Studypool: @laceyair

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PLANTS

CHEMISTRY OF PLANT CELLS

● Chemistry is an integral aspect of ● Plants are rich in carbon because
biology. of their cell wall. Since it is made
● Organisms are composed of up of cellulose, which is an organic
matter. compound and is a complex form of
● Matter consists of chemical glucose (composed of carbon). In
elements in pure form and in other words, glucose in plant cells is
combinations called compounds. converted into cellulose which is a
● An element is a substance that structural type of polysaccharide,
cannot be broken down into other making it high in carbon.
substances by chemical reactions. ○ CO2 → Fixed (Carbon
● A compound is a substance Fixation) → Sugar
consisting of two or more (Glucose) → Cellulose or
different elements combined in a Starch
fixed ratio. ● Naturally occurring elements in the
○ Example: NaCl, H2O living system:
○ N2 is NOT a compound but a
diatomic element. Symbol Element % of Human % of [MOST}
Body Weight Plant DRY
● Molecule vs. Compound: All Weight
compounds are molecules, but not
all molecules are compounds. O Oxygen 65.0 45

C Carbon 18.5 45
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF LIFE
H Hydrogen 9.5 6
● About 25 of the 92 natural elements
are essential to life (about 16 for N Nitrogen 3.3 1.5
plants).
Ca Calcium 1.5 0.5
● Just 4 of these make up 96-99.5% of
living matter. (O-H-C-N) P Phosphorus 1.0 0.2
○ Oxygen
K Potassium 0.4 1.0
○ Hydrogen
○ Carbon S Sulfur 0.3 0.1
○ Nitrogen
Na & Cl Sodium & 0.2/0.2 –/0.002
● Plants have more carbon for Chlorine
carbon fixation.
○ Sugar conversion glucose to Mg Magnesium 0.1 0.06
cellulose - the main
structure of the cell wall. ● In conclusion, plants, and animals
● Carbon in humans and plants differ don’t differ in the elements present
because of carbon fixation, meaning in them, but they differ in the amount
CO2 it’s going to be fixed, then it or distribution of them.
becomes part of the cell.

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TRACE ELEMENTS OF PLANTS of matter: solid, liquid, and

● Trace elements are those elements gas.
that need to be present in a very ○ A polar molecule
small amount (<0.01 % of Body 1. O Region has a
Weight). If you provide too much of partial negative
them, this can be harmful or toxic charge.
to their lives and it may lead to 2. H Region has a
death. partial positive
charge.
● Animals (Human Body) 3. This polarity makes
○ Boron (B) water the “solvent of
○ Chromium (Cr) life”.
○ Cobalt (C) ● Water is needed for
○ Copper (Cu) photosynthesis as it contains
○ Fluorine (F) protons and electrons.
○ Iodine (I) ○ Electrons are essential for
○ Iron (Fe) Electron Transport Chain.
○ Manganese (Mn) ○ Photolysis
○ Molybdenum (Mo) ● Oxygen gas is considered waste for
○ Selenium (Se) plants.
○ Silicon (Si)
○ Tin (Sn) WATER AS A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
○ Vanadium (V)
○ Zinc (Zn)
● Most Plants
○ Boron (B)
○ Iron (Fe)
○ Manganese (Mn)
○ Zinc (Zn)
○ Copper (Cu)
○ Molybdenum (Mo)

COMPOUNDS OF LIFE COMPOUNDS OF LIFE: ORGANIC

● The cell contains both inorganic COMPOUNDS OR MOLECULES
(water, inorganic salts, and ions) and ● All organic molecules contain
organic molecules. carbon
● Water (H2O) ○ Naturally occurring organic
○ Biological medium that compounds are found in all
supports all life. living organisms and fossil
○ The only and most fuels.
abundant substance in the ○ All of these rely on the fixing
natural environment that of CO2 by
exists in all physical states chlorophyll-containing
organisms.

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○ Synthetic organic non-polar compounds like oils and

compounds are derived from waxes.
fossil fuels or plant materials.
○ Examples: Herbicides, FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Pesticides Functional Structure Name of Example
Compounds
○ CO2 → Fixation → Glucose Group

Hydroxyl -OH alcohols ethanol

● Not all compounds with C are
organic Carbonyl Ketones; Acetone;
aldehydes
○ Oxides of Carbon (CO2, CO) glucose
○ Carbonates (CO3), Carboxyl -COOH Organic acids Acetic acid
Bicarbonates (HCO3)
Amino -NH2 Amines Amino acids
○ Cyanides (NaCN)
○ Compounds with one Carbon Phosphate Organic Glycerol
-PO4
(C) and usually no Hydrogen phosphates phosphate
(H)
○ Smalles or Simplest
Organic Compound:
Methane (CH4)

WHY IS CARBON SO IMPORTANT TO

LIFE
● All living organisms are made up of
organic molecules and use organic
molecules to function.
● Carbon can form a great variety of
organic compounds (compounds
containing carbon)
● It can form chemical bonds with four
other atoms, including other carbon
atoms. FOUR BASIC TYPES OF ORGANIC
MOLECULES
CARBON’s BONDING PATTERN
● Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer Organic Elements Building Blocks
Molecules
shells. This means that each
carbon atom forms 4 bonds. Carbohydrates C, H, O Monosaccharides
● The 4 bonds are in the form of a (1:2:1)
tetrahedron or a triangular
Lipids C, H, O Glycerol and
pyramid. (more C than O)
Fatty Acids
● Carbon can form long chains and
rings, especially with hydrogens Proteins C, H, O, N, P, Amino Acids
S
attached.
● Compounds with carbon and Nucleic Acids C, H, O, N, P Nucleotides
(DNA and RNA)
hydrogen are “hydrocarbons”:

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CARBOHYDRATES MONOSACCHARIDES
● Sugar and Starches = ● Also called simple sugars
Saccharides ● About some common
● The name “carbohydrate” comes monosaccharides:
from the approximate composition: a ○ Glucose is the main food
ratio of 1 carbon to 2 hydrogens molecule used by most
to 1 oxygen (CH2O). For instance, living things: other molecules
the sugar glucose is C6H12O6. are converted to glucose
● Carbohydrates are composed of before being used to
rings of 5 or 6 carbons, with generate energy. Glucose
alcohol (-OH) groups attached. can also be assembled into
This makes most carbohydrates starch and cellulose.
water-soluble. ○ Fructose or fruit sugar is
● Carbohydrates are used for energy used to sweeten many food
production and storage, and for products.
structure. ○ Ribose and Deoxyribose
● Can be classified based on: are part of RNA and DNA:
○ Number of sugar molecules: they are 5-carbon sugars.
Monosaccharide (mono- ○ Vitamin C is derived from
means one), Disaccharide simple sugar.
(di- means two), and
Polysaccharide (poly- ISOMERIC MONOSACCHARIDES
means many).
○ Location of the carbonyl Simple Sugar Molecular Structural
group: Aldose (terminal) Formula Formula

[ribose, glucose, galactose],

Ketose (inner) [ribulose, Glucose C6H12O6
fructose].
○ Size of carbon skeleton:
ranges from three to seven
carbon long.
a. Triose Fructose C6H12O6
(Glyceraldehyde,
C3H6O3)
b. Tetrose (Malic Acid,
Galactose C6H12O6
C4H6O5)
c. Pentose (Ribose,
C5H10O5)
d. Hexose (Glucose,
C6H12O6)
e. Heptose
(Mannoheptulose,
C7H14O7)

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DISACCHARIDES encrusted with calcium

● Synthesis of Disaccharides
○ This reaction can also be
reversed by adding water to
the bond. This is called
hydrolysis, breaking apart
a bond by adding water.
○ Dehydration synthesis bonds
molecules together by STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDES
removing water (H2O). ● Starch
○ Hydrolysis adds water to the
molecules in order to
separate those bonds.
POLYSACCHARIDES
● Many sugars are linked together
by covalent bonds in the process
called polymerization.
● Can be classified into
○ Structural Polysaccharides
○ Storage Polysaccharides
STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDES
● Cellulose
○ Most abundant organic
compound on earth.
○ Plants produce almost 100
billion tons of cellulose per ● Inulin
year.
○ Toughest organic
compound to digest.
○ Major component of the
cell wall of plants and
protists.
○ Composed of a long straight LIPIDS
chain of glucose molecules.
● Chitin
○ The polysaccharide used
by certain animals (insects,
spiders, crustaceans) to
build their exoskeletons.
○ Pure chitin is leathery but
becomes hardened when
carbonate.
○ Found in the cell wall of
fungi.
○ Composed of glucose with a
nitrogen-containing
appendage.
○ A polymer of glucose
molecules like cellulose but
differ in the configuration of
their glucose rings (alpha ɑ
configuration for starch;
beta β configuration for
cellulose).
○ May be simple (unbranched),
e.g. amylose, or very
complex (branched), e.g.
amylopectin.
○ Plants store starch in their
plastids.
○ Animals store this
polysaccharide as glycogen
in their liver and muscle
cells.
○ A polymer of fructose
molecules most commonly
found in fruits but may also
be stored in other plant
organs.
● Lipids are the main non-polar
component of cells.
● They are macromolecules that do
not consist monomers.
● They are mostly
hydrocarbons-carbon and hydrogen.
● They share one common trait:

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○ They have little or no ● Fats store about twice as much

affinity for water. (non-polar energy per weight as carbohydrates
in nature) like starch.
● They are used primarily for energy
storage and as a significant
component of cell membranes.
● 4 main types:
○ Fats/Oils (energy storage)
○ Phospholipids (cell
membranes)
○ Waxes (waterproofing)
○ Steroids (hormones)
● Functions of lipids include structural
support for the cell, energy
storage, and cell signaling. UNSATURATED VS. SATURATED FATTY
ACIDS
● Saturated
○ Hydrocarbon chains with
all single bonds (solid fats)
are called saturated.
● Unsaturated
○ Fats with double bonds
(liquid oils) are called
unsaturated.
● Most animal fats are saturated.
● Lard is purified animal fat, and it is
used for deep frying.
● Saturated fat increases blood
cholesterol levels and leads to
clogged arteries and heart disease.
FATS ○ Bad for health
● Fats are also known as ● Several years ago, most companies
Triglycerides. replaced lard with partially
● A triglyceride is composed of 3 hydrogenated vegetable oil, which
fatty acids attached to a glycerol was thought to be much healthier
molecule. than lard.
● Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon ● Unfortunately, partial hydrogenation
chains with an acids group at one leads to trans-fatty acids instead of
end. the cis-fatty acids that occur
● Glycerol is a 3-carbon naturally.
carbohydrate. It has 3 alcohol ● Trans fatty acids are proven to be
(-OH) groups, which link up with even worse for your health than
the acid groups in the fatty acids. lard.

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Studypool: @laceyair

STEROIDS AND WAXES

UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS ● Steroids are hydrocarbons with
● Can be obtained from plants and carbon atoms arranged in a set of
fishes. 4 linked rings.
● Referred to as oils, e.g. olive oil, cod ● Cholesterol, a common steroid, is
liver oil. an essential component of animal
● Seeds are richest in plant oils. cell membranes (along with the
● Common plant oils: phospholipids).
○ Olive Oil ● Too much of it in the blood can
○ Sunflower Oil cause “plaques” to form in the blood
○ Corn Oil vessels, leading to atherosclerosis
○ Coconut Oil (hardening of the arteries in the
○ Peanut Oil heart).
○ Sesame Oil ● Waxes are waterproof coating on
○ Rice Bran Oil plants and animals. Composed of
○ Palm Oil fatty acids attached to long-chain
○ Canola Oil (from rape seeds alcohols.
[Brassica spp.])
PLANT WAXES
PHOSPHOLOPID BILAYER ● Main function: retard water loss
● When phospholipid molecules are from plants.
mixed in water, they will form a ● Common plant waxes:
stable bilayer structure with the ○ Carnauba wax (from
phosphate heads facing the water Copernicia prunifera)
and the water “fearing” fatty acid - Automobile wax, shoe
tails facing each other. This polish, dental floss
phospholipid bilayer arrangement is ○ Candelilla wax (from
the basic structure of the cell Euphorbia cerifera, E.
membrane. antisyphilitica)
- Lip balms, binder for
chewing gums,
varnish

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Studypool: @laceyair
○ Bayberry wax (from Myrica
faya)
- Candles
○ Jojoba oil (from Simmondsia
chinensis)
- Cosmetics, fungicide,
fuel (jojoba biodiesel)
○ Cuticular wax
○ Suberin
PROTEINS
● Protein molecules are constructed
from building blocks called amino
acids. Amino acids are joined to
each other with special covalent
peptide bonds.
● Each amino acid contains an
amino group (basic), a carboxyl
group (acidic), and an R group
(side chain).
● There are 20 different kinds of amino
acids in proteins. Each one has a
functional group (the “R group”)
attached to it.
● Different R groups give the 20 amino
acids different properties, such as
charged (+ or -), polar, hydrophobic,
etc.
● The different properties of a protein
come from the arrangement of the
amino acids.
PROTEIN STRUCTURE
1. Primary - amino acid sequence
(looks like beads).
2. Secondary - shapes (a-helical,
B-pleated sheets, etc.) due to
folding.
3. Tertiary - a 3D folding pattern of a
protein due to side chain
interactions.
4. Quaternary - interaction of proteins
with different proteins.
○ Protein Complex
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Studypool: @laceyair

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS PLANT STORAGE PROTEINS

● Found in seeds
Type of Protein Function Examples ● Common plant storage proteins
○ Zein (corn)
Enzymatic catalyst Digestive enzymes
○ Gliadin (wheat)
Structural support Collagen, keratin, ○ Glutenin (wheat, rice)
membrane proteins ○ Ricin D (castor bean, Ricinus
Storage storage Casein, proteins in seeds communis)
○ Abrin (rosary bean, Abrus
Transport transport Hemoglobin, carrier
proteins precatorius)

Hormonal coordination Insulin, auxin, gibberellin

THE DEADLIEST PLANTS IN THE
Receptor response Receptors in nerve cells WORLD
● Extremely poisonous proteins: Ricin
Contractile and movement Actin, myosin D from the seeds of castor bean
motor proteins
(Ricinus communis) and Abrin
Defensive protection antibodies from the seeds of rosary bean
against
diseases (Abrus precatorius)
● It has been estimated that gram for
● Temperature affects proteins: gram, ricin is 6,000 times more
○ High - denature poisonous than cyanide and 12,000
○ Low - slows down activity times more poisonous than
● PCR works by reversing the RNA to rattlesnake venom
DNA by amplifying it many times. ● The seeds of rosary been (Abrus
● Plants don’t have nerve cells, so precatorius) are often made into
how do they respond to their bracelet and earrings.
environment?
○ Plants have a chemical (an
amino acid) called
glutamate, any type of
agitation (e.g. from a bug bite
or a mechanical cut) causes
(Ricinus communis) (Abrus precatorius)
the release of
glutamate-activating
NUCLEIC ACIDS
receptors that trigger
● Nucleic Acids store genetic
calcium-based signals that
information in the cell.
move through the plant.
● Two types: RNA (ribonucleic acid)
○ The signals that travel
and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
through the plant’s vascular
● Nucleic acids are made up of
system activate defense
nucleotides. Each nucleotide is
hormones that prepare
composed of 3 parts: (a) a sugar
distant leaves for an
molecule, (b) a phosphate, and
impending invasion.
(c) a nitrogenous base.

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● The sugar, ribose in RNA, and

deoxyribose in DNA contain 5
carbons. They differ only in that
an -OH group in ribose is replaced
by a -H in DNA.
● DNA is a stable molecule that can
survive thousands of years under
proper conditions.
● Not all DNA sequences have
genes, as some sequences will be a
gibberish sequence that doesn’t
have a meaning but will eventually
be degraded.

RNA
● RNA consists of a single chain
that also uses 4 bases: however,
the thymine in DNA is replaced by
uracil in RNA.
● RNA is much less stable than
STRUCTURE OF DNA DNA, but it can act as an enzyme to
● There are 4 kinds of nitrogenous promote chemical reactions in some
bases in DNA: adenine, guanine, situations.
cytosine, and thymine. ● Common RNA’s
● The nucleotides containing these ○ mRNA
bases are put together to form a ○ tRNA
structure called a double helix. ○ rRNA
● A double helix has the shape of a
ladder that has been twisted
lengthwise so that the sides of the
ladder coil around each other.
● The sides of the ladder are formed
by sugar and phosphate groups.
● The rings of the ladder consist of
nitrogenous bases.

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SECONDARY METABOLITES Compound Source Action/Comment

● Secondary metabolites are also
Mints and Strong aroma; used in
called specialized metabolites, eucalyptus trees cough medicines
Menthol
secondary products or natural
products are organic compounds Lycopene Tomatoes Red/orange pigments
produced by bacteria, fungi, or
Rubber Rubber tree Component of rubber
plants that are not directly involved tires
in the normal growth, development,
Taxol Pacific yew Anti-ovarian cancer
or reproduction of the organism.
Gibberellins Many plants Stem elongation

Beta-carotene Carrot Orange/red pigments

2. Phenolic Compounds
● Formed by a benzene ring, a
carboxyl group, and one or more
hydroxyl groups in their molecules,
giving them antioxidant properties,
being indicated for the treatment
and prevention of a number of
diseases, among them cancer.

Compound Source Action/Comment

Coumarins Leaves of cherry Regulate cellular routes

blossoms that can be exploited for
PRODUCTS OF CELLS’ METABOLIC (Prunus spp.) cancer prevention
ACTIVITIES
Phenolic Acids Willow tree Precursor of aspirin;
● Responsible for the bright colors (e.g. Salicylic provides plant resistance
of flowers to attract pollinators. Acid) vs pathogens
● Responsible for the bitter taste in
Tannins Rangeland plants Major plant defense vs
certain plant parts that help herbivory
protect the plant from predators.
Lignins Woody plants Provide greater rigidity to
the cell wall
MAIN GROUPS OF SECONDARY
Flavonoids (e.g. Fruits or Provide color impact in
METABOLITES anthocyanins) vegetable; leaves plant-pollinator-disperser
or flowers s interaction; antioxidant
1. Terpenoids
● Dimers and polymers of 5-C
precursors called isoprene units. 3. Alkaloids
● 50,000 identified terpenes ● Include alkaline substances with N
(monoterpenes to polyterpenes).

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● Examples of well-known alkaloids: ● Saturated Fatty Acid - bad for the

Compound Source Action/Comment health; single bond.
● Unsaturatde Fatty Acid - liquid fats;
Conline Poison Hemlock Nerve toxin; killed double bond.
Socrates
● Stems and Leaves are the part of
Strychnine Strychnine Tree Nerve stimulant plant that has no waterproofing.
● Fruits are covered with cuticles
Tomatine Tomato Leaves Tomato and potato
pest control (wax material) and this can easily be
dissolved in hot water.
Morphine Opium Poppy Main painkiller
● Cells have the same basic
Quinine Quinine Tree Anti-malaria, bitter chemical composition; same
flavor of tonic drinks
ancestor and same to reproduce.
Tubocurarine Curare Tree Component for arrow ● Symbiogenesis Theory - also
poisons; muscle
relaxant during called Endosymbiotic
surgery ● Cyanobacterium - bacteria
Vincristine Periwinkle Anti-leukemia capable of photosynthesis
● Plastids - chloropasts, leucoplast,
chromoplast
MINOR SECONDARY METABOLITES
● Mustard Oil Glycosides - N-S
compounds in cabbage, broccoli,
horseradish, and mustard.
● Polyacetylenes - in the sunflower
and magnolia family.
● Cyanogenic Glycosides - in pea
and rose family; fatal in large
amounts.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
● Blood Sugar - glucose in blood
● Fructose - fruit sugar
● Dehydration - decrease of H2O
● Hydrolysis - breaking a bond
appart by adding H2O
● Structural Polysaccharide in
Plants - cellulose
● Storage Polysaccharide in Plants -
starch
● Cellulase - enzymes need to digest
cellulose (it eats it).
● Polymer of Glucose - starch
● Polymer of Fructose - inulin
● Carbohydrates - short term use
energy
● Lipids - long term use energy

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