AL

PHYSICS
KINEMATICS

KINEMATICS

PART ONE : MOTION AND ACCELERATION
The branch of mechanics which studies motion without taking the force in to consideration is
called kinematics. Here we quantity motion. Even though there are several motion related
quantities, the key quantity is acceleration. That is because acceleration is the quantity
related to motion that link with force, the resultant force to be precise. According to Newton
the acceleration of an object depends on resultant force and mass demonstrated by the
famous equation ∑F = ma. More details of this will be studied later. But this emphasizes that
acceleration is the key quantity in motion. It is unfortunately the motion quantity that is least
understood by many students. Therefore we will study this section with a focus on
acceleration.


(A) QUALITATIVELY LINKING ACCELERATION AND MOTION
Motion is a phenomenon (physical event) and it is not a quantity. There are 5 states of
motion as follows:
1. Stationary (not moving and remain not moving)
2. Moving with same speed same direction (constant velocity)
3. speeding up
4. slowing down
5. changing the direction

In order to understand how acceleration is linked with the above states of motion, let us start with
some definitions of quantities associated with motion.

Distance (d): it is the length of the path between the starting position and final position. It is a scalar.
It can have only + values and it has no – values.
Displacement (s): it is the distance in a particular direction (distance in a straight line). This is also the
shortest distance between the starting point and final point. It is a vector. Its direction is from starting
point to final point.
Speed: it is the rate of change of distance (distance travelled in a unit time).In other words, speed tells
how quickly the distance changes with time. It is also a scalar. So it has only + values or zero.
Velocity (v): it is the rate of change of displacement (displacement occurred in a unit time or speed in
a particular direction). In other word, it indicates how quickly the displacement changes with time. It
is a vector. Its direction is same as the direction of displacement. So it can have + or – values or zero.

Acceleration (a): it is the rate of change of velocity (change of velocity in a unit time). It also is a vector.
So it also can have + or – values or zero.
In simple acceleration is there if there is a change in velocity. Since velocity is the speed in a particular
direction, the change in velocity can occur if speed changes or if its direction changes or both. So
acceleration can occur if the object’s speed changes or its direction changes or both. In simple,
speeding up, slowing down or change of direction can bring about an acceleration. Usually, slowing
down is called deceleration. Deceleration is also called a negative acceleration because deceleration
occurs if the direction of the acceleration is opposite to the direction of the motion. In other words, if
the direction of motion (velocity) and acceleration both are same, then it speeds up (accelerates) and
if the direction of the motion is opposite to the direction of acceleration, then it slows down
(decelerates). (Mind you! The acceleration is not affected by velocity, but velocity is affected by
acceleration. So, velocity and acceleration can have same or different directions).


In summary we can say acceleration is there if something moves but with a changing speed or direction
and if something does not move, there is no acceleration. So, to have an acceleration, the object should
be moving. But are all moving objects having acceleration? No. Those objects that move with a
constant velocity have no acceleration because, there should be a change in velocity to have an
acceleration.

Not moving(stationary) Zero Acceleration
Moving with constant velocity
Moving with changing velocity
-Increasing velocity -Have Acceleration
-Decreasing velocity
(Decreasing velocity is also called a deceleration or negative acceleration)

By looking at an object you can tell about its state of motion and predict whether there is an
acceleration (and resultant force) and if so we can tell the direction of acceleration (resultant force)
with respect to the motion direction. To do that we can use the following table :
Motion to acceleration (and resultant force)…. ..

State of motion Acceleration (and resultant Direction of acceleration
force) present/ absent? (resultant force) with
compared to movement
direction?
Stationary (stopped and Absent (zero) Not applicable
remain stopped)

Constant velocity (constant Absent (zero) Not applicable
speed in a particular direction)

speeding up Present (not zero) Same( forward)

slowing down Present (not zero) Opposite (backwards)
(deceleration)
Changing moving direction Present (not zero) Not same/ not opposite but a
different direction. (sideway )


Exercise 10: Explain whether there is an acceleration (and resultant force) during each of the
following situations and if so give their direction
i. An athlete starting to run to the North ii. A ball is dropped in air
iii. A car turning a bend iv. car going straight to the right side with same speed
v. a ball going up in the air vi. A car moving to the left applies brakes

Answer
i) Speed up; acceleration (and resultant force) present. Direction same as moving direction (North)
ii) Speed up; acceleration (and resultant force) present. Direction same as moving direction (down)
iii) change direction ; acceleration (and resultant force) present. Direction different direction
iV) constant velocity; no acceleration (and no resultant force)
V) slowing down; acceleration (and resultant force) present (deceleration). Direction opposite to moving
direction (down)







Similarly if we know about acceleration (and resultant force) then we can predict about what state
of motion the object is going to take using the following checklist.
Acceleration (and resultant force) to motion…. …

If no acceleration (and resultant force),
a) If it was not moving at that moment then it will be stationary
b) If I t was moving at that moment then it will be moving with constant velocity

If there is an acceleration (and resultant force),
c) If it was not moving at that moment then it will speed up to the direction of acceleration
d) If it was moving to the same direction of acceleration then it will speed up
e) If it was moving to the opposite direction of acceleration then it will slow down
f) If I t was moving to a direction not same or not opposite to acceleration then it will change its
direction


Exercise 11: Predict what is going to happen to the following objects
(a) An unbalanced force (resultant force) was applied on a stationary ball to right side
(b) An unbalanced force was applied on a ball to right side when it was moving to the right
(c) An unbalanced force was applied to the right side when the ball was moving to the left side
(d) An unbalanced force was applied on the ball to right side when the ball was moving up
(e) The ball was stationary when the forces got balanced
(f) Forces got balanced when the ball was moving to the right

Answers
(a) acceleration is present to right side; speed up to right side
(b) acceleration is present to right side; speed up to right side
(c) acceleration is present to right side; slow down
(d) acceleration is present to right side; change the moving direction
(e) acceleration is zero; stationary
(f) acceleration is zero; constant velocity to right


(B) QUANTITATIVELY LINKING ACCELERATION AND MOTION (SUVAT)

To link acceleration and motion quantitatively let’s start with some important motion quantities.
Following figure shows a motion of an object from A to B.

A) Distance (d)
Distance is the length of the path. SI unit of distance is metre (m). It's a scalar quantity. During a
journey the distance cannot decrease but it can increase if moving or remain the same if not moving.

B) Displacement (s)
Displacement is the straight line distance between two positions. It is also the shortest distance
between the two positions. SI unit of displacement is metre (m). Displacement is a vector quantity. Its
direction is from starting position to the final position. During a journey displacement can increase,
remain the same or even decrease.

C) Speed
Speed is the rate of change of distance (change of distance in a unit time). SI unit of speed is m/s.
Speed is a scalar quantity.

Speed = d/t

Average speed = total d/ total t

d - distance travelled (m)
t - time taken to travel d distance (s)

Instantaneous speed is the speed at a given moment (instant). Its value can be different from that of
the average speed if the speed is not constant.

D) Velocity (v)
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement (change of displacement in a unit time ). SI unit of
velocity is m/s. Velocity is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of
displacement.
v = s/t
Average v = total s / total t

v - velocity (m/s)
s - displacement (m)
t - time (s)
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a given moment. Its value can be different from that of the
average velocity if the velocity is not constant throughout the journey.
Sometimes average velocity can be zero even if there is a average speed. For example if an object
moves in a circular path with a constant speed the velocity changes with time since the direction
continuously is changing. Every time it completes a full circle average velocity becomes zero.

After completing a circle, Total distance is not zero (it equals to circumference).
Since, Average speed = total d / total t
Average speed is not zero.
But after each complete cycle the total displacement becomes zero (since it comes back to starting
position).
Since , Average velocity = total s / total t
Average velocity is zero during a complete cycle.


Exercise 12: A racing car completes a circular route of radius 100m in 80 s. Calculate the average speed
and average velocity of the racing car during this event.

E) Acceleration (a)
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity (change of velocity in a unit time). SI unit of acceleration
is ms-2. Acceleration is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of the change of
velocity which is also same as the direction of resultant force.

a = ∆ v / t

a = (v-u)/t
By rearranging the above equation we get;
v = u + at

a – acceleration(during time t) (ms-2)*
∆ v – change of velocity (during time t) (ms-1)*
t – time taken for the velocity to change (s)
v – final velocity (velocity after time t) (ms-1)*
u- initial velocity (velocity at the start of time t)(ms-1)*

*vectors



Quantifying Motion in a Straight Line (Rectilinear Motion) with Constant acceleration

Phenomenon: An object moving from A to B on a straight line with constant acceleration.






Following equations of motion are valid for the above motion.


v = u + at

s = ut + ½ at2 s = vt- ½ at2

v2 = u2 + 2as

Avg. v = (u+v)/2 = total s/total t



S – displacement (m) (during time t)

u – initial velocity (ms-1) (velocity at the start of time t)
v – final velocity (ms-1) (velocity at the end of time t)
a – acceleration (ms-2) (during time t)
t – time taken (s) (for the velocity to change from u to v)
Avg.v – average velocity (m/s)

Following are some important points to remember in the application of the above equations.

1. There are 5 quantities (s,u,v,a,t) and 4 vectors (s,u,v,a)
2. All equations contain vectors. So, they are applied for a particular line of interest and all these
vectors should be resolved if they are not on that line and then assign +/- signs to them.
3. If you have 3 quantities then you can get the other two.
4. Acceleration is the key quantity here and it does not depend on any other motion quantities but on
resultant force and mass of the object. The values of a, u and t control v and s which determines the
motion of the object (where it will be and how fast it will be).
5. All above equations are applied for a straight line motion with constant acceleration. Constant
acceleration means forces and hence resultant force and mass are constant during the selected
motion.



Exercise 12: An object has a velocity of 10ms-1 upward to the right side with 30° the horizontal. After
5s it has a velocity of 2ms-1 downwards to the left with 60° to the horizontal.

a) What is the acceleration and displacement in horizontal line?
b) What is the acceleration and displacement in vertical line?
c) Determine the resultant acceleration and displacement with their directions?

a) horizontal line;
- +

u = 10 m/s 30 = +10 cos 30 = + 8.7
v= 2 m/s 60 = - 2 cos 60 = -1

t= 5s
a=?
s=?
v=u+at
-1 = 8.7 + (a*5)
a= (-1-8.7)/5 = -1.94 m/s2 = 1.94 m/s2

s= ut + ½ at2
s= (8.7*5) + (1/2 * -1.94* 5 2) = 43.5- 24.25= +19.25 m = 19.25 m

+
b) vertical line;
-
u = +10 sin 30 = + 5
v= -2 sin 60 = -1.72
t=5
a=?
s=?



v=u+at
-1.72 = 5 + (a*5)
a= (-1.72-5)/5 = -1.24 m/s2 = 1.24 m/s2

s= ut + ½ at2
s= (5*5) + (1/2 * -1.24* 5 2) = 25 -15.5= +9.5 m = 9.5m


c) resultant a?
1.94
y
1.24 R


R2 = 1.24 2 + 1.94 2
R = 2.3 m/s2
tan y = (1.24/1.94)
y = 32.6

resultant s?
19.25
y
R 9.5

R 2 = 19.25 2 + 9.5 2
R = 21.47 m
Tan y = 9.5/19.25
Y=26.3
(C) MOTION GRAPHS
Motion graphs can give data on motion quantities in the form of a graph. Following are the main
motion graphs and the data that you can get from each graph.
(i) Distance-Time Graph

Y axis gives distance (d)
X axis gives time (t)
Gradients give speeds

(ii) Displacement- Time Graph(s-t)

Y axis gives displacement(s)
X axis gives time (t)
Gradients give velocities (u, v, Avg. v)
If a particular motion segment is a constant acceleration
then we can apply equations of motion to get acceleration (a)


(iii) Velocity- Time Graph

Y axis gives velocities (u,v)
X axis gives time (t)
Gradients give accelerations (a)
Area under the graph gives displacement (s)

You have to calculate avg. v =total s/total t



(iv) Acceleration –Time Graph

Y axis gives accelerations (a)
X axis gives time (t)
Area under the graph gives change in velocity (∆v)

Some Important clues regarding gradient (slope)
i. Qualitative Description of Gradient
(+)?or(-)?
going up is (+)
coming down is (-)
zero? Constant? Increasing ?decreasing?
horizontal straight line is zero gradient
non horizontal straight line is constant gradient
becoming steeper is increasing gradient
becoming flatter is decreasing gradient
ii. Quantitative Calculation of the Gradient
Gradient at a given moment?
Get the gradient of the tangent drawn to that point on the graph.
Gradient (average gradient) between two moments (during a time gap)?
Get the gradient of the straight line drawn between those two points on the graph.






Exercise 13: Answer the questions based on the following graph













a) Describe the gradients between
- A and B : + , constant
- B and C : zero
- C and D : -, constant
-D and E : -, constant
- E and F : +, increasing
- F and G : +, decreasing
- G and H : -, increasing
- H and I : -, decreasing


b) If the above graph is a displacement time graph describe the motion between
- A and B : + , constant velocity
- B and C : zero velocity
- C and D : -, constant velocity
-D and E : -, constant velocity
- E and F : +, increasing velocity
- F and G : +, decreasing velocity
- G and H : -, increasing velocity
- H and I : -, decreasing velocity

c) If the above graph is a velocity time graph describe the motion between
- A and B : + , constant acceleration
- B and C : zero acceleration
- C and D : -, constant acceleration
-D and E : -, constant acceleration
- E and F : +, increasing acceleration
- F and G : +, decreasing acceleration
- G and H : -, increasing acceleration
- H and I : -, decreasing acceleration







Exercise 14: Answer the questions based on the following displacement time graph.















a)What is the displacement after 8 s?
b) What is the time taken for the displacement to become 14 m from the initial position?
c) What is the total displacement for the journey?
d) What is the total time taken for the journey?
e) What are the velocities at
(i) the start (ii) 8th second (iii) 16th second (iv) 34th second (v)
nd
42 second


f) What are the (average) velocities during (between)

(i) 0 – 8 s (ii) 12 – 20 s (iii) 32 – 38 s (iv) 42 – 46 s (v)
whole journey
g) If we assume that the acceleration between 0 to 8 seconds is constant then what is the
acceleration?
h) what is the acceleration in the motion segments shown between B and C, C and D and D
and E and explain your answer?
i) Draw a velocity time graph and acceleration time graph for the above journey












































Exercise 15: Answer the questions based on the following velocity time graph

Velocity Vs Time Graph













a)What is the velocity after 8 s?
b) What is the time taken for the velocity to become 14 ms-1 ?
c) What is the total time taken for the journey?
d) What are the accelerations at
(i) the start (ii) 8th second (iii) 16th second (iv) 34th second (v)
nd
42 second
e) What are the (average) accelerations during (between)
(i) 0 – 8 s (ii) 12 – 20 s (iii) 32 – 38 s (iv) 42 – 46 s (v)
whole journey
f) what is the displacement in the motion segments shown between B and C, C and D and D
and E and what is the total displacement for the journey?
g) What is the average velocity for the journey?
h) Draw a acceleration time graph and displacement time graph for the above journey.



















PART TWO: MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

KEY REQUIREMENT/ASSUMPTION
Any object moving under the influence of weight is motion under gravity. Here weight is the only
force!!!
THREE EXAMPLES
There are three examples;
1. Free fall (dropping down under gravity)

2. Tossing up vertically (Vertical projectile)

3. Projectile (Projectile at an angle)

PREDICTION THE MOTION
Assumption: Weight is the only force (eg. No up thrust, no drag etc.,).Under this assumption we can
predict the above motions as follows;

(Free body diagram)

(i)For the Vertical Line:
∑F = mg…………(1)
∑F = ma…………(2)
From (1) and (2)
ma = mg
a = g
So, in the vertical line acceleration (a) is equal to gravitational field strength (g) and its direction is
same as the direction of g which is vertically down. Therefore g is also called gravitational
acceleration (acceleration due to gravity). So, vertically if it was going up it will slow down. If it was
coming down vertically then it will speed up.
Gravitational field strength near the earth is a constant which is equal to 9.81Nkg-1 0r 9.81ms-2. For
the vertical line a=g and g is a constant. So acceleration for the vertical line is constant. Since
acceleration is constant for the vertical line we can apply the following equations of motion;
v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
Avg. v = (u+v)/2 = total s/total t
s– vertical displacement (during time t) (m)
u – initial vertical velocity (velocity at the start of time t) (ms-1)
v – final vertical velocity (velocity at the end of time t) (ms-1)
a – vertical acceleration (during time t) (ms-2) …….THIS IS EQUAL TO ‘g’(downwards)….!!!
t – time taken (for the velocity to change from u to v) (s)
(ii) For the Horizontal Line:
∑F = 0……….(1)
∑F= ma……..(2)
From (1) and (2) ;
ma = 0
a= 0/m =0
So a=0.
Acceleration zero means the object is either stationary or constant velocity on the horizontal line. So
if there was no velocity to the horizontal line then it will not move in the horizontal line. Eg. Free fall
and vertical tossing up. But if there was a velocity component to the horizontal line then it will go
with that constant velocity. Eg. Projectile at an angle.












COMPARISON
1. Free fall (dropping down under gravity)
VERTICAL MOTION HORIZONTAL MOTION
Can apply: A to B segment NO motion!!!(because a=0 and there is
v=u+at s=ut+ ½ at2 v2=u2+ 2as no horizontal velocity)

Data Available: A to B segment
a = g (downwards)

If ‘drop’ then u=0 (but if they say
‘throw’ then u is not zero)


2. Tossing up vertically (Vertical projectile)

VERTICAL MOTION HORIZONTAL MOTION

Can apply: For any motion segment NO motion!!!(because a=0 and there is
v=u+at s=ut+ ½ at2 v2=u2+ 2as no horizontal velocity)

Data Available:
For Any Motion segment
a = g (downwards)
A to B segment
V=0 (at maximum height)

B to C segment

u = 0
A to C segment
s=0 (If come back to same place)


3. Projectile (Projectile at an angle)

VERTICAL MOTION HORIZONTAL MOTION
Can apply: For any motion segment Moves with a constant
v=u+at s=ut+ ½ at2 v2=u2+ 2as velocity(because a=0 and
there is a horizontal velocity
Data Available: component )
For Any Motion segment Can apply : s=ut
a = g (downwards)
A to B segment
V=0 (at maximum height)
B to C segment
u = 0
A to C segment
s=0 (If come back to same place)














EXPLAINING THE PARABOLIC PATH IN PROJECTILE
“In a projectile there is a vertical motion and a horizontal motion occurring at the same time
independently from each other.
Vertically, weight is the only force and therefore resultant force is downwards equal to weight. So
acceleration is equal to ‘g’ downwards. So vertically it slows down when going up and speeds up
when coming down.
Horizontally there is no resultant force and no acceleration and it will go with constant velocity.
As a result of both motions it follows a parabolic path. “

In Summary;

VERTICAL MOTION HORIZONTAL MOTION
Can apply: For any motion segment Moves with a constant velocity(because a=0
v=u+at s=ut+ ½ at2 v2=u2+ 2as and there is a horizontal velocity component )
Can apply:
Data Available: S = ut
For Any Motion segment Data Available :
a = g (downwards) u = V cos θ
A to B segment
v=0 (at maximum height)

u = V sin θ Here u and s are respective horizontal values.

B to C segment (horizontal displacement is called ‘range’).

u = 0 They are different from vertical values.
A to C segment But TIME ‘t’is the common quantity for both
s=0 (If come back to same horizontal level) motions.
u = V sin θ

Here u,v,a and s are respective vertical
values. They are different from horizontal
values.
But TIME ‘t’is the common quantity for
both motions.





AN EASY FORMAT TO DO PROJECTILE CALCULATIONS
STEP 1 : SELECT THE RESPECTIVE MOTION SEGMENT
Eg.

STEP 2 : MARK THE PROJECTED VELOCITY (U’) AND ITS ANGLE AND RESOLVE IT TO VERTICAL AND
HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS
Eg.

STEP 3 : FILL THE FOLLOWING DATA TABLE AND PLAN YOUR ANSWER

VERTICAL MOTION HORIZONTAL MOTION
s=………….
s=………….
u=…………
u=………….
v=………….
a= g (downwards) = 9.81 (near
earth)

t=………………………………………………………




Equations: Equation:
v=u+at s=ut
s=ut+ ½ at2
v2=u2+ 2as

















SOME IMPORTANT IDEAS ABOUT PROJECTILES
a) How the Range and Maximum Height Vary with the Angle of Projection to the
Horizontal

Important Points:

1. The minimum speed is at the top. The vertical component here is zero and therefore the overall

velocity at the top is equal to the horizontal component. When the angle is 90 decrees this is zero.

When angle to horizontal decreases this will increase. .

2. When angle to horizontal decreases the maximum height decreases.
3. When angle to the horizontal decreases from 90 to 45 degrees the range increases and when the
angle further decreases the range decreases. So maximum range is when angle is 45 degrees.
4. You can maximize the range when
-Angle of projection is 45 degrees
-Projected speed is maximum
-Drag is zero




b) The Independence of Vertical and Horizontal Motions
Example 1 : Here ball A is dropped and balls B,C, and S are projected horizontally with
increased speeds respectively. Whatever the horizontal velocity it has no effect on the
vertical velocity and therefore initial vertical velocity for all the balls is zero. Vertical
acceleration for all the balls is equal to ‘g’(9.81). If the floor is horizontal then vertical
displacement (height) for all balls when they hit the floor is the same. So if they are released
at the same time then they will hit the ground at the same time and vertically at any given
moment they have the same vertical position.

Example 2: A man shoots a monkey with a horizontal gun. The gun and monkey are both at the same
height. If the monkey drops at the same time when the bullet is released then it will hit the monkey
anyway.

c) How Drag (Air Resistance) Affects Parabolic Path
If there is no drag the horizontal velocity is constant giving a perfectly parabolic path -A. If the drag is
opposing motion (eg. Wind blowing to opposite direction of motion) then horizontally it will
decelerate (slow down) giving path –B. If the drag helps motion (eg. Wind blowing to the same
direction as motion) then horizontally it will accelerate (speed up) giving path –C.

d) The Vertical and Horizontal Positions Between Equal Time Gaps
Horizontally the object will travel same distance in equal time gaps. Vertically it goes smaller and
smaller distances when it goes up for same time gaps and longer and longer distances when it comes
down for same time gaps.

e) Bouncing Ball