Mech-Prop UTOSP 1293

Prepared by S.
Venkannah Mechanical and Production Engineering Department

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS
Mechanical properties of Materials

UTOSP 1293 – Basics of Metallurgy
Prepared by s. Venkannah
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Engineers are basically concerned with the development of machines, structures and products
of various kinds. Since these constructions are usually subjected to loads and deformations,
the properties of materials under the action of loads and deformation so produced for various
environments become an important engineering consideration. The macroscopic properties
of materials under load or force are broadly classed as mechanical properties. They are a
measure of strength and lasting characteristics of a material in service and are of great
importance particularly to the design engineer.
Materials are selected by matching its properties to the service conditions required.
Standard tests available;
Destructive testing
Non destructive testing.

Give some examples of Destructive testing and Non-destructive testing.
Destructive Testing- a proper sampling is important so that properties deduced from the test
are representative of the material as a whole.
It is important to note that:

¾ Properties may not be the same in all directions
¾ Properties of a product may not be the same in all parts of the material
¾ There may be different loading conditions and service conditions
¾
TENSILE TEST
The tensile test is one of the most frequently used methods for determining the strength and
ductility of a material. The test involves and axial load being applied to a standard specimen
of circular or rectangular cross-section. The load is increased at a constant rate by
mechanical or hydraulic means and this causes the specimen to elongate and finally fracture.
During testing the sample is gripped at each end and in order to ensure simple uni-axial
loading and to avoid fracture occurring in the region being gripped, the mid portion of the
sample has a reduced cross section. This reduced section is marked with a standard length
(the gauge length) from which the elongation of the specimen is measured. A plot of the
elongation ΔL against load F produces a curve similar to that shown in Fig 1 below,
From such graphs the following quantities can be obtained:

¾ The tensile strength, being the stress corresponding to the maximum force
¾ The yield stress, being the stress at which the material begin to yield and show plastic
deformation without any increase in load
1
UTOSP 1293 – Basics of Metallurgy March 2007
Prepared by S. Venkannah Mechanical and Production Engineering Department
¾ The proof stress, being the stress at which non proportional is equal to a specified
percentage of the gauge length
¾ The tensile modulus (young’s modulus) being the slope of the stress-strain graph over its
proportional region.
¾ The percentage reduction in area and the percentage elongation.
Mark the following points/regions on the curve (Fig 1);

• The elastic region
• The elastic limit, A
• The plastic region
• Uniform plastic deformation
• Localised plastic deformation (Necking)
The initial part of the plot, up to the elastic limit (A), is linear and the specimen behaves in an
elastic manner ie. Hooke’s Law is obeyed.
State Hooke’s Law.
If the load is released the specimen will return to its original dimensions, provided the limit
of elasticity has not been exceeded. The slope of the line in the elastic region enables the
Young’s Modulus (E) to be determined,
E = Stress/Strain = (F .Lo)/( Ao ΔL )= (F /ΔL) * (Lo/ Ao)
= Slope of the elastic part of the graph * (Lo/ Ao)
Where:
F – Applied Force
ΔL – Extension
Lo- Original gauge length of the specimen
Ao - The original cross sectional area
2
The total elastic extension that takes place is usually very small, less than 0.5%, (e.g. for
ordinary steel the elongation in the elastic stage is about 0.001 in per 1 in gauge length) and
therefore very sensitive measuring instruments called extensometers is necessary to measure
the extension in the elastic region.
These instruments grip the specimens at two points on the gauge length and the separation of
these points is measured during the test by either a dial gauge or an electrical transducer.
Beyond point A the load/elongation curve deviates from linearity due to the specimen
deforming in a plastic manner. If the load is released after the specimen has been deformed
in this part of the curve, then the elastic extension will be recovered as before but it will be
found that the specimen has also undergone a permanent extension. The point where the
load-elongation graph ceases to be a straight line is called the limit of proportionality, and
this is calculated by dividing the applied load at that point by the original cross section area
of the specimen.
Just beyond the limit of proportionality certain ductile materials, metals or polymers, may
undergo sudden extension without a corresponding increase in load and this is referred to as
the yield point. In some cases (e.g. mild steel) the load may fall temporarily producing an
upper and lower yield point. The yield stress is calculated by dividing the load at yield by the
original cross sectional area of the specimen.
Draw the stress-strain curve for a mild steel specimen showing the upper and lower
yield point.
For materials that do not show a well defined yield point an offset yield stress is normally
quoted. This is t he stress required to produce a specified amount of plastic deformation and
is determined by drawing a line parallel to the elastic part of the graph but which is offset by
an extension corresponding to 0.1% (or other specified amount) of the gauge length. The
load at the point where the line intersects the tensile curve is determined and then divided by
the original cross sectional area.
For metals this offset yield stress is normally referred to as 0.1% proof stress. The proof
stress is the stress that will cause a certain amount of permanent set because in many
materials the stress at which the material changes from elastic to plastic behaviour is not
easily detected.
With the help of a stress-strain curve explain how the 0.2% proof stress of a material
can be determined.
Some materials, such as certain polymers and annealed copper, do not have a linear region on
the curve and so the offset yield stress and Young’s modulus cannot be determined. In these
cases the yield stress is defined as the load to produce a total extension of 0.5% of the gauge
length divided by the original cross sectional area. In place of a Young’s modulus a secant
modulus is defined. The slope of the line drawn from the origin to a point on the load
extension curve corresponding to an extension of 0.5% is determined and multiplied by Lo/
Ao.
3
With the help of a stress-strain curve explain how the 0.5% secant modulus of a
polymer can be determined.
After appreciable plastic deformation has occurred the load-elongation curve reaches a
maximum value. At this point the specimen has started to undergo localised plastic
deformation, or necking down as it is usually called. The reduced cross sectional area in the
necked region means that further deformation can occur at reduced load and hence the
load/elongation curve now falls until failure finally takes place. The ultimate tensile
strength.,(or Tensile Strength) of a material is calculated by dividing the maximum load by
the original cross sectional area.
Mark the following points on the load- extension (stress-strain) curve (Fig 1)
• The Fracture Strength, B
• The limit of proportionality, C
• The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), D
Tensile test also gives an indication of the ductility of a material. The ductility of a material
can be measured in terms of the percentage reduction in area and the percentage elongation.
The ductility of material is the ability of the material for being drawn plastically before
failure. The ductility of the material will determine the amount of extension of the material
before fracture. As the material elongates , the cross sectional area decrease. Hence a
material having a high ductility will extend by a large amount and its area will decrease by a
large amount.
Ductile fracture: The rupture of a material after considerable amount of plastic deformation.
Materials begin to neck beyond the UTS which is the max. point in the stress-strain curve.
Brittle fracture: The failure of a material without apparent plastic deformation. If 2 pieces
of a brittle material are fitted together, the original shape and dimensions of the specimen are
restored.
% Reduction in area= ((Ao-Af) / Ao ) * 100

Where:
Ao - The cross sectional area of the specimen before testing
Af – The minimum cross sectional area of the specimen after fracture
% Elongation = ((Lf- Lo) / Lo ) * 100

Where:
Lo - The original gauge length of the specimen before testing
Af – The final distance between the gauge length after fracture
There is a Hounsfield tensometer in the Structural Mechanics Lab which is used to perform
tensile tests on metals. Standard specimens are required. The specimen is held between
grippers on the machine. It is then loaded at one end of the tensometer by a mechanical
screw arrangement which is turned manually. The other end of the specimen is attached to a
calibrated spring beam, the deflection of which is proportional to the applied load. This beam
deflection is measured by a lever system which displaces mercury up a glass capillary tube.
The movement of the mercury is followed by a cursor to which is attached a needle which
can be used to punch out the value of the load onto graph paper at intervals. The graph paper
4
is mounted on a drum which rotates by an amount proportional to the elongation of the
sample, the final result is a load/elongation curve onto the graph paper.
The stress-strain curves for 4 materials are shown below. Which of the
materials is
(a) the most ductile
(b) the most brittle
(c) the strongest
(d) the stiffest
The modulus of
resilience, Er, is the area under the stress-strain curve i.e. the elastic energy that a material
absorbs during loading and subsequently releases when the load is removed.
Compare the Young’s Modulus and the tensile strength of some commonly used metals and
alloys.
The Poisson’s ratio, μ, is the ratio;
μ=- lateral strain

longitudonal strain
In many ductile materials, deformation does not remain uniform. At some point one region
deforms more than others and a large local decrease, necking, in the cross sectional area
occurs. The cross sectional area becomes smaller at this point, a lower force is required to
continue its deformation.
The engineering stress is the stress calculated from the original cross sectional area whereas
the true stress is load at fracture divided by the actual cross sectional area after fracture.
5
THE BEND TEST
In brittle materials (e.g. ceramics) failure occurs at the maximum load where yield strength,
tensile strength and breaking strength are the same.
The flexural strength and the flexural modulus are used instead to compare the properties of
the materials. The flexural modulus is the modulus of elasticity in bending.
Flexural strength = (3Fl)/ (2wh2)
Flexural modulus = (l3F)/ (4wh3δ)

Where :
F – Fracture load
l – distance between the supports
w- width of the plate
h – height of the plate
δ - deflection of the plate
IMPACT TEST
Many materials, including steels, are prone to fracture in a brittle manner- very little plastic
deformation takes place before failure. Crack growth during brittle fracture absorbs very
little energy. It is also extremely rapid and occurs without any warning. The fracture
surfaces have a faceted appearance sine the crack has a tendency to grow along specific
crystallographic planes, called cleavage planes. The fracture surface may also show chevron
markings which run back towards the origin of failure.
Brittle fracture is accentuated if the material is subjected to triaxial stresses, a rapid rate of
loading or low temperatures. The notched bar impact test was devised to simulate these
conditions, as to test the resistance of a material to failure under the most unfavourable
conditions of loading that might be encountered in service. The principle is simple; a notched
specimen is struck and fractured by a swinging pendulum and the fraction of kinetic energy
of the pendulum used to fracture the specimen is measured. The notch in the specimen
provides a triaxial stress situation so that the test is a measure of the strength of a material
under a triaxial state of stress. However, the numerical value obtained from the test cannot be
translated directly to the design of large engineering components since t he results obtained
from a small notched specimen will not be the same as those from an identical notch in a
large component. The usefulness of the test lies in indicating whether the heat treatment or
fabrication of a material has been carried out correctly.
Toughness is the ability of the material to resist impact loads.

Two commonly used impact tests are
Charpy’s Impact Test
Izod’s Impact Test
The Izod’s Impact test uses a notched specimen that is gripped at one end and held in a
vertical plane. The specimen face that contains the notch is struck by a swinging pendulum
released from a standard height. Some of the kinetic energy of the pendulum is used to
fracture the specimen so that the pendulum swings to a point on the opposite side of the
machine that is lower that the initial height from which the pendulum was released. The
impact machine usually incorporates a scale that enables the value of this fracture energy to
6
be read off direct. Test pieces have standard dimensions and the strike energy of 160 J for
metals and 2-20 J for polymers. The results for Izod’s test for metallic materials are
expressed as the number of Joules (J) required to fracture the standard sized specimen,
whereas in the case of polymers the result is expressed as energy to fracture per unit area of
specimen behind the notch (J/mm2).
The Charpy’s Impact test uses a notched specimen that is supported as a simple beam and
which is struck from a position behind the notch. The strike energy is 320 J for metals and
0.5-50 J for polymers. The energy to fracture the specimen is measured in a similar way to
that described for the Izod’s test. Results for metallic specimens are expressed as the energy
(J) to fracture the standard specimen, for polymers results are expressed as energy per unit
area of fractured surface (J/mm2).
Draw a properly labelled schematic diagram of the Impact testing machine.

Draw the test pieces (with dimensions) and the loading arrangements for the Izod’s
and Charpy’s Impact tests.
There has been many instances in the past of failure of metals by unexpected brittleness at
low temperatures. The behaviour of materials under impact loads also depend on
temperatures. The notched bar tests bar described above does not consider the temperatures
of the specimens. To account of this fact the impact test can be conducted over a range of
temperatures. Such tests reveal that many ductile materials become brittle over a relatively
small temperature range as the temperature of testing is lowered. This is referred to as the
ductile to brittle transition and for steel frequently occurs in the temperature interval –50 to
+500C.
Above the transition, failure takes place in a ductile manner, with extensive plastic
deformation resulting in large amounts of energy being absorbed during the fracture process.
Below the transition, failure occurs in a brittle manner, very little plastic deformation takes
place and therefore very little energy is absorbed during fracture.
Under normal conditions the stress required to cause cleavage is higher than the stress
required to cause slip, but if, by some circumstances slip is suppressed, brittle fracture will
occur when the internal stress increases to the value necessary to cause failure. As
temperature decreases, the movement of dislocations becomes more difficult and this
increases the possibility of internal stresses exceeding the yield stress at some point.
Draw the Impact energy-Temperature curve showing the ductile to brittle transition
for ferritic and austenitic steels
The transition from ductile to brittle behaviour takes place over a finite range of temperature
and therefore we cannot say a material is ductile above a single specific temperature and
brittle below it: we need to define the transition in some way. It is relatively easy to
distinguish between the cleavage areas from the ductile areas of the fracture surface without
the aid of the microscope. The cleavage areas are faceted and have a high reflectivity and
bright appearance. The ductile areas are rough and fibrous and therefore have a much lower
reflectivity.
7
Materials which show a ductile to brittle transition include BCC metals, HCP metals,
polymers and ionic crystals.
HARDNESS TEST.
Hardness : Resistance of a surface to abrasion or penetration
Hardness of a material may be specified in terms of some standard test involving indentation
or scratching of the surface of the material. Some standard test are:
Rockwell’s Hardness Number (RHN)
Brinell’s Hardness Number (BHN)
Vicker’s Hardness Number (VHN)
Knoop’s Hardness Number (KHN)
Draw the a labelled schematic diagram of the hardness testing machine
FIG: Variation in properties of steel with increase in %C
Rockwell’s: uses a diamond cone or a steel ball and the RHN is given in terms of the depth
of penetration or indentation. Various Rockwell scale (A-K) can be used depending on the
indenter and load combination.
Quickly made test and can be fitted in a production line. The impression is between Vicker’s
and Brinell’s. Surface irregularity can be accommodated because of minor loads to initially
locate the indentor.
DIS: Not as accurate as Vicker’s
8
BRINELL”S: uses a hardened steel ball indenter and the BHN is given by
BHN = applied force

Surface area of impression
Limitations Large impression and may act as stress raiser in a component May be
unacceptable on grounds of surface finish The large depths precludes its use on plated or
surface hardened components . Very hard materials will deform the indenter
9
10
Vickers’s: Uses a diamond square pyramid indenter and the VHN is given by
VHN = applied force

Area of indentation
Suitable for hard as well as soft materials. No need to use the F/D2 ratio for material as all
impressions are geometrically similar. The Vicker’s hardness range is proportional so that a
material. Having VPN 400 is twice as hard as one having VPN 200
Limitations: Impression is small and the surface of the material must be polished flat. It
takes a relatively long time to perform a Vicker’s hardness test. Vicker’s machine are more
expensive than Rockwell’s and Brinell’s Testing machines
Knoop’s: uses a rhomic diamond indentor
The Shore Scleroscope- a small diamond tipped ‘tup’ allowed to fall on the specimen. The
rebound height is measured. The harder the material, the higher the rebound .
THE CREEP TEST.

If we apply a stress to a material at an elevated temperature, the material may stretch and
eventually fail even though the applied stress is less than the yield strength at that
temperature. Plastic deformation at high temperature under a constant load is known as
creep.
Draw a typical creep curve showing the strain produced as a function of time for a
constant stress and temperature. Show the following regions on the curve; primary
creep, secondary creep and tertiary creep.
Primary or transient creep- beginning at a fairly rapid rate which t hen decrease with time
because work hardening sets in.
Secondary or steady state creep in which the rate of strain is uniform and at its lowest
value.
Tertiary creep in which the rate of strain increase rapidly until fracture
THE FATIGUE TEST.

Many components are subjected to fluctuating loads, taking place at relatively high
frequencies and under these conditions failure is found to occur at stress values much lower
than that would apply for static loading.
Fatigue test is the failure of a component under the action of an alternating load. The
cyclical stress may occur as a result of rotation, bending or vibration. In many cases the
material failed when the applied stress is below the yield strength. Failure by fatigue
typically occurs in 3 stages :
1. A tiny crack initiates at the surface
2. Crack propagates as the load continues to cycle
3. Sudden fracture of material when cross section is too small to support the applied load
The rotating cantilever beam test is used to test the resistance of a material to fatigue. One
end of a machined, cylindrical specimen is mounted in a motor driven chuck. A weight is
11
suspended form the opposite end. Initially there a tensile force on the top and the bottom
surface is compressed. After specimen rotates through 900, the locations that were in tension
and compression have no stresses acting on them. After half a revolution, the material
originally in tension is now in compression and the part in compression is now in tension.
After a large number of rotations. the specimen may fail. The results is presented as a Stress-
number of cycles curve. The logarithmic scale is used for the number of cycles.
Draw a Stress-Number. of cycles curve for a typical metal (mild steel) and a polymer
showing all the important quantities
Fatigue life – how long a component survives a particular stress

Endurance limit (fatigue limit)- the stress below which there is a 50% probability that failure
will never occur.
Fatigue strength- Maximum stress for which fatigue will not occur with a particular number
of cycles. Necessary for polymers and Aluminium as they do not have the endurance limit.
Endurance ratio = Endurance limit

Tensile strength
What do you understand by the following properties machinability, castability,

malleability and weldability?
STANDARD
A standard is a technical specification drawn up with the aims of benefiting all concerned by
ensuring consistency in quality, rationalising processes and methods of operation, promoting
economic production methods providing a means of communication, protecting consumer
interests, encouraging safe practices, and helping confidence in manufacturers and users.
There are thousands of standards laid down by national and international bodies e.g. Bsritish
Standards Institution (BS), American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), American
Welding Society (AWS), International Organisation for Standardization (ISO), German
Standards (DIN), Indian Standards (IS), Mauritius Standard Bureau (BS) etc…
DATA SOURCES:
Data on the properties on materials is available from a range of sources such as:
• Specifications issued by bodies responsible for standards e.g. BS, ASM, ASTM, MS
• Data books e.g. ASM metal reference book (American Society for Metals, 1983) , Metals
Reference Book (by R. J. Smithells, Butterworth, 1987) , Metals Databook (by C. Robb,
The Institute of Metals, 1987), Handbook of Plastics and Elastomers (edited by C. A.
Harper , Mc Graw Hill, 1975), Newnes Engineering Materials Pocket Book (by W.
Bolton , Heinemann-Newnes, 1989)
• Computerised databases which give materials and their properties e.g Cambridge
Materials Selector
• Trade Associations e.g. the Copper Development Association, Zinc Development
Association, Aluminium Federation
• Data sheets supplied by the suppliers
• In company tests- These are used to check samples of a bought in material to ensure that
it conforms to the standards specified by the supplier.
12
Reference :
• Tensile and Impact Properties of metals by Dr. B. Noble, Tecquipment Ltd.
• Engineering Metallurgy by R. Higgins, 5th Ed.
• Materials Science and Engineering by Callister, 2nd Ed.
• Materials for Engineering by W. Bolton
• Own notes
Problems:
UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
Tutorial 2
1. The following results were obtained from a tensile test of an aluminium alloy. The test
piece had a diameter of 11.28 mm and a gauge length of 56 mm. Plot the stress-strain graph
and determine (a) the tensile modulus (b) the 0.1% proof stress © the modulus of resilience.
Loa 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10. 12. 15. 17. 20. 22.
d/k 0 5 0 5 0 5
N
Ext/ 0 1.8 4.0 6.2 8.4 10. 12. 14. 16. 19.
mm 0 5 6 3 0
Loa 25.0 27.5 3 32. 35. 37. 38. 39. 39.

d/k 0. 5 0 5 5 0 0
N 0
Ext. 21.2 23.5 2 28. 31. 35. 40. 61. 86
/ 5. 1 5 0 0 0
mm 7
2. The following results were obtained from a tensile test of a polymer. The test piece had a
width of 20 mm, a thickness of 3mm and a gauge length of 80 mm. Plot the stress-strain
graph and determine (a) the tensile strength (b) the secant modulus at 0.2% strain
Load 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 650 630
/kN
Ext. /mm 0 0.08 0.17 0.35 0.59 0.88 1.33 2.00 2.40
.
3. The following results were obtained from a tensile test of a steel specimen. The test piece
had a diameter of 10 mm and a gauge length of 50 mm. Plot the stress-strain graph and
determine (a) the tensile strength (b) the 0.1% proof stress © the yield stress and (d) the
tensile modulus.
Load/kN 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 32.5 35.8

Ext./mm 0 0.016 0.033 0.049 0.065 0.081 0.097 0.106 0.250
4. The following data was obtained from a tensile test on a stainless steel test piece.
Determine (a) the limit of proportionality stress (b) the tensile modulus © the 0.2% proof
stress.
13
Stress/ Mpa 0 90 170 255 345 495 605 700 760 805 845 880 895
Strain/ 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
x10-4
5. Describe the process through which a material undergoes (I) Ductile fracture
(ii) Brittle fracture (crack formation and propagation, fracture surfaces…)
6. Describe two commonly used impact testing techniques.
7. What do you understand by the Ductile to Brittle transition of a material?
8. Fatigue and Creep are two common forms of failure. Explain the terms (I) fatigue (ii)
creep.
9. Describe tests to predict the lifetime of components subjected to fatigue creep. (paying
attention to terms such as fatigue limit, fatigue life, fatigue strength, steady state creep
rate….)
10. List the factors that affect the fatigue life.
11. List measures to increase the resistance to fatigue of a metal alloy.
12. Give metallurgical/processing techniques that can be employed to enhance creep
resistance of metal alloys.
13 The following data were collected from a 3.2 x 19.1mm rectangular test
specimen of magnesium;
LOAD (N) EXTENSION (mm)

0 0
1380 0.03
2780 0.08
5630 0.13
7430 0.20
8140 0.25
9870 0.64
12850 1.91
14100 3.18
14340 4.45
13830 5.72
12500 6.99 (fracture)
The initial length of the specimen was 63.5 mm and the final cross sectional
area was 58.42 mm2.
Plot the stress - strain curve and hence determine;

(a) the Young’s modulus of elasticity
(b) the modulus of resilience
(c) the tensile strength
(d) the 0.2% proof stress
(e) the percentage elongation
(f) the percentage reduction in area
(g) the true stress at fracture
14 Differentiate between :
14
(i) toughness and hardness
(ii) engineering stress and true stress
(iii) yield strength and tensile strength
(iv) creep and fatigue
15 Explain what you understand by the following terms (I) fatigue (ii) creep (iii) hardness,
(iv) toughness (v) Ultimate tensile stress.
16. The following results were obtained from a tensile test on a 20-mm diameter S.G. cast
iron specimen having a gauge length of 40 mm.
Load (kN) Extension (mm)

25 0.0185
50 0.0370
75 0.0555
90 0.2
105 0.6
120 1.56
131 4.0 ( Maximum Load)
125 7.52 (fracture)
After fracture, the gauge length is 47.42 mm and the diameter is 18.35 mm. Plot the data and
calculate
(a) the 0.2% proof strength

(b) the tensile strength
(c) the modulus of elasticity
(d) the % elongation
(e) the % reduction of area
(f) the engineering stress at fracture
(g) the true stress at fracture, and
(h) the modulus of resilience.
17 What mechanical properties of a material are determined by tensile testing? What

valuable information can be determined from the results of a tensile tests?
18 What is the difference between a ductile material and a malleable material?
15

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Prepared by S.

Venkannah Mechanical and Production Engineering Department

Mechanical properties of Materials

It is important to note that:

From such graphs the following quantities can be obtained:

Mark the following points/regions on the curve (Fig 1);

State Hooke’s Law.

% Reduction in area= ((Ao-Af) / Ao ) * 100

% Elongation = ((Lf- Lo) / Lo ) * 100

The Poisson’s ratio, μ, is the ratio;

μ=- lateral strain

Flexural strength = (3Fl)/ (2wh2)

Flexural modulus = (l3F)/ (4wh3δ)

Toughness is the ability of the material to resist impact loads.

Draw a properly labelled schematic diagram of the Impact testing machine.

Draw the a labelled schematic diagram of the hardness testing machine

FIG: Variation in properties of steel with increase in %C

BHN = applied force

VHN = applied force

Knoop’s: uses a rhomic diamond indentor

THE CREEP TEST.

THE FATIGUE TEST.

Fatigue life – how long a component survives a particular stress

Endurance ratio = Endurance limit

What do you understand by the following properties machinability, castability,

Loa 25.0 27.5 3 32. 35. 37. 38. 39. 39.

Load/kN 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 32.5 35.8

LOAD (N) EXTENSION (mm)

Plot the stress - strain curve and hence determine;

Load (kN) Extension (mm)

(a) the 0.2% proof strength

17 What mechanical properties of a material are determined by tensile testing? What

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