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Fundamentals of
Machine
Mechanical
Elements
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 Chapter 2
Failures Resulting From
Static and
Dynamic Loading
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 Failures Resulting from Static Loading
 A static load is a stationary force or couple
applied to a member.
 To be stationary, the force or couple must be
unchanging in magnitude, point or points of
application, and direction.
 A static load can produce axial tension or
compression, a shear load, a bending load, a
torsional load, or any combination of these.
 Failure can mean a part has separated into two or
more pieces; has become permanently distorted,
thus ruining its geometry; has had its reliability
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downgraded. A designer speaking of failure can
Department mean any or all of these possibilities.
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  Static Strength;
 Ideally, in designing any machine element, the
engineer should have available the results of a
great many strength tests of the particular
material chosen.
 These tests should be made on specimens having
the same heat treatment, surface finish, and size
as the element the engineer proposes to design;
and the tests should be made under exactly the
same loading conditions as the part will experience
in service.
 This means that if the part is to experience a
bending load, it should be tested with a bending
Mechanical
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load. If it is to be subjected to combined bending
Department and torsion, it should be tested under combined
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bending and torsion.
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  Stress Concentration;
 Stress concentration is a highly localized effect.
In some instances it may be due to a surface
scratch.
 If the material is ductile and the load static, the
design load may cause yielding in the critical
location in the notch.
 Since the loads are static and the material is
ductile, that part can carry the loads
satisfactorily with no general yielding.
 In these cases the designer sets the geometric
(theoretical) stress concentration factor Kt to
Mechanical unity. This is the reason designers do not apply Kt
in static loading of a ductile material loaded
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  The usual definition of geometric (theoretical)
stress-concentration factor for normal stress Kt
and shear stress Kts is;

 Brittle materials do not exhibit a plastic range.

 A brittle material “feels” the stress concentration
factor Kt or Kts, which is applied by using Eq. (a) or
(b).
 When a tensile test on a cast iron is performed,
the strength reported in the literature includes
this stress concentration.
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 In such cases Kt or Ktsneed not be applied.
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 Failure Theories
 Structural metal behavior is typically classified as
being ductile or brittle, although under special
situations, a material normally considered ductile
can fail in a brittle manner.
 Ductile materials are normally classified such that
εf ≥ 0.05 and have an identifiable yield strength
that is often the same in compression as in tension
(Syt = Syc = Sy ).
 Brittle materials, εf < 0.05, do not exhibit an
identifiable yield strength, and are typically
classified by ultimate tensile and compressive
Mechanical
strengths,
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 Sut and Suc, respectively (where Suc is given as a
KONYA positive quantity).
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  The generally accepted theories are:
 Ductile materials (yield criteria)
• Maximum shear stress (MSS),
• Distortion energy (DE),
• Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM),
 Brittle materials (fracture criteria)
• Maximum normal stress (MNS),
• Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM),
• Modified Mohr (MM),

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 Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
for Ductile Materials
 The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that
yielding begins whenever the maximum shear
stress in any element equals or exceeds the
maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen
of the same material when that specimen begins to
yield.
 Recall that for simple tensile stress, σ = P/A, and
the maximum shear stress occurs on a surface 45°
from the tensile surface with a magnitude of
tmax = σ/2. So the maximum shear stress at yield is
Mechanical tmax = Sy /2.
Engineering
Department  Note that this implies that the yield strength in
KONYA shear is given by Ssy= 0.5Sy
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  For design purposes, Eq. (5–1) can be modified to
incorporate a factor of safety, n. Thus,

 Consider a case of pure shear txy , where for plane

stress σx = σy= 0
 txy ,=0.577Sy
 Thus, the shear yield strength predicted by the
distortion-energy theory is,

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 Fatigue Failure Resulting
from Variable Loading
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
 In most testing of those properties of materials
that relate to the stress-strain diagram, the load
is applied gradually, to give sufficient time for the
strain to fully develop. Testing of this kind is
applicable, to what are known a.s static conditions.
 The condition frequently arises, however, in which
the stresses vary with time or they fluctuate
between different levels.
 For example, a particular fiber on the surface of a
Mechanical rotating shaft subjected to the action of bending
Engineering
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  If the shaft is part of an electric motor rotating
at 1725 rev/min, the fiber is stressed in tension
and compression 1725 times each minute.
 If, in addition, the shaft is also axially loaded (as
it would be, for example, by a helical or worm
gear), an axial component of stress is superposed
upon the bending component.
 In this case, some stress is always present in any
one fiber, but now the level of stress is
fluctuating. These and other kinds of loading
occurring in machine members produce stresses
that are called variable, repeated, alternating, or
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fluctuating stresses.
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  Often, machine members are found to have failed
under the action of repeated or fluctuating
stresses; yet the most careful analysis reveals
that the actual maximum stresses were well below
the ultimate strength of the material, and quite
frequently even below the yield strength.
 The most distinguishing characteristic of these
failures is that the stresses have been repeated a
very large number of times. Hence the failure is
called a fatigue failure.

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  Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and
propagation. A fatigue crack will typically initiate
at a discontinuity in the material where the cyclic
stress is a maximum.
 Discontinuities can arise because of:
 Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways,
holes, etc. where stress concentrations occur,
 Elements that roll and/or slide against each other
(bearings, gears, cams, etc.) under high contact
pressure, developing concentrated subsurface
contact stresses,
 that can cause surface pitting or spilling after
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many cycles of the load.
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  Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool
marks, scratches, and burrs; poor joint design;
improper assembly; and other fabrication faults.
 Composition of the material itself as processed by
rolling, forging, casting, extrusion, drawing, heat
treatment, etc.
 Microscopic and submicroscopic surface and
subsurface discontinuities arise, such as inclusions
of foreign material, alloy segregation, voids, hard
precipitated particles, and crystal discontinuities.

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 Approach to Fatigue Failure in
Analysis and Design
 Fatigue-Life Methods,
 The three major fatigue life methods used in
design and analysis are the stress-life method, the
strain-life method, and the linear-elastic fracture
mechanics method.
 These methods attempt to predict the life in
number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level
of loading.
 Life of 1 ≤ N ≤ 103 cycles is generally classified as
low-cycle fatigue, whereas high-cycle fatigue is
Mechanical considered to be N > 103 cycles.
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  To determine the strength of materials under the
action of fatigue loads, specimens are subjected
to repeated or varying forces of specified
magnitudes while the cycles or stress reversals
are counted to destruction.
 This machine subjects the specimen to pure
bending. The specimen, shown in Fig., is very
carefully machined and polished, with a final
polishing in an axial direction to avoid
circumferential scratches.

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Mechanical
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Mechanical
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 S-N Curve

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An S-N diagram plotted from the results of completely reversed axial
KONYA fatigue tests. Material: UNS G41300 steel, normalized;
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Mechanical
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  Other fatigue-testing machines are available for
applying fluctuating or reversed axial stresses,
torsional stresses, or combined stresses to the
test specimens.
 For the rotating-beam test, a constant bending
load is applied, and the number of revolutions
(stress reversals) of the beam required for failure
is recorded.
 The first test is made at a stress that is
somewhat under the ultimate strength of the
material.
 The second test is made at a stress that is less
Mechanical than that used in the first.
 This process is continued, and the results are
Engineering
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 The Endurance Limit
 For steels, simplifying our observation of Fig. we
will estimate the endurance limit as,
 For Steel
S'e= 0.5 Sut for Sut <=1400MPa
S'e = 700 MPa for Sut >1400MPa
 For Cast iron & Carbon steel
S'e = 0.4 Sut for Sut <= 600MPa
S'e = 275 Mpa for Sut > 600MPa
 where Sut is the minimum tensile strength. The
Mechanical
prime mark on S′e in this equation refers to the
Engineering rotating-beam specimen itself.
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 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

 We have seen that the rotating-beam specimen

used in the laboratory to determine endurance
limits is prepared very carefully and tested under
closely controlled conditions.
 Material: composition, basis of failure, variability
 Manufacturing: method, heat treatment, fretting
corrosion, surface condition, stress concentration
 Environment: corrosion, temperature, stress state,
relaxation times
 Design: size, shape, life, stress state, stress
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concentration, speed.
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 Marin’s Equation
 Marin identified factors that quantified the effects of

 surface condition
 size
 loading
 temperature
 miscellaneous items
Marin’s Equations is therefore written as:

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 Se : Endurance limit at the critical location of a machine
part in geometry and condition of use
S 'e : Rotary-beam test specimen endurance limit

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  Surface Factor ka; The surface modification
factor depends on the quality of the finish of the
actual part surface and on the tensile strength of
the part material. where

 Sut is the minimum tensile strength and a and b are

to be found in Table

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  Size Factor kb; The size factor has been
evaluated using 133 sets of data points. The
results for bending and torsion may be expressed
as

 For axial loading there is no size effect, so

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  Loading Factor kc;When fatigue tests are carried
out with rotating bending, axial (push-pull), and
torsional loading, the endurance limits differ with
Sut.

 kc
 Average
kpsi MPa
Bending 1 1 0 1

Axial 1.23 1.43 -0.078 0.85

Mechanical
Torsion 0.328 0.258 0.125 0.59
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  Temperature Factor kd; When operating
temperatures are below room temperature, brittle
fracture is a strong possibility and should be
investigated first.
 When the operating temperatures are higher than
room temperature, yielding should be investigated
first because the yield strength drops off so
rapidly with temperature;

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  Reliability Factor ke;
If Reliability is not mentioned,

Otherwise Use Table

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  Miscellaneous-Effects Factor kf;
 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity;
 it was pointed out that the existence of
irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes,
grooves, or notches, in a part increases the
theoretical stresses significantly in the immediate
vicinity of the discontinuity.
 The factor Kf is commonly called a fatigue stress-
concentration factor, and hence the
 The resulting factor is defined by the equation
subscript f.
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  Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation;

 Then specify the material, find q, and solve for Kf

from the equation

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Mechanical
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Department Notch-sensitivity charts for steels and UNS A92024-T,wrought aluminum alloys subjected
KONYA to reversed bending or reversed axial loads.
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Mechanical
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Notch-sensitivity curves for materials in reversed torsion.
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Mechanical
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KONYA Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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KONYA Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Department Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Department Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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KONYA Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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Mechanical
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KONYA Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
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 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
 Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the
form of a sinusoidal pattern because of the nature
of some rotating machinery.
 It has been found that in periodic patterns
exhibiting a single maximum and a single minimum
of force, the shape of the wave is not important,
but the peaks on both the high side (maximum) and
the low side (minimum) are important.
 Thus Fmax and F min in a cycle of force can be used
to characterize the force pattern.
 If the largest force is Fmax and the smallest force
Mechanical is Fmin, then a steady component and an alternating
Engineering
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  where Fm is the midrange steady component of
force, and Fa is the amplitude of the alternating
component of force.

Mechanical
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Mechanical
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 (b and c) non-sinusoidal fluctuating stress;
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Mechanical
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  (e) repeated stress;
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Mechanical  (f ) Completely reversed sinusoidal stress.
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  The following relations are evident from Figures;

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 Road Maps and Important Design Equations
for the Stress-Life Method
 Completely Reversing Simple Loading
 1 Determine S′e either from test data or
 For Steel
S'e= 0.5 Sut for Sut <=1400MPa
S'e = 700 MPa for Sut >1400MPa
 For Cast iron & Carbon steel
S'e = 0.4 Sut for Sut <= 600MPa
S'e = 275 Mpa for Sut > 600MPa
 2 Modify S′e to determine Se.
 3 Determine fatigue stress-concentration factor Kf
or Kfs . First, find Kt or Kts
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  4 Apply Kf or Kfs by either dividing Se by it or
multiplying it with the purely reversing stress not
both.

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  5 Determine fatigue life constants a and b. If
Sut ≥70 kpsi, determine f from Fig. If Sut < 70
kpsi, let f = 0.9.

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  6 Determine fatigue strength Sf at N cycles, or,
N cycles to failure at a reversing stress σa
 (Note: this only applies to purely reversing
stresses where σm = 0).

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  Fluctuating Simple Loading
 1 Calculate σm and σa . Apply Kf to both stresses.
 2 Apply to a fatigue failure criterion,

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  Torsion. Use the same equations as apply for σm ≥0,
except replace σm and σa with
tm and ta , use kc = 0.59 for Se, replace Sut with
Ssu= 0.67Sut, and replace Sy with Ssy=0.577Sy

 3 Check for localized yielding.

 or, for torsion,

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  4 For finite-life fatigue strength

 If determining the finite life N with a factor of

safety n, substitute Sf /n for σa in That is,

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 Have a nice day

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