ≠ 0. A quadratic equation in x is also known

as a second-degree polynomial equation.

−B± √ B 2−4 AC
Quadratic Formula: x=
2A

Nature of roots:

The discriminant, B2- 4AC determines the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation. ’

When B2 — 4AC = 0, roots are real and equal (one root only)

When B2— 4AC > 0, roots are real and unequal

When B2— 4AC < 0, roots are imaginary and unequal

Properties of roots:

Let r₁ and r₂ be the roots of a quadratic equation.

−B
When the two roots are added: r₁+ r₂ =
A

C
When the two roots are multiplied: r₁r₂ =
A

Pure quadratic equation — is when B = 0. In such case, r₁ = -r₂

 BINOMIAL THEOREM

Binomial is a polynomial or expression of two terms. When a binomial is raised to a certain

power, the expansions are as follows: