INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 - OUTCOMES

After studying this chapter, you should:

• Be able to explain what surveying entails.

• Understand the reason for doing a survey.

• Be able to distinguish between the different types of surveys.

• Be able to categorize the different types of errors and mistakes.

• Be familiar with the units of measure used in South Africa.

• Be able to distinguish between maps and plans as well as between

precision and accuracy.

• Know how to correct incorrect entries in a field book and be acquainted

with the custom regarding the usage of pencil or ink in a field book.

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INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Surveying has to do with the determination of the relative location of points on or

near the surface of the earth. It is the science of measuring horizontal and
vertical distances between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of
determining the direction of lines, and establishing points by predetermined
angular and linear measurements.

Parallel to the actual measurements of surveying are the mathematical

calculations. Distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas and
volumes are thus determined from data of the survey. Also, much of the
information of the survey is portrayed graphically by the construction of maps,
profiles, cross-sections and diagrams.

Surveying can therefore be divided into fieldwork (the actual measurements) and
office work (the calculations).

It requires care, skill, attention to details and good judgment. Each survey
presents particular problems, but if the principles are properly mastered, the
resourceful surveyor will have no difficulty in making the necessary applications.

It is essential that the surveyor shall understand the limitations of the instruments
that are used. The exactness, or precision desired, will vary according to the
purpose of the survey, but whether the survey is rough or precise, sufficient
checks must be applied in the field and in the preparation of plans so that the
inexcusable errors and mistakes may be eliminated from the final results.

1.1 REASONS FOR SURVEYING

Surveying is the first step (except for early planning) in all but the smallest
engineering or architectural projects and is often the last step before the
finished construction is accepted by the client.

A typical case follows to illustrate reasons for surveying. Notice that,

besides the large number of persons involved in the surveying work, many
more are involved to insofar that they must understand and depend on the
surveying results.

1. A large company decides to build a new manufacturing plant. Its

development department locates suitable land, and a purchase price per
hectare is agreed upon with the present owner.

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2. A land surveyor hired by the company determines the locations of the

property's boundaries and the area of the property. He prepares a diagram
of the property boundaries that includes the area in hectares. An
agreement is made through a conveyancer to transfer ownership of the
property, as defined by the legal diagram, from its present owner to the
company, and the total price is calculated according to the area
determined by the land surveyor.

3. A consulting engineer is selected by the company to prepare construction

plans for the new plant. The consulting engineer hires a surveyor who
obtains locations of all existing objects of importance to the consulting
engineer, such as ground surface elevations, nearby roads, railroads,
water lines, electric lines, sewer lines, streams, swamps or ponds and
adjacent buildings. The surveyor then prepares a plan called a
tacheometric plan or detail plan that the designer can use to position the
plant for economy of construction and efficiency of operation.

4. During the preliminary stages of design, a soil investigation will be made

to determine the suitability of the soil to carry the weight of the plant
buildings. Test holes must be made in the soil to extract samples of soil for
examination and testing. The test holes must be accurately located at the
points where building weight on the soil is critical. A surveyor hired by the
consulting engineer will stake (mark) where the test holes are to be made.

5. When the design drawings are completed, an agreement will be made

between the company and a builder to construct the plant according to the
design drawings and specifications for a certain price. The consulting
engineer will inspect the work of the builder as an agent of the client and
must approve the work before the owner will pay the builder.

6. The builder must construct each building or other improvement in the

proper location as shown on the design plan on which the consulting
engineer has superimposed the buildings and other improvements. A
surveyor hired by the builder will provide construction setting out for the
builder. The setting out involves setting stakes and other controls on a
continuing basis as various portions of the construction require them. A
surveyor hired by the consulting engineer will check setting out before the
builder uses it.

7. As a portion of the work is completed, the builder will apply for payment for
that portion. In many cases, such a construction of earth embankments or
excavation, a surveyor hired by the consulting engineer measures the
quantity of work completed, and the builder is paid for this quantity. A
surveyor hired by the builder will check the measurements performed by
the consulting engineer's surveyor.

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8. Some changes are usually made to the original plans while construction is
taking place. A surveyor hired by the consulting engineer surveys these
changes in the field and the construction plans are then revised to show
the construction "as built".

9. The surveyor referred to in this hypothetical case may be independent

surveying contractors specializing in surveying who are engaged for any
one of the surveying projects; they may be surveyors who are full-time
employees of the company, consulting engineer or contractor; or they may
be employees who perform surveys in addition to other technical duties.

10. The group doing the field work is called the survey party, and the person
in charge is called the chief surveyor. Other members are named
according to the different tasks they perform.

11. In all cases, the surveyor should realize that surveying is not an end in
itself but is a service performed to assist someone else to achieve a goal,
in this case the construction of a manufacturing plant. The surveyor
should, therefore perform his work to best achieve the aims of his client or
employer.

1.2. PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

1. The position of a point is said to be "determined", when it is known how far

that point is from one or more given points, and in what direction there
from; or how far it is in front of them or behind them, and how far to the
right or left, etc., so that the place of the first point, if lost could again be
found by repeating these measurements in the contrary direction.

2. The "points" that are to be determined in surveying are not the

mathematical points treated off in Geometry, but the corners of fences,
beacons, trees and the like, which are mere points in comparison with the
extensive surfaces and areas which they are the means of determining.

3. A straight line is determined, that is, has its length and its position known
and fixed when the points at its extremities are determined; and a plane
surface has its form and dimensions determined when the lines that bound
it are determined.

4. Consequently, the determination of the relative position of all points is all

that is necessary for the principle objects of calculating its content. The
position of a point may be determined by a variety of methods.

5. The methods used to determine the position of a point will be dealt with
during the course on a continuous basis.

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6. A survey may therefore be executed in several ways by different

combinations of instruments and methods, and some parts of the work
may require different treatment from others. The principle factors to be
considered are:

1. Purpose of the survey

2. The degree of accuracy required
3. The nature of the country
4. The extent of the survey
5. The time available for both office and field work.

7. In most types of surveys the ruling principle is to work "from the whole to
the part". The idea of working in this way is to prevent the accumulation of
errors, which in some cases, tend to magnify itself very quickly. If the
reverse process is adopted and the survey is made to expand outwards, it
will generally be found that minor errors become so magnified in the
process of expansion as to become uncontrollable at the finish. On the
other hand, if an accurate basic control is established in the first place, not
only are large errors prevented and minor ones controlled and localized,
but it will be found that the detail begins to fall almost automatically into its
proper place, like filling in the smaller pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.

1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES

1.3.1 The purposes of surveying.

1. The determination of the relative positions of points (natural or artificial) on

the surface of the earth.

2. The setting out on the ground of the positions of points used in

construction, location of properties, etc.

1.3.2 The Principal Classification of Surveys

1. Geodetic Surveying: When the measurements cover such a large

area that the curvature of the earth cannot be
ignored during calculations.

2. Plane Surveying: When the measurements cover such a small area that
the curvature of the earth can be ignored except when
dealing with elevations.

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1.3.3 The Principal Purposes of Surveys (Types of Surveys)

1. Geodetic: High accuracy surveys concerned with the shape of the

earth, or position fixing of points that provides control for
lower accuracy surveys.

2. Topographic: Concerned with the measurements and mapping of

natural and artificial features of the earth.

3. Cadastral: Surveys performed by a Land Surveyor concerned with

defining legal property boundaries.

4. Engineering: Surveys concerned with the planning, design and execution

of engineering work such as roads, railways, dams, canals,
tunnels, services in townships, etc.

5. Mining: Measurement of excavation volumes, calculation of ore

reserves, staking of claims.

6. Hydrographical: Surveys dealing with bodies of water, e.g. water

areas, volumes, levels, rate of flow and the shape of
under water surfaces.

7. Geological: Surveys concerned with the distribution of minerals, rocks,

etc.

1.4 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

Errors can be divided in two main groups, namely controllable and

uncontrollable errors.

1.4.1 Gross errors:

1. Is the result of blunders or mistakes due to carelessness of the observer.

For example, the surveyor may sight a wrong target, or may read a staff or
tape incorrectly or book the incorrect value by transposing (swapping)
numbers, e.g. 41,56 as 41,65.

2. Gross errors are controllable errors and can be avoided largely by

adopting a methodical procedure in handling the apparatus and in
recording the result, e.g. in measuring a distance with a tape, the following
procedure can be followed:

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Measure the distance

Record the distance
Measure the distance
Check the recording in the field book
Alternatively, the distance can be measured in the opposite direction.

1.4.2 Systematic errors:

1. Are so called because they occur according to some system which when
known, can be expressed by some functional relationship, i.e. these errors
can be corrected for by computation or by adopting a certain procedure.

2. A systematic error follows a pattern that will be duplicated if the

measurement is repeated under the same conditions (e.g. errors caused
by the slope in taping).

3. Systematic errors are controllable errors.

4. The system underlying a systematic error may depend on the observer,

the instrument used, the physical or environmental conditions at the time
when the measurements were made (e.g. the temperature) or any
combination of these factors. Systematic errors can also occur in
calculations, e.g. using the incorrect radius of the earth or incorrect
rounding off of figures.

1.4.3 Accidental or random errors:

1. Remain when all gross errors have been detected and removed and when
all measurements have been corrected for systematic errors. These errors
are treated according to the laws of probability.

2. Random errors are not controllable.

Note: The error = observed value - the true value

But, the correction = true value - observed value

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INTRODUCTION

1.5 UNITS OF MEASURE

In this country we use the International Metric System (S.I.).

In the past, however, various systems have been used and for that reason
we provide a number of the units used in older surveys.

1. Linear

1 foot = 12 inches

1 Cape foot = 0,314 855 575 16 m

1 Inch = 0,025 4 m

2. Area

1 hectare = 100 m x 100 m (hectare = ha)

1 morgen = 0,856 532 ha

3. Volume

1 cubic foot = 0,028 316 8 m3

1.5.4 Rounding

The number of digits in a numerical quantity is reduced by rounding off

according to the following rules:

1. If K significant digits are required, discard all digits to the right of the (K +
1)th digit.

2. Examine the (K + 1)th digit:-

1. If it is 0 to 4, discard it; e.g. 12, 344 21 is rounded to two decimal

places as 12,34.

2. If it is 6 tot 9, discard it and increase the Kth digit by one; e.g. 1, 376
is rounded off to two decimal places as 1, 38.

3. If it is 5 and the Kth digit is even, discard it; e.g. 12, 3456 is
rounded off to two decimal places as 12, 34.

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4. If it is 5 and the Kth digit is odd, discard it and increase the Kth digit
by one; e.g. 12, 343 52 is rounded off to 3 decimal places as 12,
344

Examples: Round to two decimal places:

15, 366 - 15, 37

15, 364 - 15, 36
15, 365 - 15, 36
15, 375 - 15, 38
19, 995 - 20, 00
20, 005 - 20, 00

1.5.5 Angular Measure

1. The Sexagesimal System

One revolution = 360 degrees or 360°

One degree = 60 minutes or 60'

One minute = 60 seconds or 60"

2. In survey calculations we write 169.18.36 to describe a direction of 169

degrees, 18 minutes and 36 seconds (169° 18' 36")

3. Theodolites are graduated in degrees, minutes and seconds, but the input
for most calculators must be in degrees and decimals of a degree.

4. Calculators are normally equipped with a button to deal with this

conversion.

1.5.6 Radian Measure

A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of length

equal to the radius of the circle.

2 π radians = 360°

π radians = 180°

1 radian = 206 265 seconds

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1.6 MAPS & PLANS

1. A plan is a true to scale representation of features on the ground.

2. A map is drawn to such a small scale that some of the features shown on
it cannot be drawn to scale, but must be indicated by means of symbols.

1.7 SCALE

1. The fraction, or ratio, between the length of a line on a plan or the map
and the corresponding horizontal length of the same line on the ground is
known as the scale of the map or plan.

1
2. A scale means that one unit measured on the map represents 10
10000
1
000 of the same units on the ground. This scale of may also be
10000
written as 1 : 10 000 or 1 / 10 000 or 1 in 10 000.

3. A scale of 1 : 100 is said to be larger than a scale of 1 : 1000. An object on

the ground is shown larger on the former plan.

1.8 PRECISION AND ACCURACY

1.8.1 Precision:

1. Is the degree of closeness or conformity of repeated measurements to

each other.

2. If the repeated measurements are clustered closely together, they are said
to have high precision. Precision is the result of the degree of perfection
used in the instruments, the methods and the observations.

1.8.2 Accuracy:

1. Is the degree of conformity or closeness of a measurement to the true

value, i.e. accuracy is the degree of perfection obtained. The effects of
uncorrected systematic errors as well as the effects of random (accidental)
errors influence the accuracy obtained.

2. Since no measurement is ever completely accurate, surveys are

described as being to a certain standard of accuracy. The skill of the
surveyor lies in the ability to achieve the required accuracy for the job and
not necessarily in achieving the highest (most expensive) accuracy
possible.

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3. It does not necessarily follow that better precision means better accuracy.

4. Consider the case in which a surveyor carefully measured a distance with

a 100 m steel tape. The distance was measured three times and the
results obtained are 81,254, 81,253 and 81,255. The surveyor did a very
precise job and apparently a very accurate one. Should, however, the tape
be found to actually be 100,018 long instead of a 100,00 m, the values
obtained are not accurate although they are precise.

1.9 CORRECTIONS TO FIELD ENTRIES AND CALCULATIONS

1. An incorrect figure is cancelled by neatly crossing out the figure or figures

and writing the corrected figure above. The original figure must remain
legible.
3
2. Example of correction: 2

3. Field observations are entered in pencil, but reductions and calculations

are done in ink.

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