HRWMmanual

Capital University of Science and
Technology, Islamabad
Lab Manual
CE3541
Hydrology and Water Resources Management Lab
Name : ____________
Reg No. : ____________
Section : ____________
Department of Civil Engineering
Updated on February 2023

Curriculum: 2018-2
Capital University of Science and Hydrology and Water
Technology Islamabad Resources Management
Department of Civil Engineering Lab Manual
SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS

SAFETY TOOLS
PREREQUSITE
• Attended safety lecture at the start of semester
• Read and signed safety rules and regulations
• Read lab manual
• Clear understanding of today’s practical before performing
SAFETY TOOLS
Wear non-slippery safety Wear overall at all times

shoes at all times in in laboratory
laboratory
Wear gloves while working

with hazardous fluids
INDIVIDUAL SAFETY
• Do nothing until you are sure about
• Engage safety tools for your own protection
• Tie back or otherwise secure long hair and dangling jewellery
• All personal belongings must be placed in the assigned locations if available.
• Eating or drinking is strictly prohibited inside the laboratory
• Keep the floor dry
EQUIPMENT CARE
• Students should not manipulate the laboratory equipment or their accessories unless under
the supervision of lab personnel (Lab engineer and lab technician)
• Avoid unnecessary fluid leakage, waste of water or waste of energy
• Always use electric equipment in presence of lab technician
• Always clean all used equipment and surrounding area(s)
1
Course Title CE3541 Hydrology and Water Resources Management Lab

Pre-requisite(s) None
Credit Hours 1
Contact Hours 3
Course Objectives:
• To enable students to learn broad areas of hydrological engineering and principles of water
management particularly in irrigated agriculture.
Course Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the students will:
Taxonomy PLO Content

No Description
Level Mapping Weightage
To attempt and perform the
CLO:1 experiments related to Hydrology (P2) PLO-09 24%
and water resources management.
To demonstrate the experimental
procedures to measure different
CLO:2 (P3) PLO-09 36%
hydrological quantities (precipitation,
stream flows etc.). .
To analyze results of hydrological
CLO:3 (C4) - 20%
quantities using experimental data.
To clarify and argue on
CLO:4 experimental knowledge used to (A3) - 20%
measure hydrological components.
Grading Guideline:
Sr. Grading % of Total Marks

No.
i. Practice 40%
ii. Mid-term Exam 20%
iii. Open Ended Project 20%
iv. Final Exam 20%
Total 100%
2
S. NO PRACTICAL
1 Estimation and Comparison of evaporation using Standard Evaporation Pan and
Colorado Sunken Pan
2 Determination of channel flow velocity and discharge by using Propeller and Cup
type current meter
3 Determination of coefficient of discharge of the cut throat flume
4 Measurement and comparison of rainfall by using following methods
• Float Type
• Weighing Type
• Tipping Bucket Type
5 Determination of Aerial Precipitation by following methods
• Thiessen Polygon
• Isohyetal
• Arithmetic Mean
6 Investigation of effects of the conditions of the catchment area and its slope on the
rainfall runoff relationship using Basic Hydrology Apparatus
• Generation of Hydrograph
• Study of Infiltration and percolation by using Darcy Law
7 a. Effect of “Interflow” on the Runoff Hydrograph
b. Measurement of discharge by using float method
8 Investigation of underground water by using Geophysical methods
• Seismic Survey
• Electric Resistivity Survey
Student Learning Outcome:

Students who pass the course will learn and apply broad areas of hydrological engineering and
principles of water management particularly in irrigated agriculture.
Course Professional Outcome/Industrial Usage:

Students appreciate the need for becoming experts in water resources and irrigation engineering.
They will have more understanding to act more appropriately in irrigation department and other
relevant offices.
3
Mapping of CLOs to Lab Practical of Hydrology and Water Resources Management
CLOs
Lab Practical
CLO-1 CLO-2* CLO-3 CLO-4
Estimation and Comparison of

evaporation using Standard
Evaporation Pan and Colorado
√ √ √
Sunken Pan.
Determination of channel flow

velocity and discharge by using
√ √ √
Propeller and Cup type current
meter
Determination of coefficient of
√ √ √
discharge of the cutthroat flume
Measurement and comparison of

rainfall by using following methods;
Float Type, Weighing Type &
√ √ √
Tipping Bucket Type.
Determination of Aerial
Precipitation by following methods;
√ √ √
Thiessen Polygon, Isohyetal &
Arithmetic Mean.
Investigation of effects of the

conditions of the catchment area
and its slope on the rainfall runoff
relationship using Basic Hydrology √ √ √
Apparatus Generation of
Hydrograph, Study of Infiltration
and percolation by using Darcy Law
a. Effect of “Interflow” on the

Runoff Hydrograph.
b. Measurement of discharge
√ √ √
using float method.
Investigation of underground water

by using following Geophysical
methods; Seismic Survey & Electric
√ √ √
Resistivity Survey.
* Any one or two experiments to be judged in Midterm and Final Term exam.
4
CLO’s CLO-1 CLO-2 CLO-3 CLO-4
PLO’s
PLO-1
(Engineering Knowledge)
PLO-2
(Problem Analysis)
PLO-3
Design/Development of Solutions)
PLO-4
(Investigation)
PLO-5
(Modern Tool Usage)
PLO-6
(The Engineer and Society)
PLO-7
(Environment and Sustainability)
PLO-8
(Ethics)
PLO-9
(Individual and Team work) √ √
PLO-10
(Communication)
PLO-11
(Project Management)
PLO-12
(Lifelong Learning)
5
CLOs
Assessment CLO-1 CLO-2 CLO-3 CLO-4
Modules
Practice (40%) √ √ √
Open Ended Project

√ √ √ √
(20%)
Midterm Exam (20%) √ √ √
Final Exam (40%) √ √ √
Marks distribution
CLSOs
CLO-1 CLO-2 CLO-3 CLO-4
(Attempt & Perform) (Demonstrate) (Analyze) (Clarify & Argue)
Assessment P2 P3 C4 A3
Modules
Practice
24% 8% 8%
(40%)
Open Ended Project
12% 4% 4%
(20%)
Midterm Exam
12% 4% 4%
(20%)
Final Exam
12% 4% 4%
(20%)
Total 24% 36% 20% 20%
6
Criteria Marks Experiment Number

Allotted 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P1 1
P2 1
P3 0.5
P4 0.5
C1 0.5
C2 0.5
A1 0.4
A2 0.4
A3 0.2
Total 5
Signature
Marks Experiment Number

Criteria
Allocated 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P1
1
Psychomotor
P2
1
P3
1
C1
Cognitive
0.5
C2 0.5
A1 0.5
Affective
A2 0.5
Total 5
Signature
7
CE3541 Hydrology & Water Resources Management Lab

(RUBRICS - Experiment)
Student Name with Registration No.
Sheet No / Title. Date:
(a) PSYCHOMOTOR (P2)

Criteria Allocated Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Marks
S. No.
(Max. %age) Marks (0%) (1-25%) (26-50%) (51-75%) (76-100%) Obtained
Practical Implementation of practical procedural steps is:
1 Implementation 1 0
(exp. steps, material Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
preparation, etc.) 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Performance Practical performance as per given instructions is:
2 Behavior (control 1 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
over exp., readings,
safety precautions) 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Handling of Equipment handling as per given instructions is:
3 Equipment (care 0.5 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
and precautions as
required) 0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5
Acquisition of Acquisition of goals is:
Goals (group
4 0.5 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
contribution, exp.
results as required,
etc.) 0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5
SUB-TOTAL MARKS
(PT)
3 SUB-TOTAL MARKS OBTAINED (PO)
(b) COGNITIVE (C4)

S. No.
Data analysis (tabulation and analysis) is:
Data Analysis and
5 Management 0.5 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
(tabulation, graphs,
charts, etc.) 0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5
Application of knowledge is:
Application of
6 Knowledge 0.5 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
(application of results)
0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5
SUB-TOTAL MARKS
(CT)
1 SUB-TOTAL MARKS OBTAINED (CO)
(c) AFFECTIVE (A3)

S. No.
Interpretation of results (i.e. conclusive remarks) is:
Interpretation
7 (ability to interpret 0.4 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
results)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Justification about results under varying situations is:
Justification (ability
8 to justify results under 0.4 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
varying situation)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Team work (ability Participation in teamwork is:
to engage in team
work during various
tasks) 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
SUB-TOTAL MARKS
(AT)
1 SUB-TOTAL MARKS OBTAINED (AO)
Instructor’s Name: Total Marks (PT + CT + AT) : 5
Instructor’s Signature: Marks Obtained (PO + CO + AO) :

CE3541 Hydrology & Water Resources Management Lab

(RUBRICS - Site Visit)
Student Name with Registration No.
Sheet No / Title. Date:
(a) PSYCHOMOTOR
S. No.
Execute specific Execution of specific task(s) during site visit is:
task(s) during site
1 1 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
visit (i.e. follow the given
instructions)
0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Observational behavior as per given instructions is:
Observational
2 behaviour (safety, 1 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
punctuality,
attentiveness,notes, etc.)
0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Achievement of Achievement of goals is:

3 goals (contribution to 1 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
team, put theory in
practice, etc.)
0.25 0.5 0.75 1
SUB-TOTAL MARKS
(PT) 3 SUB-TOTAL MARKS OBTAINED (PO)
(b) COGNITIVE

S. No.
Report-on Report on site visit is:
(formatting, field
observations/data,
etc.) 0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5
Review on site visit is:
Review (critic,
discussion, solution)
0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5
SUB-TOTAL MARKS
(CT) 1 SUB-TOTAL MARKS OBTAINED (CO)
(c) AFFECTIVE

S. No.
Arguing skill is:
6 Argue (for varying 0.5 0
situation on site)
Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5
Defend (ability to Defending skill is:
7 defend the proposed 0.5 0 Poor Acceptable Good Excellent
solution)
0.125 0.25 0.375 0.5
SUB-TOTAL MARKS
(AT)
1 SUB-TOTAL MARKS OBTAINED (AO)
Instructor’s Name: Total Marks (PT + CT + AT) : 5
Instructor’s Signature: Marks Obtained (PO + CO + AO) :

Table of Contents
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................. 9
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 13
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 14
Experiment # 1 To estimate the evaporation by using Standard evaporation pan and Colorado
Sunken pan. ..................................................................................................................................... 15
1.1 Objective: .............................................................................................................................. 15
To estimate the evaporation by using Standard evaporation pan and Colorado Sunken pan ..... 15
1.2 Description ............................................................................................................................ 15
1.2.1 Standard Evaporation Pan .............................................................................................. 15
1.2.2 Colorado Sunken pan...................................................................................................... 16
1.3 Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 16
1.4 Observation and Calculation ................................................................................................. 16
1.4.1 Formula ........................................................................................................................... 16
1.4.2 Determination of K pan .................................................................................................. 17
1.5 Calculations and Observations .............................................................................................. 18
1.6 Comments.............................................................................................................................. 19
Experiment # 2 Determination of channel flow velocity and discharge by using propeller and cup
type current meter. .......................................................................................................................... 21
2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................... 21
2.2 Site Selection ......................................................................................................................... 21
2.3 Construction and Working .................................................................................................... 21
2.4 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 21
2.5 Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 21
2.6 Observation and Calculation ................................................................................................. 22
2.7 Methods of calculating discharge .......................................................................................... 22
2.7.1 Mean section method ...................................................................................................... 22
2.7.2 Mid-section method ........................................................................................................ 23
2.8 Comments.............................................................................................................................. 23
Experiment # 3 To determine the coefficient of discharge of the cut throat flume ........................ 25
3.1 Theory: .................................................................................................................................. 25
3.1.1 Coefficient of discharge (Cd): ......................................................................................... 25
9
3.1.2 Actual Discharge: ........................................................................................................... 25

3.1.3 Theoretical Discharge: .................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................. 25
3.3 Cut throat flume size: ............................................................................................................ 25
3.4 Procedure:.............................................................................................................................. 26
3.5 Observations and Calculations: ............................................................................................. 27
3.5.1 Free-flow Equation ......................................................................................................... 27
3.6 Precautions: ........................................................................................................................... 27
3.8 Comments.............................................................................................................................. 28
Experiment # 4 Measurement of rainfall using different methods ................................................. 30
4.1 Objective ............................................................................................................................... 30
4.2 Precipitation .......................................................................................................................... 30
4.3 Units for Measuring Precipitation ......................................................................................... 30
4.4 Rain Gauges .......................................................................................................................... 30
4.4.1 Non-Recording Rain Gauge ........................................................................................... 30
4.4.2 Recording Rain Gauges .................................................................................................. 31
4.5 Calculations and Observation................................................................................................ 32
4.6 Comments.............................................................................................................................. 32
Experiment # 5 To Determine Areal Precipitation by using Thiessen Polygon, Isohytel and
Arithmetic Method. ......................................................................................................................... 34
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 34
5.2 Thiessen Polygon Method ..................................................................................................... 34
5.3 Isohyetal Method ................................................................................................................... 37
5.4 Arithmetic Average Method.................................................................................................. 38
5.5 Comparison between the Three Methods .............................................................................. 38
5.6 Comments.............................................................................................................................. 39
Experiment # 6 Investigation of effects of the conditions of the catchment area and its slope on the
rainfall runoff relationship using basic hydrology apparatus ......................................................... 41
6.1 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 41
6.2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 41
6.2.1 Hydrograph ..................................................................................................................... 41
10
6.2.2 Basic Hydrology Apparatus............................................................................................ 41

6.3 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 42
6.4 Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 42
6.4.1 Stream hydrograph for long-duration storm ( t > tc ) on dry catchment ........................ 42
6.4.2 Effects of catchment slopes on the runoff hydrograph ................................................... 42
6.5 Observations & Calculations................................................................................................. 43
6.6 Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 43
6.7 Comments.............................................................................................................................. 44
Experiment # 7 (a) Effect of Interflow on the Runoff Hydrograph. ............................................... 46
7.1 Objective ............................................................................................................................... 46
7.2 Equipment ............................................................................................................................. 46
7.3 Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 46
7.4 Observations & Calculations................................................................................................. 47
7.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 47
7.6 Comments.............................................................................................................................. 48
Experiment#7(b) To measure the discharge by using float method ............................................... 50
7.7 Objective ............................................................................................................................... 50
7.8 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 50
7.9 Float method.......................................................................................................................... 50
7.10 Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 50
7.11 Observations and Calculations ............................................................................................ 51
7.12 Comments............................................................................................................................ 51
Experiment # 8 : Investigation of underground water by using following Geophysical methods;
Seismic Survey & Electric Resistivity Survey................................................................................ 53
8.1 Purpose .................................................................................................................................. 53
8.2 Exploring groundwater .......................................................................................................... 53
8.2.1 . Surface methods ........................................................................................................... 53
8.2.2 Subsurface methods ........................................................................................................ 53
8.2.3 Geophysical methods ...................................................................................................... 54
8.3 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 58
8.4 Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 58
11
8.6 Comments.............................................................................................................................. 59
12
List of Figures
Figure 1: Evaporation Pan .............................................................................................................. 15
Figure 2: Colorado sunken pan ....................................................................................................... 16
Figure 3: Canal section ................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 4: Cutthroat flume................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 5: Non-Recording Rain Gauge ............................................................................................ 30
Figure 6: Float Type Rain Gauge.................................................................................................... 31
Figure 7: Weighing Type Rain Gauge ............................................................................................ 31
Figure 8: Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge ................................................................................... 32
Figure 9: Plotting of Rain Gauges .................................................................................................. 35
Figure 10: Plotting of Polygons ...................................................................................................... 36
Figure 11: Drawing the isohytal lines ............................................................................................. 37
13
List of Tables
Table 1 : Pan Coefficients (Kp) for Standard pan for different pan siting and environment and
different levels of mean relative humidity and wind speed ............................................................ 17
Table 2 Pan Coefficients (Kp) for Colorado sunken pan for different pan siting and environment
and different levels of mean relative humidity and wind speed ..................................................... 18
Table 3: Cutthroat Flume Free-Flow Discharge Values ................................................................. 27
Table 4: Data from the map is tabulated ......................................................................................... 36
14
Experiment # 1 To estimate the evaporation by using Standard evaporation pan and Colorado
Sunken pan.
1.1 Objective:
To estimate the evaporation by using Standard evaporation pan and Colorado Sunken pan
1.2 Description
1.2.1 Standard Evaporation Pan

The Evaporation pan is circular, 120.7 cm in diameter and 25 cm deep. It is made of galvanized
iron (22 gauges) or Monel metal (0.8 mm). The pan is mounted on a wooden open frame platform
which is 15 cm above ground level. The soil is built up to within 5 cm of the bottom of the pan.
The pan must be level. It is filled with water to 5 cm below the rim, and the water level should not
be allowed to drop to more than 7.5 cm below the rim. The water should be regularly renewed, at
least weekly, to eliminate extreme turbidity. The pan, if galvanized, is painted annually with
aluminium paint. Screens over the pan are not a standard requirement and should preferably not
be used. Pans should be protected by fences to keep animals from drinking.
The site should preferably be under grass, 20 by 20 m, open on all sides to permit free circulation
of the air. It is preferable that stations be located in the Centre or on the leeward side of large
cropped fields.
Pan readings are taken daily in the early morning at the same time that precipitation is measured.
Measurements are made in a stilling well that is situated in the pan near one edge. The stilling
well is a metal cylinder of about 10 cm in diameter and some 20 cm deep with a small hole at the
bottom.
Figure 1: Evaporation Pan

15
1.2.2 Colorado Sunken pan

The Colorado sunken pan is 92 cm (3 ft.) square and 46 cm (18 in) deep, made of 3 mm thick
iron, placed in the ground with the rim 5 cm (2 in) above the soil level. Also, the dimensions 1 m
square and 0.5 m deep are frequently used. The pan is painted with black tar paint. The water
level is maintained at or slightly below ground level, i.e., 5-7.5 cm below the rim.
Measurements are taken similarly to those for the pan. Siting and environment requirements are
also similar to those for the Class A pan.
Sunken Colorado pans are sometimes preferred in crop water requirements studies, as these pans
give a better direct estimation of the reference evapotranspiration than does pan. The disadvantage
is that maintenance is more difficult and leaks are not visible
Figure 2: Colorado sunken pan
1.3 Procedure
• The pan is installed in the field

• The pan is filled with a known quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is known and
the water depth is measured)
• The water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24 hours). For
example, each morning at 7 o’clock a measurement is taken. The rainfall, if any, is
measured simultaneously
• After 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth) is measured
• The amount of evaporation per time unit (the difference between the two measured water
depths) is calculated; this is the pan evaporation: E pan (in mm/24 hours)
1.4 Observation and Calculation

The Evaporation pan is multiplied by a pan coefficient to obtain the reference crop
evapotranspiration.
1.4.1 Formula
ETо = K pan × E pan
16
• ETо: reference crop evapotranspiration

• K pan: pan coefficient
• E pan: pan evaporation
If the water depth in the pan drops too much (due to lack of rain), water is added and the water
depth is measured before and after the water is added. If the water level rises too much (due to
rain) water is taken out of the pan and the water depths before and after is measured.
1.4.2 Determination of K pan

When using the evaporation pan to estimate the ETo, in fact, a comparison is made between the
evaporation from the water surface in the pan and the evapotranspiration of the standard grass. Of
course, the water in the pan and the grass do not react in exactly the same way to the climate.
Therefore, a special coefficient is used (K pan) to relate one to the other.
The pan coefficient, K pan, depends on:
• the type of pan used
• the pan environment: if the pan is placed in a fallow or cropped area
• the climate: the humidity and wind speed
For evaporation pan, the K pan varies between 0.35 and 0.85. Average K pan = 0.70.
If the pan factor is not known the average value could be used. If more accuracy is required, the
pan factors can be taken from the table below
Table 1 : Pan Coefficients (Kp) for Standard pan for different pan siting and environment
and different levels of mean relative humidity and wind speed
Class A Case A: placed in short green CASE B: Pan placed in dry fallow
pan cropped are area
RH Low Medium High Low Medium High
mean < 40 40-70 > 70 < 40 40-70 > 70
(%)
Wind Windward Windward
speed side side
distance of distance of
green crop dry fallow
(𝐦𝐬 −𝟏 ) (m) (m)
Light 1 .55 .65 .75 1 .7 .8 .85
<2 10 .65 .75 .85 10 .6 .7 .8
100 .7 .8 .85 100 .55 .65 .75
1000 .75 .85 .85 1000 .5 .6 .7
Moderate 1 .5 .6 .65 1 .65 .75 .8
2-5 10 .6 .7 .75 10 .55 .65 .7
100 .65 .75 .8 100 .5 .6 .65
1000 .7 .8 .8 1000 .45 .55 .6
Strong 1 .45 .5 .6 1 .6 .65 .7
5-8 10 .55 .6 .65 10 .5 .55 .65
100 .6 .65 .7 100 .45 .5 .6
17
1000 .65 .7 .75 1000 .4 .45 .55

Very 1 .4 .45 .5 1 .5 .6 .65
strong
>8 10 .45 .55 .6 10 .45 .5 .55
100 .5 .6 .65 100 .4 .45 .5
1000 .55 .6 .65 1000 .35 .4 .45
Table 2 Pan Coefficients (Kp) for Colorado sunken pan for different pan siting and
environment and different levels of mean relative humidity and wind speed
Sunken Case A: placed in short green CASE B: Pan placed in dry fallow
Colorado cropped are area
RH Low Medium High Low Medium High
mean < 40 40-70 > 70 < 40 40-70 > 70
(%)
Wind Windward Windward
speed side side
distance of distance of
green crop dry fallow
−𝟏 (m) (m)
(𝐦𝐬 )
Light 1 .75 .75 .8 1 1.1 1.1 1.1
<2 10 1.0 1.0 1.0 10 .85 .85 .85
≥100 1.1 1.1 1.1 100 .75 .75 .8
1000 .7 .7 .75
Moderate 1 .65 .7 .7 1 .95 .95 .95
2-5 10 .85 .85 .9 10 .75 .75 .75
≥100 .95 .95 .95 100 .65 .65 .7
1000 .6 .6 .65
Strong 1 .55 .6 .65 1 .8 .8 .8
5-8 10 .75 .75 .75 10 .65 .65 .65
≥100 .8 .8 .8 100 .55 .6 .65
1000 .5 .55 .6
Very 1 .5 .55 .6 1 .7 .75 .75
strong
>8 10 .65 .7 .7 10 .55 .6 .65
≥100 .7 .75 .75 100 .5 .55 .6
1000 .45 .5 .55
1.5 Calculations and Observations
Sr. No Water depth Water depth Evaporation ETо = K pan ×

before after mm/24hrs E pan
Evaporation Evaporation
18
1.6 Comments
19
20
Experiment # 2 Determination of channel flow velocity and discharge by using propeller

and cup type current meter.
2.1 Overview
This method involves wading across a stream and taking velocity measurements at multiple
places. Both velocity and water depth measurements are taken at the same time and place in
multiple locations across the stream. There are many types of current meters. The most common
types are cup, propeller or magnetic. The cup or propeller types determine flow velocity by the
number of revolutions of the cups (or propeller) over a given period of time. Magnetic meters
measure the difference in water pressure as water flows around a sensor. All provide output in ft/s
or m/s. Some meters are more appropriate for small streams, some for larger systems.
2.2 Site Selection

Measurements should be taken just upstream from where discharge from the site enters the
stream. The site should be safely accessible and should be in a section of the stream that is free
flowing. Other considerations: Stream should be straight enough to have uniform form. The flow
should not be affected by tributaries or tides. There should not be any side channels so that all the
water flows through the main channel. Areas where there are large boulders, logs, or thick brush
which can create eddies, slack water, turbulence or disturbed flow should be avoided.
2.3 Construction and Working
2.4 Apparatus
• Measuring tape
• Meter
• Top-setting rod (if available) or measuring stick
• Paper and pencil for record keeping Waders
2.5 Procedure
• Tighten a measuring tape across the stream at right angles to the flow. It should be snug
and not sag in the middle.
• Measure the total stream width and record this measurement.
• Divide the total stream width into equal segments. If the stream is less than 10 feet wide,
use ½ foot intervals. For streams greater than 10 feet, use 1 foot or greater intervals
• Step out to the first measuring point and position the rod. Stand downstream from the
measuring tape with the rod next to the tape. The rod should be held vertically, the meter
should face upstream and you should be standing off to the side or behind the meter.
• Record the distance to the bank. Measure total stream depth and record this depth. Multiply
the total depth by 0.6 and set the propeller at this depth. (Note: 0.6 times the total depth is
considered the point of average discharge in a spot that is less than 2 feet deep. If the depth
is greater than 2 feet, two different velocity measurements are required one at 0.2 times the
depth and one at 0.8 times the depth.) Read and record the velocity at this depth. (Note: If
21
your meter is attached to a “top setting rod” the propeller can be easily set at this 0.6 depth
without calculation by you. Directions on using a top setting rod should be provided by the
manufacturer.)
• Move to the next measuring point and repeat the process. (Note: The standard method is to
obtain three velocity measurements at each point and average them.) Make sure to record
the distance to the bank, the total stream depth and the velocity at the 0.6 depth for each
point across the stream. See Table 1 for an example of how to record and calculate the data.
• Stream flow measurements should be collected for a minimum of two separate years.
Figure 3: Canal section
2.6 Observation and Calculation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Section Flow velocity Depth Width Area Flow
0.2D 0.8D Mean 5x6 4x7
(m/s) (m) (m) (m²) (m³/s)
2.7 Methods of calculating discharge
2.7.1 Mean section method

𝑉𝑖−1 + 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑖−1 + 𝑑𝑖 𝑏𝑖−1 + 𝑏𝑖
𝑄=Σ × ×
2 2 2
22
Vi−1 = mean velocity of preceding vertical

Vi = mean velocity of vertical
di−1 = depth of preceding vertical
di = depth of vertical
bi−1 = distance of preceding vertical
bi = distance of vertical
2.7.2 Mid-section method

(𝑏𝑖+1 − 𝑏𝑖−1 )
𝑄 = ∑𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑖
2
2.8 Comments
23
24
Experiment # 3 To determine the coefficient of discharge of the cut throat flume
3.1 Theory:
3.1.1 Coefficient of discharge (Cd):

The actual discharge is not equal to theoretical discharge i.e. the actual discharge is less than
theoretical discharge. The value of coefficient of discharge varies with the coefficient of
construction and coefficient of velocity. The coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60 -0.64.
The ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical discharge is known as coefficient of discharge
(Cd), mathematically
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
Coefficient of discharge (Cd) =
𝑄𝑡ℎ
3.1.2 Actual Discharge:

For the measurement of actual discharge, the following arrangements have been installed with the
tilting flume.
An orifice along with control value in supply line
A monometer to obtain pressure difference b/w up and down stream of orifice, in term of water
column (measured in cm)
16.63H m3
Qact =
1000 sec
3.1.3 Theoretical Discharge:

For the measurement of theoretical discharge, the depths of water on the downstream & upstream
are taken width of flume is also known on both U/S & D/S side. The values are used in the
following formula.
Constant length of weir (L)

3
Qth = 1.7b2 H 2
3.2 Apparatus:
• Tilting flume (with all arrangements)
• Cut throat flume
• Orifice and differential Manometer
• Pump
• Hook or point gauge
• Control value
3.3 Cut throat flume size:
• The dimensions of cutthroat flumes are identified by the flume width and length
25
• The flume lengths of 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 6.0, 7.5, and 9.0 are sufficient for most applications
• The most common ratios of W/L are 1/9, 2/9, 3/9, 4/9
• The recommended ratio of hᵤ/L is equal or less then 0.33
3.4 Procedure:
1. If possible, you will want to specify the installation of a cutthroat flume such that it
operates under free-flow conditions throughout the required flow range
2. To do this, you need to specify the minimum elevation of the upstream floor of the flume
3. Follow these simple steps to obtain a free-flow in a cutthroat flume, up to a specified
maximum discharge:
4. Turn on the pump and then open the valve. Maximum limit of control panel is 30 l/sec.
5. You can vary discharge by flow control valve or by changing speed of pump.
6. Note down Downstream depth (y1) and upstream depth (y0) and critical depth yc.
7. For different discharge values, note down the upstream and downstream depth. Upstream
and downstream depth is observed at one particular point for all values of discharge.
8. Note down yc values for different discharge rates.
9. Compare the values of y1 and y0 it will give the submergence ratio (y1/y0).
Figure 4: Cutthroat flume
26
3.5 Observations and Calculations:
3.5.1 Free-flow Equation

For cutthroat flumes the free-flow equation takes the same general form as others flumes namely
Parshall flumes
• Q is flow rate
• "C" is the free-flow coefficient
• K is the free-flow length coefficient for the flume
• H is the head at the primary point of measurement
• n is the free-flow exponent
• "W" is the throat width
Length Throat Width Coefficient Exponent (n) Free-Flow Length Coefficient

(C)
18’’ 1" 0.494 2.150 6.100
18" 2" 0.974 2.150 6.100
18" 4" 1.975 2.150 6.100
18" 8" 4.030 2.150 6.100
36" 2" 0.719 1.840 4.500
36" 4" 1.459 1.840 4.500
36" 8" 2.970 1.840 4.500
36" 16" 6.040 1.840 4.500
54" 3" 0.960 1.720 3.980
54" 6" 1.960 1.720 3.980
54" 12" 3.980 1.720 3.980
54" 24" 8.010 1.720 3.980
108" 12" 3.50 1.560 3.500
108" 24" 7.11 1.560 3.500
108" 48" 14.49 1.560 3.500
108" 12" 22.0 1.560 3.500
Table 3: Cutthroat Flume Free-Flow Discharge Values
3.6 Precautions:
1. This experiment involves large volume of liquid. Thus, ensure that the water flows,
accordingly in the container/apparatus to prevent flood occur in the laboratory.
2. For weirs in particular, inspection and maintenance are important. Sedimentation and
debris in weir pools should be regularly removed and weir crests should be inspected for
damage, rounding, or clinging debris / growth. Weir plates should be checked for plumb.
27
3. The instrument has a specific discharge capacity; make sure to remain within the limit to
avoid any overflow.
Sr. No Free Flow Head, H Value of n Free flow Throat Flow

Coefficient, C Length Width, W rate, Q
Coefficient, K
3.8 Comments
28
29
Experiment # 4 Measurement of rainfall using different methods
4.1 Objective
Measurement of rainfall using different methods
4.2 Precipitation
The term precipitation as used in hydrology is meant for all forms of moisture emanating from the
clouds and all forms of water like rain, snow, hail and sleet derived from atmosphere vapours,
falling to the ground.
Precipitation is one of the most important events of hydrology. Floods and droughts are directly
related to the occurrence of precipitation. Water resources, water supply schemes, irrigation,
hydrologic data for design of hydraulic structures and environmental effects of water resources
development projects are related to precipitation in one way or the other. So it is very important to
study the various aspects of precipitation.
4.3 Units for Measuring Precipitation

The amount of rainfall is measured in length units (inches, ft., cm, etc.). While rainfall is
measured in inches in the United States, most countries in the world adopt the metric system and
use millimetres or centimetres instead of inches.
The rate of rainfall can be heavy, moderate or light. Heavy rainfall refers to a measurement of
more than 0.30 inches per hour, while light rainfall refers to a measurement of less than 0.10
inches per hour. Moderate rainfall lies in-between.
4.4 Rain Gauges

The precipitation is measured by rain gauges. There are two types of rain gauges:
• Non-recording rain gauge
• Recording rain gauge
4.4.1 Non-Recording Rain Gauge

The standard gauge of U.S. Weather Bureau
has a collector of 200 mm diameter and 600
mm height. Rain passes from a collector into
a cylindrical measuring tube inside the
overflow can. The measuring tube has a
cross sectional area 1/10th of the collector,
so that 2.5 mm rain fall will fill the tube to
25 mm depth. A measuring stick is marked
in such a way that 1/10th of a cm depth can
be measured. In this way rainfall can be
measured to the nearest 1 mm.
Figure 5: Non-Recording Rain Gauge

30
The collector and tube are removed when snow is expected. The snow collected in the outer
container is melted, poured into measuring tube and then measured.
4.4.2 Recording Rain Gauges

There are three types of recording rain gauges
1. Float type
2. Weighing type
3. Tipping Bucket type
4.4.2.1 Float Type Rain Gauge

This is a type of rain gage in which the
level of the collected rainwater is
measured by the position of a float
resting on the surface of the water,
frequently used as a recording rain gage
by connecting the float through a
linkage to a pen which records on a
clock-driven chart. Snow cannot be
measured by this rain gauge.
Figure 6: Float Type Rain Gauge
4.4.2.2 Weighing Type Rain Gauge

A weighing-type rain gauge consists
of a storage bin, which is weighed
to record the mass. Certain models
measure the mass using a pen on a
rotating drum, or by using a
vibrating wire attached to a data
logger.
The advantages of this type of
gauge over tipping buckets are that
it does not underestimate intense
rain, and it can measure other forms
of precipitation, including rain, hail
and snow. These gauges are,
however, more expensive and
require more maintenance. This
type of rain gauge has the advantage
of measuring the snow also.
Figure 7: Weighing Type Rain Gauge
31
4.4.2.3 Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge

This type of gauge is equipped with a remote recorder located inside the office which is away
from the actual site. The gauge has two compartments pivoted in such a way that one
compartment receives rain at one time. A certain amount of rain usually 0.25 mm fills one
compartment and over balances it so that it tips, emptying into a reservoir and bringing the second
compartment of the bucket into a place beneath the funnel of reservoir. As the bucket is tipped by
each 0.25 mm of rain it actuates an electrical circuit, causing a pen to mark on a revolving drum.
This gauge is not suitable for measuring snow without heating the collector.
Figure 8: Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge
4.5 Calculations and Observation

Measure the rainfall using different using different measuring gauges.
4.6 Comments
32
33
Experiment # 5 To Determine Areal Precipitation by using Thiessen Polygon, Isohytel and

Arithmetic Method.
5.1 Introduction
Conversion of point precipitation of various gauging stations into average precipitation of that
area, a great experience and skill is required. There are three methods to find average precipitation
over a basin. Accuracy of estimated average precipitation will depend upon the choice of an
appropriate method.
5.2 Thiessen Polygon Method

The fundamental principle followed in this method consists of weighing the values at each station
by a suitable proportion of the basin area. In this method, a special weighing factor is considered.
The following steps are used to determine average precipitation by Thiessen Polygon Method.
• Draw the given area accordingly to a certain scale and locate the stations where measuring
devices are installed
• Join all the stations to get a network of non-intersecting system of triangles.
• Draw perpendicular bisectors of all the lines joining the stations and get a suitable network
of polygons, each enclosing one station. It is assumed that precipitation over the area
enclosed by the polygon is uniform.
• Measure area of the each polygon.
• Calculate the average precipitation for the whole basin by the formula
P (average) = (P1A1 + P2A2 + . . . . . . . + PnAn) / A

Where;
P1 = Precipitation at station enclosed by polygon of area A1
P2 = Precipitation at station enclosed by polygon of area A2
Pn = Precipitation at station enclosed by polygon of area An.
A = represents the total area of the catchment.
Now, calculate the average precipitation of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The locations of rain
gauge stations are shown on the map. The average precipitation of KPK is calculated by the
procedure explained above as follows.
First of all, the map of area is plotted on a graph according to a certain scale and then rain gauge
stations are connected to get a network of non-intersecting system of triangles. The triangles can
be seen in the graph as follows.
34
Figure 9: Map of KPK, Pakistan
Figure 9: Plotting of Rain Gauges
35
Now, perpendicular bisectors of all the lines joining

the stations are drawn to get a suitable network of
polygons, each enclosing one station. It is assumed
that precipitation over the area enclosed by the
polygon is uniform. After drawing polygons, measure
area of the each polygon to calculate average
precipitation
Figure 10: Plotting of Polygons
Table 4: Data from the map is tabulated
Stations Precipitation P Polygon Area A PXA
( mm ) ( x𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝟐 ) ( x𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝟑 )
Dir 79.9 3991 318.9

Mardan 35.2 1596 56.18
Peshawar 19.9 5526 109.9
Karak 16.2 3745 60.67
Kohat 21.6 2333 50.39
Nowshera 28.2 1535 43.29
Swabi 36.6 1412 51.68
Haripur 40.2 1473 59.21
Abbottabad 60.4 2763 166.9
Lakki Marwat 9.6 3684 35.36
D.I Khan 8.3 3991 33.12
Tank 8.1 9215 74.64
Manshera 69.1 5894 407.3
Saidu Sharif 51.6 8904 459.5
Chitral 39.9 12280 489.9
Parachinar 34.4 3991 137.3
Zhob 11.4 1105 12.60
Mianwali 13.7 921 12.62
Islamabad 38.4 123 4.723
Total 74482 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝟐 2554.2 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝟐
36
∑PiAi
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 =
∑Ai
2554.2 × 103
=
74482 × 102
= 0.0343 𝑚
= 34.3 𝑚𝑚
So the average precipitation is 34.3mm
5.3 Isohyetal Method

An isohyetal is a line joining places where the rainfall amounts are equal on a rainfall map of a
basin. An isohyetal map showing contours of equal rainfall is more accurate picture of the rainfall
over the basin. This method is more suited under the following conditions.
• For hilly and rugged areas
• For large areas over 5000km2
• For areas where the network of rainfall stations within
the storm area is sufficiently dense, isohyetal method
gives more accurate distribution of rainfall
The following steps are used to determine average precipitation
by Isohyetal Method.
• Draw the area under study to scale and mark rain gauges
on it. Put at each of the rain gauge location the recorded
values of rainfall at the station, for the period within
which the average is required to be determined.
• Draw the isohyetes of various values by considering the
point rainfall data as guide lines and interpolating
between them.
• Determine the area between each pair of the isohyet lines, either by a planimeter or by
converting the areas into smaller regular geometric shapes.
Figure 11: Drawing the isohytal lines

37
Calculate the average rainfall using the following

formula.
P A1 (P1 + P2 ) A2 (P2 +P3 ) A (P +Pn )

2 + 2 +⋯+ n−1 n−1
2
av =
(A1 +A2 +⋯An)
5.4 Arithmetic Average Method

This is the simplest method of computing the average rainfall over a basin. As the name suggests,
the result is obtained by the division of the sum of rain depths recorded at different rain gauge
stations of the basin by the number of the stations. If the rain gauges are uniformly distributed
over the area and the rainfall varies in a very regular manner, the results obtained by this method
will be quite satisfactory and will not differ much than those obtained by other methods. This
method can be used for the storm rainfall, monthly or annual rainfall average computations.
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃
Average Precipitation= =
𝑛
P= Precipitation of each station

N= Number of stations
5.5 Comparison between the Three Methods
Thiessen Isohyetal Arithmetic mean
Method Method Method
This method is also mechanical It is the best method for rugged This is the simplest and easiest
areas and hilly regions method to compute average
rainfall
In this method the rainfall stations It is the most accurate method if In this method every station has
located at a short distance beyond the the contours are drawn correctly. equal weight regardless its
boundary of drainage are also used to However to obtain the best location
determine the mean rainfall of the results good judgment in drawing
basin, but their influence diminishes the isohyets and in assigning the
as the distance from the boundary proper mean rainfall values to the
increases area between them is required
It is commonly used for flat and low Other points are as for Thiessen If the recording stations and
rugged areas method. rainfall is uniformly distributed
over the entire catchment, then this
method is equally accurate
38
5.6 Comments
39
40
Experiment # 6 Investigation of effects of the conditions of the catchment area and its slope
on the rainfall runoff relationship using basic hydrology apparatus
6.1 Objectives
• To investigate the effects of the conditions of the catchment area dry (moist), saturated and
impermeable surface, such as urban area on the storm hydrographs.
• To study the effect of catchment slope on the shape of storm hydrographs
6.2 Introduction
6.2.1 Hydrograph
A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow versus time past a specific point in a river or
other channel or conduit carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic meters or
cubic feet per second.
6.2.2 Basic Hydrology Apparatus

The Basic Hydrology Apparatus enables many hydrology phenomena to be studied in the
laboratory. The apparatus consists of a large stainless-steel tank which is filled with graded sand
to form the catchment and experimental area. The sand bed can be elevated up to 1:40 by means
of worm jacks. Rainfall is provided by two sets of four special spray nozzles, each set being
independently controlled. The apparatus is self-contained unit for studying basic hydrology. The
tank upper walls are transparent. Valve control of the nozzles varies the lag time on the
hydrograph to simulate moving storm.
The compartments at each end of the tank are connected to the catchment area by wire mesh to
allow flow between the compartment and the catchment. Two wells with valve control are also
providing at the middle of the tank. Twenty pressure tapings along the orthogonal axes of the tank
to measure water table profile by a manometer bank
A metal frame supports the tank and houses a storage tank. Water is drawn from the storage tank
by pump and separately supplied to the overhead nozzles and/or the two end compartments via a
flow meter and piping and valve control. Run-off from the catchment is measured by a calibrated
rectangular weir or returns directly to the storage tank.
6.2.2.1 Typical Tests

• Investigation of rainfall / runoff relationships for dry, saturated and impermeable catchments
of various slopes for surface runoff.
• Effect of interflow on outflow hydrograph.
• Simulation of multiple and moving storms.
• Cone of depression for single well and interaction of cones of depression for two adjacent
wells.
• De-watering of excavation sites by use of wells.
• Flow from a well in confined aquifer.
• Demonstration of watersheds for a simulated island with rainfall and well flows.
41
• Sediment transport and meanders in simulated rivers.
6.3 Apparatus
We use the Basic Hydrology Apparatus, which consists of the following
• Spray Nozzle
• Power Supply
• Flow Meter
• Pump
• Manometer Bank
• Catchment Basin (0.24m2 )
• Flow measuring channels
• Storage Tank
6.4 Procedure
Before starting the experiment, set the slope of the tank to about 0.5 %. The valley board
(supplied as an accessory) should be used to scoop the sand surface to establish “valley” cross
section profile uniformly along the longitudinal length of the tank. Prepare sand catchment prior
to experiment by letting rainfall over catchment for some time until wetted, then turn off the rain
(by switching off the pump but value positions unaltered) and let the sand to drain completely for
at least 1 hour. Now catchment is considered to be “dry (moist)” and experiment can be started.
6.4.1 Stream hydrograph for long-duration storm ( t > tc ) on dry catchment

• The next step is to establish the best flow rate for the overhead spray nozzles.
• Switch on the pump and set the nozzle control valve so that a desired rainfall flow rate is
obtained.
• Allow the rain to fall on the catchment long enough to obtain a steady runoff rate (as
measured by the measuring weir; read the weir discharge frequently as necessary to obtain
hydrograph).
• Record the time be letting the time equal to; at the commencement of rainfall. Plot runoff
rates vs time for long-duration storm on catchment.
• The time concentration (tc) of the catchment is the time at which the runoff attains a steady
value for the first time.
6.4.2 Effects of catchment slopes on the runoff hydrograph

• Adjust the catchment slope to about 0.5 %.
• Prepare the catchment to the dry state by wetting the catchment and letting the drain for at
least 1 hour.
• Let the rainfall on the catchment at the same rate and duration as the same rate for “dry
catchment”.
42
• Measure and record runoff data and plot this hydrograph and hydro electrograph at similar
manner.
• Compare the hydrographs.
6.5 Observations & Calculations
Slope = 0.5 %
Time Discharge
(sec) (m3/s)
30 0.01334
90 0.01486
210 0.01790
390 0.02132
570 0.02436
870 0.02698
1230 0.02913
1590 0.02987
2130 0.02784
2310 0.02338
2490 0.01914
2910 0.01624
3270 0.01479
3930 0.01334
4350 0.01276
4890 0.01218
5970 0.01102
Slope 1.5 %
Time Discharge
(sec) (m3/s)
30 0.000663
150 0.001078
300 0.001399
360 0.001436
600 0.001315
720 0.001160
960 0.001031
1140 0.00920
2220 0.000810
2760 0.000773
6.6 Conclusion
The base of 1st hydrograph as compared to 2nd hydrograph is narrow. The peak of 1st hydrograph
is attained at time 1590 sec while the peak of 2nd hydrograph is attained at time 330 sec. The slope
affects the discharge flow. Increase in slope enhances the speed of runoff and peak of hydrograph
is established quickly as compared to the hydrograph with less slope.
43
6.7 Comments
44
45
Experiment # 7(a) Effect of Interflow on the Runoff Hydrograph.
7.1 Objective
To compare the hydrographs resulting from storm falling on the catchment with and without
interflow component
7.2 Equipment
We use the Basic Hydrology Apparatus, which consists of the following
• Spray Nozzle
• Power Supply
• Flow Meter
• Pump
• Manometer Bank
• Catchment Basin (0.24m2 )
• Flow measuring channels
• Storage Tank
7.3 Procedure
• Make the catchment surface to valley profile using the template.
• Use plastic or rubber plug to blow the sand through discharge to blank off the subsurface
flow (interflow). Flow now leaves over the adjustable overflow when the sand is saturated
and the whole hydrograph is associated therefore with only surface and stream runoff (i.e.
without interflow).
• After letting the catchment drains to “dry” state, start the rain at the same rate as used in
the previous experiments for t < tc.
• Read the flow rates and plot hydrograph. The hydrograph in this case represent that for
short-duration storm ( t < tc ) with no interflow.
• Now remove the blocking rubber plug and repeat the same procedure, hydrograph in this
case is that for short-duration storm with interflow.
• Compare the hydrographs
46
7.4 Observations & Calculations

Slope = 0.5 %
Time Discharge
(sec) (m3/s)
15 0.00116
30 0.005
45 0.01
60 0.0146
120 0.0185
180 0.02175
240 0.0240
360 0.02436
375 0.02349
405 0.01914
435 0.01479
480 0.00986
540 0.00638
600 0.00464
630 0.00348
750 0.00290
1050 0.00232
1830 0.00174
Slope = 1.5 %
Time Discharge
(sec) (m3/s)
15 0.01276
30 0.0174
45 0.0208
60 0.02378
90 0.02610
135 0.0280
315 0.02842
630 0.0270
645 0.02278
675 0.01566
690 0.01095
740 0.0087
825 0.00696
930 0.00580
1230 0.00464
1830 0.00406
7.5 Conclusion
In this experiment, the effect of precipitation in urban area has been shown. When precipitation
occurs in urban area, most of the precipitation is converted into direct run off. Due to which peak
of hydrograph is attained earlier as compared to the peak of hydrograph obtained due to normal
precipitation and run off. It can be seen that peak of hydrograph in this experiment is attained in
315 seconds while the peak attained in previous experiment was in 1590 seconds, which shows
the difference clearly.
47
7.6 Comments
48
49
Experiment#7(b) To measure the discharge by using float method
7.7 Objective
Stream Discharge using the Float Method
The amount of water passing a point on the stream channel during a given time is a function of
velocity and cross-sectional area of the flowing water.
Q = AV
Where Q is stream discharge (volume/time), A is cross-sectional area, and V is flow velocity
7.8 Apparatus
• Tape measure
• Stop-watch
• Rod, yard or meter stick to measure depth
• At least three highly visible buoyant objects such as a drifting branches or logs, pine cone,
coffee stir sticks, half-filled bottles, or oranges (objects buoyant enough not to be effected
by the wind)
• Stakes for anchoring tape measure to stream banks
• Waders
7.9 Float method

Inexpensive and simple. This method measures surface velocity. Mean velocity is obtained using
a correction factor. The basic idea is to measure the time that it takes the object to float a specified
distance downstream.
Vsurface = travel distance/ travel time = L/t
Because surface velocities are typically higher than mean or average velocities
V mean = k Vsurface where k is a coefficient that generally ranges from 0.8 for rough beds to
0.9 for smooth beds (0.85 is a commonly used value)
7.10 Procedure
• Choose a suitable straight reach with minimum turbulence (ideally at least 3 channel
widths long).
• Mark the start and end point of your reach.
• If possible, travel time should exceed 20 seconds.
• Drop your object into the stream upstream of your upstream marker.
• Start the watch when the object crosses the upstream marker and stop the watch when it
crosses the downstream marker.
• You should repeat the measurement at least 3 times and use the average in further
calculations.
50
• Measure stream’s width and depth across at least one cross section where it is safe to
wade. If possible, measure depth across the stream's width at the start and stop markers
and average the two but if measuring one cross section choose the downstream side. Use a
marked rod, a yard or meter stick to measure the depth at regular intervals across the
stream. Ten depth measurements is the minimum required but more is better, especially in
larger streams. Or another method, walk heals to toe, and measure stream depth every left
big toe, along the downstream cross section. Average your cross-sectional areas (A):
Using the average area and corrected velocity, you can now compute discharge, Q.
Q = Cross section area (A) * mean velocity (V)
Essentially the cross section technique estimates each of the terms on the right hand side of the
equation(s) and multiplies them together. The cross section area of the channel is estimated at a
transection across which water depth and average water column velocities are measured at a series
of points (verticals).
7.11 Observations and Calculations

Depth Distance Area Time Velocity Discharge
(m) (m) (m2) (sec) (m2/s) (m3/s)
Y1
Y2
Y3
7.12 Comments
51
52
Experiment # 8 Investigation of underground water by using following Geophysical methods;

Seismic Survey & Electric Resistivity Survey.
8.1 Purpose
Groundwater is an invisible natural resource. It is available in different proportions, in various
rock types and at various depths, on the surface layer of the earth. In the historical past, when
there is no visible flow of water along the rivers, people used to dig small pits, in the river
alluvium, wait and collect the groundwater coming through seepage and use it for their drinking
purposes and for meeting the domestic needs. Similarly, to the people of mountainous regions,
natural springs provided the sources of water supply. Springs are the outcome of seepage from
any groundwater system, in hilly terrains or in limestone regions. More than 60 percent of the
global population thrives by using only the groundwater resources. The groundwater which
existed at shallow depths in the open wells, has gone deep due to over exploitation.
8.2 Exploring groundwater

Exploration of groundwater requires a basic understanding of its position in the subsurface
geological setup. Groundwater Exploration is attempted through either by direct or indirect
methods. Test drilling is the direct approach to find out the resource. This is an expensive affair.
Groundwater exploration is classified into surface and subsurface method.
8.2.1 . Surface methods

The surface methods are easy to operate and implement. These require minimum facilities like
topo-sheets, maps, reports, some field measurements and interpretations of data in the
laboratories. The surface methods of groundwater exploration include the following:
• Esoteric Methods
• Geomorphologic methods
• Geological & structural Methods
• Soil and Micro-Biological Methods
• Remote Sensing Techniques
• Surface Geophysical Methods
8.2.2 Subsurface methods

The subsurface methods of groundwater exploration include both Test Drilling & Borehole
Geophysical Logging techniques. When compared to the surface methods, the subsurface methods
are very expensive. These are done for government level projects where large scale investigations
are carried out to ascertain the results of surface surveys.
The subsurface methods are very accurate methods as the help in direct observations of features in
the form of bore-hole lithologs as core samples and also geophysical measurements of formation
properties. Other methods are given:
53
• Esoteric methods
• Geomorphological Methods
• Geological Methods
• Structural methods
• Soil and Micro-Biological Methods
• Geophysical methods
8.2.3 Geophysical methods

Exploring the ground water by geophysical method is termed Ground water geophysics.
Geophysical investigations are conducted on the surface of the earth to explore the ground water
resources by observing some physical parameters like density, velocity, conductivity, resistivity,
magnetic, electromagnetic & radioactive phenomena. Geophysical methods comprise of
measurement of signals from natural or induced phenomena of physical properties of sub surface
formation. Geophysical methods detect the differences, or anomalies of physical properties within
the earth's crust. Density, magnetism, elasticity, and electrical resistivity are properties that are
most commonly measured. The purpose of exploration is to detect the indirect indicators and
locate the potential zones for exploitation. The main geophysical methods which are useful in
solving some of the problems of hydrogeology are the Electrical, Seismic, Gravity, and Magnetic
methods.
8.2.3.1 Seismic Method

Seismic methods are of two kinds as seismic refraction and reflection methods. The seismic
refraction method involves the creation of a small shock at the earth's surface either by the impact
of a heavy instrument or by a small explosive charge and measuring the time required for the
resulting sound, or shock, wave to travel known distances. Seismic waves follow the same laws of
propagation as light rays and may be reflected or refracted at any interface where a velocity
change occurs.
Seismic reflection methods provide information on geologic structure thousands of meters below
the surface, whereas seismic refraction methods-of interest in groundwater studies-go only about
100 meters deep. The travel time of a seismic wave depends on the media through which it is
passing through. The velocities are greatest in solid igneous rocks and least in unconsolidated
materials. Based on these indications, it is possible to delineate the subsurface zones of fractures,
fissures, faults and lineaments.
Analysing Seismic velocities A basic understanding of the characteristic seismic velocities for a
variety of geologic materials is necessary. These velocities help to identify the nature of alluvium
or bedrock. In coarse alluvial terrain, seismic velocity increases markedly from unsaturated to
saturated zones. In seismic method, the depth to water table can be mapped, with an accuracy of
10 percent, where the geologic conditions are relatively uniform. The changes in seismic
velocities are governed by changes in the elastic properties of the formations. The greater the
contrast of these properties, the more clearly the formations and their boundaries can be
identified.
54
8.2.3.2 Electrical resistivity method

The purpose of electrical surveys is to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution by making
measurements on the ground surface.
From these measurements, the true
resistivity of the subsurface can be
estimated. The ground resistivity is
related to various geological
parameters such as the mineral and
fluid content, porosity and degree of
water saturation in the rock.
Electrical resistivity surveys have

been used for many decades in
hydrogeological, mining and
geotechnical investigations. More
recently, it has been used for
environmental surveys. Each
electrical property is the basis for a
geophysical method. The resistivity
measurements are normally made by
injecting current into the ground through two current electrodes (C1 and C2), and measuring the
resulting voltage difference at two potential electrodes (P1 and P2). From the current (I) and
voltage (V) values, an apparent resistivity (pa) value is calculated, using pa = k V / I, where k is
the geometric factor which depends on the arrangement of the four electrodes. The electrode
arrangement in these investigations is called as arrays. Some of the most common electrode arrays
are Wenner, Schlumberger, pole-pole, pole-dipole and dipole-dipole array.
8.2.3.3 Formula
Apparent resistivity is then calculated as:
• V is the measured Potential difference (in Volts) and
• I is the current introduced (in Amperes).
There are two types of arrangements
Vertical electrical sounding (VES) is used to determine the resistivity variation with depth.
Single VES should only be applied in areas, where the ground is assumed to be horizontal layered
with very little lateral variation, since the sounding curves only can be interpreted using a
horizontally layered earth (1D) model. To measure the apparent resistivity values a resistivity
meter is used. Resistivity meters normally give a resistance value, R = V/I, so in practice the
apparent resistivity value is calculated by pa = k R. The calculated resistivity value is not the true
resistivity of the subsurface, but an “apparent” value which is the resistivity of a homogeneous
ground which will give the same resistance value for the same electrode arrangement. The
55
relationship between the “apparent” resistivity and the “true” resistivity is a complex relationship.
To determine the true subsurface resistivity, an inversion of the measured apparent resistivity
values using a computer program must be carried out. The measured apparent resistivity values
are normally plotted on a log-log graph paper. To interpret the data from such a survey, it is
normally assumed that the subsurface consists of horizontal layers.
Profiling Another classical survey technique is the profiling method. In this case, the spacing
between the electrodes remains fixed, but the entire array is moved along a straight line. This
gives some information about lateral changes in the subsurface resistivity, but it cannot detect
vertical changes in the resistivity. Interpretation of data from profiling surveys is mainly
qualitative. The most severe limitation of the resistivity sounding method is that horizontal (or
lateral) changes in the subsurface resistivity are commonly found. In many engineering and
environmental studies, the subsurface geology is very complex where the resistivity can change
rapidly over short distances. The resistivity sounding method might not be sufficiently accurate
for such situations. Resistivity surveys give a picture of the subsurface resistivity distribution. To
convert the resistivity picture into a geological picture, some knowledge of typical resistivity
values for different types of subsurface materials and the geology of the area surveyed, is
important. The resistivity values of common rocks and soil materials are given below:
Igneous and metamorphic rocks typically have high resistivity values. The resistivity of these
rocks is greatly dependent on the degree of fracturing, and the percentage of the fractures filled
with ground water. Sedimentary rocks, which usually are more porous and have higher water
content, normally have lower resistivity values. Wet soils and fresh ground water have even lower
resistivity values. Clayey soil normally has a lower resistivity value than sandy soil. However,
note the overlap in the resistivity values of the different classes of rocks and soils.
This is because the resistivity of a particular rock or soil sample depends on a number of factors
such as the porosity, the degree of water saturation and the concentration of dissolved salts. The
resistivity of ground water varies from 10 to 100 ohm•m. depending on the concentration of
dissolved salts. Note the low resistivity (about 0.2 ohm•m) of sea water due to the relatively high
salt content. This makes the resistivity method an ideal technique for mapping the saline and fresh
water interface in coastal areas.
Wenner array
This is a robust array which was popularized by the pioneering work. The V
Wenner array is relatively sensitive to vertical changes in the subsurface  a = 2a
I
resistivity below the centre of the
array. However, it is less sensitive
to horizontal changes in the
subsurface resistivity. The Wenner
array has a moderate depth of
investigation. For the Wenner
56
array, the geometric factor is 2(22/7)a, which is smaller than the geometric factor for other arrays.
Among the common arrays, the Wenner array has the strongest signal strength. This can be an
important factor if the survey is carried in areas with high background noise.
Schlumberger array
In the Schlumberger array, A and B are current electrodes, and

a = 
(L / 2)2 − (b / 2)2 V
M and N are potential electrodes. Let the current I enter the
b I
ground at A and return at B.
Assuming the medium below
the surface of the earth to be
homogeneous and isotropic
of resistivity p, the potentials
V M and V N as measured at
M and N, respectively.
The calculations are done

using these two equations:
VM = pl/27r 1/(a - b/2) - 1/(a + b/2) VN =pl/27r 1/(a + b/2) - 1/(a - b/2) from which p = 7r(a 2/b-
b/4) (V M -VN /I). Denoting (VM -VN ) by AV, and acknowledging the fact that, in reality, the
medium is anisotropic, the apparent resistivity pa as measured by the Schlumberger array is given
by: Pa = 7r(a 2 /b - b/4) AV/I .
If a and b are measured in meters, and V and I in millivolts and miliamperes respectively, pa
would be in ohm-meters (Slur). Equation (1) may be written as: Pa =K/I AV where K = (a2 /b -
b/4) is the geometric factor for the Schlumberger array.
Dipole-dipole array
This array has been, and is still, widely used in resistivity/I.P. surveys because of the low E.M.
coupling between the current and potential circuits. The spacing between the current electrodes
pair, C2-C1, is given as “a” which is the same as the distance between the potential electrodes pair
P1-P2. Thus the dipole-dipole array is very sensitive to horizontal changes in resistivity, but
relatively insensitive to vertical changes in the resistivity.
That means that it is good in mapping vertical structures, such as dykes and cavities, but relatively
poor in mapping horizontal structures such as sills or sedimentary layers.
Interpretation of data
The interpretation of each VES curve is carried out in two steps. First, an approximate
interpretation is obtained by the curve-matching methods, and another interpretation is based on
the results obtained through the automatic interpretation using a computer program. Finally, the
layer-wise resistivities and thicknesses are obtained from these interpretations. Using them spatial
variation maps depicting the low resistivity contours and good thickness aquifer horizons can be
delineated.
57
8.3 Apparatus
Multifunction DC (IP) Electrical Meter
8.4 Procedure
The operating procedure is expressed in the given flow diagram:
Starting Up
Instrument
Set File
Input Section
Choose Parameters
Choose Device
Input
Acquire Data
Yes
Yes
Save Continue
Save
eue
Yes
Re-
acquire
No
58
End acquire
Four –Pole Vertical Electrical Sounding arrangement will be selected to find the apparent
resistivity.
8.6 Comments
59
60

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Capital University of Science and

Department of Civil Engineering

Updated on February 2023

SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS

Wear non-slippery safety Wear overall at all times

Wear gloves while working

Course Title CE3541 Hydrology and Water Resources Management Lab

Taxonomy PLO Content

Sr. Grading % of Total Marks

Student Learning Outcome:

Course Professional Outcome/Industrial Usage:

Mapping of CLOs to Lab Practical of Hydrology and Water Resources Management

Estimation and Comparison of

Determination of channel flow

Measurement and comparison of

Investigation of effects of the

a. Effect of “Interflow” on the

Investigation of underground water

CLO’s CLO-1 CLO-2 CLO-3 CLO-4

(Modern Tool Usage)

(The Engineer and Society)

(Environment and Sustainability)

(Individual and Team work) √ √

Open Ended Project

Midterm Exam (20%) √ √ √

Final Exam (40%) √ √ √

Criteria Marks Experiment Number

Marks Experiment Number

CE3541 Hydrology & Water Resources Management Lab

Sheet No / Title. Date:

(a) PSYCHOMOTOR (P2)

Criteria Allocated Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Marks

Criteria Allocated Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Marks

Instructor’s Name: Total Marks (PT + CT + AT) : 5

Instructor’s Signature: Marks Obtained (PO + CO + AO) :

CE3541 Hydrology & Water Resources Management Lab

Sheet No / Title. Date:

Achievement of Achievement of goals is:

Criteria Allocated Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Marks

Criteria Allocated Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Marks

Instructor’s Name: Total Marks (PT + CT + AT) : 5

Instructor’s Signature: Marks Obtained (PO + CO + AO) :

3.1.2 Actual Discharge: ........................................................................................................... 25

6.2.2 Basic Hydrology Apparatus............................................................................................ 41

1.2.1 Standard Evaporation Pan

Figure 1: Evaporation Pan

1.2.2 Colorado Sunken pan

Figure 2: Colorado sunken pan

• The pan is installed in the field

1.4 Observation and Calculation

• ETо: reference crop evapotranspiration

1.4.2 Determination of K pan

1000 .65 .7 .75 1000 .4 .45 .55

1.5 Calculations and Observations

Sr. No Water depth Water depth Evaporation ETо = K pan ×

Experiment # 2 Determination of channel flow velocity and discharge by using propeller

2.2 Site Selection

2.3 Construction and Working

Figure 3: Canal section

2.6 Observation and Calculation

Section Flow velocity Depth Width Area Flow

0.2D 0.8D Mean 5x6 4x7

(m/s) (m) (m) (m²) (m³/s)